Every Trainers Handbook

Every Trainer’s Handbook
ii z Every Trainer’s Handbook

Second Edition
Devendra Agochiya
Copyright © Devendra Agochiya, 2009
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilised in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
First published in 2002

This second edition published in 2009 by
SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd

B1/I-1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area
Mathura Road, New Delhi 110 044, India
www.sagepub.in
SAGE Publications Inc

2455 Teller Road
Thousand Oaks, California 91320, USA
SAGE Publications Ltd

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Published by Vivek Mehra for SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd, typeset in 10.5/12.5 Galliard
BT by Star Compugraphics Private Limited, Delhi and printed at Chaman Enterprises,
New Delhi.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Available
ISBN: 978-81-321-0081-2 (PB)
The SAGE Team: Rekha Natarajan, Sushmita Banerjee, Vijay Sah and Trinankur Banerjee
Om Sai Ram
To the eternal and loving memories of my adorable and venerated wife, Anju,
who is for ever present with me as my inspiration and guiding light
∗∗∗∗∗
In remembrance of my Mom and Dad as a

gesture of my reverence and love
∗∗∗∗∗
To our daughter, Mahima, and son-in-law, Rajeev;

son, Vipul, and daughter-in-law, Manjari,
for their love, care and support
vi z Every Trainer’s Handbook
Contents
List of Tables xv
List of Boxes xvi
Acknowledgements xvii
Introduction to the Second Edition xix
Introduction to the First Edition xxi
1. TRAINING—CONCEPT, MEANING AND SCOPE 1

1.1 Understanding Training 2
1.1.1 Meaning and scope 2
1.1.2 Concept of training 3
1.1.3 Training and education 5
1.1.4 Training and teaching 7
1.2 Key Facets of Training 9
1.2.1 Participatory training 9
1.2.2 Facilitative training 11
1.3 Levels of Training 12
1.3.1 Individual-based training 12
1.3.2 Group-based training 16
1.3.3 Organisation-based training 17
1.4 Modes of Training 17
1.4.1 Face-to-face training 17
1.4.2 On-the-job training 18
1.4.3 Distance training 20
1.4.4 E-training 22
Recap of Key Learning Points of the Chapter 23
2. PROCESS OF LEARNING IN A TRAINING PROGRAMME 25

2.1 Learning in the Present-day World 26
2.2 Understanding Learning—Concept and Dimensions 27
2.1.1 Learning is a universal phenomenon 27
2.2.2 Learning as a lifelong pursuit 27
2.2.3 Learning under formal and informal conditions 28
2.2.4 Learning as a basis of an individual’s behaviour 28
2.2.5 Learning as an integrated process in an individual 28
2.2.6 Stimulation for learning 29
2.2.7 Learning is an evolutionary process 29
2.2.8 Learning as a shared undertaking 29
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2.3 Process of Learning in a Training Programme 30

2.3.1 Need for an integrated approach to learning in training 30
2.3.2 Cycle of learning in a training programme 31
2.3.3 Learning as an interactive and collaborative process 32
2.3.4 Conscious and subconscious learning 34
2.4 Components of Learning 34
2.4.1 Information 34
2.4.2 Knowledge 35
2.4.3 Skills and competencies 36
2.4.4 Knowledge of skills and competencies 37
2.4.5 Attitudes and values 37
2.5 Distinguishing Features of Adult Learners 38
2.5.1 Owners of unique personal experience 39
2.5.2 Concerned with short-term application of training 40
2.5.3 Capable and willing to take greater responsibility for their learning 40
2.5.4 Ability to construct or visualise real-life situations 41
2.5.5 Have a well-defined self-image 41
2.6 Learning Process—Uniqueness to an Individual 42
2.6.1 Learning is an individual process 42
2.6.2 Decision to learn lies with the participant 42
2.6.3 Selectivity in learning 43
2.6.4 Pace of learning 43
2.7 Participants’ Learning Styles 43
2.7.1 Preference for specific type of training activities 44
2.7.2 Willingness to put in extra efforts for learning 45
2.7.3 Degree of dependence on the trainer 46
2.7.4 Level of interpersonal competencies 46
2.8 Four Ways in Which Participants Learn 48
2.8.1 Affirmation or endorsement of existing learning 49
2.8.2 Building on present level of learning and competencies 49
2.8.3 Development of new knowledge and competencies 49
2.8.4 Learning after going through a process of de-learning 49
2.9 Methods of Learning in a Training Programme 50
2.9.1 Direct inputs by the trainers 50
2.9.2 Learning through sharing within the training group 51
2.9.3 Learning through practice and exercise 52
2.9.4 Formal and informal methods of observation 52
2.9.5 Out-of-session exchanges with participants and trainers 53
2.10 Factors Influencing the Learning Process 53
2.10.1 Personal factors 55
2.10.2 Environmental factors 61
Contents z ix
3. MAKING STAKEHOLDERS PARTNERS IN TRAINING 69

3.1 Stakeholders and Beneficiaries 70
3.2 Key Roles and Responsibilities of the Stakeholders 74
3.2.1 Funding or sponsoring agency 74
3.2.2 Organisations nominating participants 75
3.2.3 Training agency 79
3.2.4 Training team or trainers 85
3.2.5 Participants 86
3.3 Contracting with the Stakeholders—Need and Scope 88
3.3.1 Levels of contracting 89
3.3.2 Contracting with the nominating organisations 90
3.3.3 Contracting with the participants 93
4. STEPS IN PREPARING A TRAINING DESIGN 99

4.1 Origin of a Training Programme 100
4.1.1 Initiative by a training agency 101
4.1.2 Initiative by an organisation 102
4.1.3 Initiative by a group of organisations 102
4.2 Identifying and Analysing Training Needs 103
4.2.1 Understanding training needs 103
4.2.2 Identifying training needs 103
4.2.3 Analysing training needs 109
4.3 Setting out Programme Objectives 110
4.3.1 Understanding programme objectives 110
4.3.2 Need for setting programme objectives 111
4.3.3 Establishing programme objectives—considerations and guidelines 112
4.4 Steps in Preparing the Action Plan for the Programme 116
4.4.1 Identify programme contents 116
4.4.2 Break up programme contents into sub-topics or modules 116
4.4.3 Categorise contents into information, knowledge, competencies 117
and attitudes
4.4.4 Organise and sequence programme contents 117
4.4.5 Determine learning outcomes for each sub-topic or module 120
4.4.6 Decide on training methods and techniques 122
4.4.7 Allocate time 122
4.4.8 Decide on support materials, facilities and equipment 122
4.4.9 Determine assignments for members of the training team 123
4.4.10 Delegate responsibilities for management and administration 123
4.4.11 Establish mechanism for monitoring and evaluation 124
4.5 Key Considerations in Designing a Programme 124
4.5.1 Nominating organisations, their objectives and activities 125
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4.5.2 Promoting the learning process 125

4.5.3 Training group 126
4.5.4 Maintaining momentum and pace of the programme 128
4.5.5 Building flexibility 128
4.5.6 Effective monitoring 129
4.5.7 Training team 129
4.5.8 Management and administration 130
4.5.9 Facilitating transfer of training to the organisation 130
4.6 Communicating Information on the Programme 130
5. DELIVERING AN ACTIVE AND PARTICIPATORY

TRAINING PROGRAMME 134
5.1 Preparing for the Delivery of the Training Programme 136
5.1.1 Establishing contacts with the participants 136
5.1.2 Getting yourself ready for the programme 136
5.1.3 Infrastructural arrangements 139
5.1.4 Arrival of the participants 140
5.2 Beginning an Active and Participatory Programme 142
5.2.1 Opening the programme 142
5.2.2 Icebreakers and openers—role and scope 142
5.2.3 Bonding with the participants 144
5.2.4 Establishing participants’ ownership of the programme 145
5.2.5 Blending the group into a cohesive entity 147
5.2.6 Empowering the training group 151
5.3 Delivering the Programme 158
5.3.1 Establishing and maintaining conducive learning climate 158
5.3.2 Delivering the programme—some key tasks 163
5.3.3 Using question–response approach for enhancing participation 168
5.4 Evaluating the Programme 187
5.5 Concluding the Programme 188
5.5.1 Recalling and consolidating learning 188
5.5.2 Clarifying lingering doubts and queries 189
5.5.3 Getting back to the family and work 190
5.5.4 Saying goodbye to the group members 191
5.5.5 Some more sample exercises for the concluding session 191
6. TRAINING METHODS AND TECHNIQUES 194

6.1 Importance of Training Methods 195
6.1.1 Functions of training methods 196
Contents z xi
6.2 Factors Influencing Choice of Training Methods 197

6.2.1 Pressures on the trainer in selecting a method 197
6.2.2 Learning objectives for the sub-topic or the module 198
6.2.3 Special characteristics of the training group 199
6.2.4 Time allotted for the sub-topic, module or the session 201
6.2.5 Level of competence of the trainer in its use 201
6.2.6 Availability of required facilities and resources 201
6.2.7 Style preferences of the trainer 201
6.2.8 Ease of presentation 201
6.2.9 Stage of the programme 203
6.3 Lecture as a Method of Training 203
6.3.1 Why and when to use the method 204
6.3.2 Why and when not to use the method 204
6.3.3 Enhancing its usefulness 205
6.4 Case Study Method 207
6.4.1 Objectives of the method 208
6.4.2 Guidelines for using the method 209
6.4.3 Guidelines for writing a case study 209
6.4.4 Presentation and discussion of the case study 212
6.4.5 Limitations of case study as a method of training 214
6.5 Role-Play as a Method of Training 215
6.5.1 Objectives of role-play 216
6.5.2 Case study and role-play—a comparison 217
6.5.3 When to use role-play 217
6.5.4 Essential elements of role-play 219
6.5.5 Types of role-play 220
6.5.6 Planning role-play—some guidelines 222
6.5.7 Commencement of the role-play 229
6.5.8 Directing action—guidelines for the trainer 232
6.5.9 Conducting the feedback session and closing the exercise 233
6.5.10 Limitations of the method in training 234
6.6 Management Games 235
6.6.1 Major objectives 237
6.6.2 Design and methodology of organising the games 238
6.6.3 Conducting the game 239
6.7 Laboratory Training 242
6.7.1 Goals and outcomes 243
6.7.2 Factors affecting laboratory training 245
6.7.3 Conditions for laboratory training 246
6.7.4 Role of the trainer 248
6.8 Individual and Group Practical Assignments 249
6.8.1 Role of the trainer 250
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6.8.2 Advantages of the method 250

6.8.3 Writing assignments 251
6.9 Group Discussion as a Method of Training 251
6.9.1 Objectives of group discussion 252
6.9.2 Guidelines for organising group discussion 253
6.9.3 Limitations of the method 257
6.10 Panel Discussion 257
6.10.1 Suitability of the method 258
6.10.2 Selection of the panellists 258
6.10.3 Contents of the presentation 258
6.10.4 Physical arrangements 258
6.10.5 Role of the moderator 258
6.10.6 Inadequacies of the method 259
6.11 Brainstorming 259
6.11.1 Objectives of the method 260
6.11.2 Steps in organising a brainstorming session 260
6.12 Preparing and Using Training Support Materials 261
6.12.1 Audio-visual materials 262
6.12.2 Printed materials 265
6.12.3 Developing training support materials 267
6.13 Training through Placements 268
6.13.1 Preparing for the placement 269
6.14 Field Trip as a Method of Training 271
6.14.1 Organising a field trip 271
6.15 Demonstrations 273
6.15.1 Advantages of a demonstration 273
6.15.2 Disadvantages of a demonstration 273
6.15.3 Characteristics of a quality demonstration 274
6.15.4 Preparing for a demonstration 274
7. TRAINING GROUP AND ITS DYNAMICS 277

7.1 Special Features of Training group 278
7.2 Functional Behaviour in Training group 280
7.2.1 Willingness and ability to provide feedback 280
7.2.2 Interventions during a session or presentation 281
7.2.3 Assisting the trainers in organising training activities 281
7.2.4 Giving support and encouragement to other participants 282
7.2.5 Helping in maintaining discipline in the group 282
7.2.6 Assisting in maintaining group harmony 282
7.2.7 Completing assignments and projects 282
Contents z xiii
7.3 Dysfunctional Behaviour in Training Group 283

7.3.1 Dysfunctional behaviour during a training activity 283
7.3.2 Undermining the group process or the learning environment 284
7.3.3 Strategy to deal with dysfunctional behaviour 286
7.4 Types of Participants 287
7.4.1 Learner 288
7.4.2 Self-seeker 288
7.4.3 Detached and disinterested 289
7.4.4 Socialiser 289
7.4.5 Tourist 290
7.4.6 Critic or fault-finder 291
7.4.7 Know-all 291
7.4.8 Hesitant or shy 292
7.4.9 Monopolist or dominator 292
7.5 Stages of Development of Training Group 293
7.5.1 Key elements in the group process 294
7.5.2 Stages of development in a training group 295
8. THE TRAINER—ROLES AND FUNCTIONS 309

8.1 Trainer—the Person 311
8.1.1 Trainer’s needs vs participants’ needs 312
8.2 Portrait of a Trainer—Four Key Dimensions 314
8.2.1 Values of a trainer 314
8.2.2 Roles of a trainer 318
8.2.3 Competencies of a trainer 322
8.2.4 Qualities of a trainer 327
8.3 Training Styles of a Trainer 330
8.3.1 Training style—meaning, scope and dynamics 331
8.3.2 Determinants of training style 332
8.3.3 Constituents of training style 333
8.3.4 Evolving a functional training style 335
8.4 Dilemmas of a Trainer 339
8.4.1 Popularity with the participants vs effectiveness in training 339
8.4.2 Move with the rhythm of the group or adhere to the schedule 340
8.4.3 Degree of relative emphasis on group or individual needs 340
8.4.4 Degree of control of the training process to the participants 341
8.4.5 Opting for quality participation by a few or wider participation 341
8.4.6 Timing and nature of intervention in the group processes 341
8.4.7 Nature of relationship with the participants 342
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8.5 Handling Problem Situations 342

8.5.1 Some sample situations and trainer’s response 343
8.5.2 General strategy to deal with problem situations 349
8.6 Preparing and Conducting a Presentation or Training Activity 352
8.6.1 Preparing for a presentation or training activity 352
8.6.2 Attributes of an effective presentation 356
8.7 Working in a Team—Some Key Elements 362
8.7.1 Clarity on team objectives 363
8.7.2 Proper allocation of roles and responsibilities 364
8.7.3 Sound working procedures and norms of functioning 364
8.7.4 Sound interpersonal relations 364
8.7.5 Regular review of work 365
9. EVALUATION OF A TRAINING PROGRAMME 369

9.1 Evaluation—Need and Purposes 371
9.1.1 Need for evaluation 371
9.1.2 Purposes of evaluation 372
9.2 Stages of Evaluation in a Training Programme 373
9.2.1 Pre-training evaluation 374
9.2.2 Ongoing evaluation during the programme 376
9.2.3 End-programme evaluation 378
9.2.4 Post-training evaluation 378
9.3 Conducting the End-term Evaluation 379
9.3.1 Difficulties in end-term evaluation 380
9.3.2 Ascertaining reactions of the participants 382
9.3.3 Participants’ learning from the programme 386
9.4 Measuring Participants’ Learning 386
9.4.1 Measurement of knowledge 387
9.4.2 Measurement of competencies/skills 393
9.4.3 Measurement of changes in attitudes and values 394
Index 399
About the Author 409
List of Tables
1.1 Key Attributes of Training and Education—An Overview 7
3.1 Roles and Responsibilities of Key Stakeholders 72
6.1 Appropriateness of Training Methods to Learning Outcomes 200

6.2 Skills Required by a Trainer for Training Methods 202
6.3 A Quick Checklist for Lecture as a Method of Training 207
6.4 A Quick Checklist for Case Study as a Method of Training 215
6.5 A Quick Checklist on Comparison between Case Study Method and Role-play 218
6.6 A Quick Checklist for Role-play as a Method of Training 236
8.1 Roles of a Trainer and Required Competencies 323
9.1 Suggested Plan for Preparing an Evaluation Design 396

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List of Boxes
3.1 Sample Conditions for Attending a Training Programme 95
4.1 Sample Programme Objectives 114

4.2 Examples of Learning Outcomes 120
4.3 Suggested Pro Forma for Gathering Information for Preparing Group Profile 126
4.4 Communicating Programme Information to the Participants 131
5.1 Suggested Materials for the Participants 140

5.2 Some Typical Participants’ Concerns 154
6.1 Suggested Areas for Preparing Observers’ Sheet 227

6.2 Briefing the Role-players 231
8.1 Evolving a Functional Training Style 337

8.2 Your First Training Session 361
8.3 Co-facilitating a Session—Some Guidelines 365
9.1 Examples of Questions/Statements/Items for Ascertaining Reactions of the

Participants on the Programme 385
Acknowledgements
For the second and revised edition of this Handbook, a number of professionals and friends
made useful suggestions. I am thankful to them. However, one person who stands out
as someone who went through the first edition painstakingly from cover to cover is Joe
Pinto. Based in Pune, he is a journalist by profession and a trainer by choice and interest.
His suggestions have helped me in more than one way to make this revised edition more
reader-friendly and valuable not only for the professional trainers but also for others who
are associated with training as well. Over the last year and a half of my association with him,
we have worked together on some key assignments and I found him a very worthy colleague,
an endearing friend and, above all, a very noble person. I am immensely grateful to him.
In my relentless pursuit to nurture my competencies and grow as a professional trainer, I
have continued to interact with a number of people—participants and trainers—from a wide
range of organisations and agencies working in social development field and business firms,
through my consultancy assignments. These experiences have been immensely enriching
and have helped me identify areas in training that needed to be elaborated further or added
to make this edition of the Handbook more responsive to the changing requirements of the
trainers. I wish to acknowledge their contribution.
Undoubtedly, the inspiration and motivation behind this new work is my loving family—
daughter, Mahima, and son-in-law, Rajeev; and son, Vipul, and daughter-in-law, Manjari.
Without their selfless support, enduring love and warmth, it would not have been possible
for me to carry out this mission.
I also wish to place on record my deep appreciation of the support I received from the
professional staff of the Sage Publications, especially from Rekha Natarajan and Sushmita
Banerjee.
xviii z Every Trainer’s Handbook
Introduction to the
Second Edition
At the outset, I wish to express a deep sense of gratitude to the training fraternity and all
others who are direct or indirect partners in training, for their overwhelming response to the
Handbook. I sincerely hope that it has helped the trainers—professional or part time—to
become more proficient in carrying out their responsibilities. In this fast-changing scenario
of education, there is no final word in any branch of learning or areas of knowledge and com-
petencies. One has to constantly evolve and grow if one has to keep pace with the changes
that are taking place in the world of training. There are numerous opportunities for new and
enriching experiences; more and more people are joining the profession, bringing different
perspectives and fresh thinking to various issues and areas germane to training. All this has
led to an increasing recognition for training across the corporate world and in the social
development field.
Keeping these developments in view, it was considered timely and necessary to bring out
the revised edition of this Handbook. Accordingly, I took up the challenge and went through
it assiduously to examine and identify the changes that could be brought about in it to make
the Handbook more useful and beneficial to the training community and others who wish
to update their knowledge about training and its different aspects. As mentioned in the
Introduction to the First Edition, this Handbook is not addressed only to trainers but it can
also be equally useful to managers and other senior officials who are responsible for human
resource development.
A number of changes have been incorporated in the revised edition. Keeping in view
their significance in modern-day training, the issues related to ‘participatory’ and ‘facilitative’
training have been highlighted in the opening chapter. A new chapter—‘Making Stakeholders
Partners in Training’—has been included to emphasise the need for greater accountability of
all stakeholders to one another and for carrying out their responsibilities with greater sincerity
and purpose. This will strengthen the status of training and ensure that the investment made
by different agencies and personnel—in money, time and efforts—is fully recognised and get
proper returns.
For ease of the readers and to emphasise cohesive and synthesised approach, all interrelated
aspects of the learning process have been brought under one chapter—‘Process of Learning
in a Training Programme’. In this chapter, learning is first considered as a general concept
and then it has been discussed in the context of a training programme. Further, a section on
‘Cycle of Learning in a Training Programme’ has been added. This will help the readers for
a more comprehensive understanding of the learning process.
The scope of the chapter—‘Delivering an Active and Participatory Training Programme’—
has been considerably broadened. This chapter underscores the need for preparatory work
xx z Every Trainer’s Handbook
prior to the arrival of the training group. A separate section on ‘Establishing and Maintain-
ing Conducive Learning Climate’ has been added, underscoring the importance of its role
in effective delivery of the training. Under this chapter, an entirely new section—‘Using
Question–Response Approach for Enhancing Participation’—has been included. This is in
response to the need expressed by several professional colleagues.
In view of suggestions received from users of the Handbook, a number of changes have
been incorporated in various chapters—updating and reorganising the contents and making
them more reader-friendly.
I wish to take this opportunity to present this revised edition to the large training brother-
hood with a hope that it will extend similar wholehearted response to it as was held out to
the first edition of the Handbook.
Introduction to the First Edition
Over the last three decades or so, training has acquired a significant position in the world
of business and in the field of social development across the developed and the developing
world. The scope of training is no longer limited to developing knowledge and competencies
in individuals. As considerable emphasis is placed on human relations in an organisation,
leadership styles of senior management and on promoting interpersonal effectiveness, train-
ing has acquired new dimensions in organisational functioning. In fact, it has now become a
crucial element in providing a sound basis for modern-day management. Having recognised
the role of training in enhancing productivity and improving organisational functioning,
many public sector undertakings and business houses have established their own in-house
training infrastructure and built the necessary expertise and facilities to carry out their pro-
gramme of training and deployment. At the macro-level, training has become a part of the
overall national strategy for human resource development and person power planning, thus
serving as an important agency to contribute to the economic and social progress of the
country. In many developing countries, government agencies offer a wide range of train-
ing programmes to young people making them more employable or helping them to
become self-employed. This emphasises the need for large-scale, organised efforts to develop
technical and entrepreneurial skills in unemployed youth, aiming to make them active and
productive units of society. And with rapid strides in the fields of technology, the need for
continually updating the skills of those engaged in technical vocations, through training, has
been further underscored.
TRAINING IN BUSINESS AND DEVELOPMENT SECTORS
Generally, there is better recognition of training among the business organisations as it ad-
dresses their prime concerns of optimising the performance of the staff and enhancing
productivity. Training also offers them a possibility to keep abreast with the latest devel-
opments in the fields of technology and management. This helps them to respond effectively
to competition. A number of business organisations invest considerable amount of money
in training their staff and have, therefore, developed appropriate policies and procedures to
get full value of their investment. Some of them even have a policy of sending their staff for
regular updates of their competencies.
However, due to a variety of factors, the value of training has yet to be fully acknowledged
in the social development sector. Government and non-governmental organisations (NGOs),
working in this sector, generally follow a people-oriented approach in delivering services.
Also, the leadership of NGOs, especially in developing countries, has generally rested with
those who have had long associations with these organisations and have served them with
high degree of dedication. The NGOs always looked for people who are driven by a spirit
xxii z Every Trainer’s Handbook
of service and who demonstrate the same commitment to the job as the NGO. And there
is a belief that these values cannot be transmitted through training. There was relatively
less emphasis on the possession of appropriate competencies in performing the job with ef-
ficiency. However, as the functioning of these organisations moves from the traditional mode
to a more professional approach, there is increasing recognition of the role training can play
in improving the quality of their services and making their programmes more client-friendly
and cost-effective.
THE PRESENT SCENARIO
Amidst growing acknowledgement of the value of training to individuals and organisa-

tions, there are sceptics who are yet to be convinced of its worth. The critics offer a number
of arguments to substantiate their contention that the financial resources consumed by a
large number of training programmes in any country could be used for more productive
and useful activities. They assert that training is often removed from ground realities and
practice. And it does not adequately prepare individuals for coping with the problems that
they encounter at work or in personal life, and deals with certain crucial issues in a superficial
and impractical manner.
There is also a view that the persons who need training do not get an opportunity, and
where there is no financial commitment, some organisations are inclined to nominate those
who are either available or can be spared for the duration of the training programme. On
certain occasions, training agencies are keen to get the ‘required’ number of participants for
a programme and are, therefore, willing to make compromises on the criteria for entry. It
is also argued that for many participants, a training programme only provides a break from
the humdrum of their work or everyday life, an activity that helps them to get away from
their stresses. In all these cases, expectedly, training suffers. The detractors of training also
emphasise that for some business organisations, it has now become more an image-building
exercise, with less concern for getting real value for training.
In the present scenario, there are some other disquieting facets of training as well. In-
creased recognition for training has led to the emergence of a large number of training
agencies. Enterprising individuals have entered the field as private training consultants.
While many are doing a thoroughly professional job, there are others who consider this
a fast-track opportunity for making a mega buck. New training areas are being developed
and aggressively marketed, some of them with little regard for their relevance or use to local
requirements and conditions. In certain cases, ideas and ready-made curricula are imported
from the developed world and planted directly in developing countries. Those who are
susceptible to this kind of persuasive marketing, sometimes, return from the programme
somewhat disillusioned by the experience. To attract big commercial organisations, training
is often organised in five-star facilities. The maxim seems to be: higher the fee and more
sophisticated the training facilities, more prestigious and sought after the programme.
There is another disconcerting element in the existing situation in the developing coun-
tries. Funding for training, especially in the area of social development, is available through
Introduction to the First Edition z xxiii
international agencies and donors. As a result, training has become a commercial or profit-
making activity for many training agencies or individuals. These agencies organise training
programmes to satisfy policy and programme requirements of the donor agencies, with little
consideration for training needs of participating organisations. They are driven by a desire to
garner maximum funds from these funding agencies. And it is not surprising that for some,
it has become a lucrative business. In this moneymaking pursuit, professionalism becomes a
casualty and the quality of training does not figure in the reckoning of these training agencies.
WHAT COULD BE DONE TO ENHANCE THE STATUS OF TRAINING?
It cannot be denied that there is some validity in the aforementioned arguments. It is, there-
fore, the responsibility of the training agencies, trainers and participating organisations
to take cognisance of these views and take necessary corrective measures. They need to
make concerted efforts to secure for training the recognition and position it merits. While
some measures will suggest themselves during the discussions in this Handbook, it is worth-
while to take an overview at this stage.
Training agencies should facilitate sustained and extensive interaction of its training staff
with the field conditions. The problems and situations that prospective groups of partici-
pants are likely to encounter in their jobs and everyday life should be thoroughly researched
and documented for appropriate use during training. This should be an ongoing job for
the trainers. Such data and information could be helpful in developing suitable training
materials such as case studies, role-plays, assignments, and training instruments and exercises.
The objective should be to bring training as close to the field and life-realities as possible.
However, it is important to remember that the so-called gap between the training and the
field situations can be bridged only through active and continual collaboration between
the training agencies and the organisations sponsoring nominees for training.
As training is an evolving field, especially in the developing countries, there is a dearth of
professional trainers. In the present scenario, it is not unusual to see training programmes
being handled by those who are neither appropriately qualified nor competent. As a result, the
quality of training suffers. Under the circumstances, it should be the endeavour of the train-
ing agencies to build a cadre of professional trainers, competent to handle a variety of training
groups. Training of trainers, therefore, assumes considerable importance. The agency should
also have a policy of providing opportunities to its training staff to update their training
skills and expertise in areas of their interest. This will be highly fulfilling for the training staff
and go a long way in enhancing the credibility of the agency.
The present situation also suggests a need for establishing an associate or any other body,
functioning at the national or state level, with a responsibility to oversee training in the
corporate and the development sectors. It should perform the task of sifting good training
from bad. This will introduce some degree of quality control, make the training agencies
more accountable for their work and check the unrestricted proliferation of training outfits,
including individual consultants. This, inevitably, will enhance people’s faith in training.
This body could also help in establishing a network of training agencies and through these
xxiv z Every Trainer’s Handbook
a network of the training staff, facilitating collaboration and cooperation in training-related

areas at various levels. Even joint ventures could be planned. It will be possible to share
training materials and exchange training staff. Thus, an agency will be able to mobilise a
wide range of expertise and skills, available with other agencies, for its programmes. These
opportunities, offering more varied exposure, can be very enriching for the trainers and help
in cross-fertilisation of ideas, leading to professional growth of the trainers. These efforts will
greatly assist in promoting training as a major tool for development.
As identification of training needs is crucial to developing a sound programme design, it
is necessary that considerable attention should be given to this aspect of training. And for
carrying out a productive exercise, there is a need for active cooperation between the training
agency and the organisations nominating participants for a particular programme. The
organisations should take their responsibility more seriously and the training agency must
ensure that the actual needs of the participants are fully reflected in the programme. This effort
will go a long way in giving the training programme a professional base and direction.
The issue of selection of the participants for a training programme demands a good, hard
scrutiny. It should be the endeavour of all those associated with a particular programme, to
ensure that only those who are likely to benefit the most from it find a place as participants.
A training agency should be in a position to withstand pressure to accept those who do not
fulfil the requirements for attending the programme. And an organisation should not be
allowed to get away by ‘dumping’ some unwilling or unwanted participants on the agency.
There should be some degree of accountability on the part of the nominating organisations
and the agency, as training an individual involves investment of money and time. If an
unsuitable candidate gained entry into the programme, it is possible that a deserving par-
ticipant lost a chance to get into the same programme.
Post-training evaluation has not received the attention it deserves either from the par-
ticipating organisations or from the training agency. Once the training is over, most training
agencies demonstrate little interest in assessing its validity and relevance to the organisations.
There is a laidback attitude. And to make matters worse, very few organisations make an
effort to monitor the performance of those who have returned from training or to evaluate
the usefulness of the training programme in the context of its requirements. The situation,
therefore, calls for collaborative action by the participating organisations and the training
agency. The data, collected through such an exercise, should also be made available to the
team that is responsible for planning similar training programmes in the future. This effort
could contribute in bringing training a step closer to the field.
WHY THIS HANDBOOK?
With increased recognition of the need for training, there has been a substantial increase
in the publication of materials on training—in the form of books, articles and papers.
Some of these deal with key concepts and principles of training, some attempt to focus on
prime aspects of training, while some others document experiences of trainers in different
Introduction to the First Edition z xxv
settings. However, despite my long association with the field of training, spreading over
three decades, I have yet to come across a comprehensive, notable work of substantive value
or quality that provides a step-by-step, practical approach to planning, organisation and
delivery of a training programme. During my professional interaction with trainers from
different parts of the world, especially from India and other developing countries, it became
evident that there was a need for a publication that could serve as a practical guide for those
who have the responsibility for designing and running training programmes. In view of
my rich experience in a variety of national and international settings, I received numerous
suggestions to attempt something on these lines, based on my experiences. This Handbook,
therefore, is a modest attempt to respond to this need and fill a longstanding void.
With the advancement of technology, programmed instruction has been recognised as a
key mode of training, especially in the developed countries. However, face-to-face training
has not only been able to withstand this onslaught but also retained its status, value and
primacy, especially in the developing world. Thus, this Handbook is abundantly relevant in
the present training scenario and will, hopefully, provide a useful tool in the hands of trainers
who are engaged in this kind of training.
SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE HANDBOOK
z The Handbook has been prepared keeping in view the exigent need of those responsible
for organising and delivering training to a wide range of groups, indifferent settings. The
material presented in the Handbook is relevant to most countries as the basic approach
and steps in organising a training programme set out in this Handbook are universally
applicable, regardless of the nature of training group or the theme of the programme.
z The Handbook emphasises a step-by-step, practical approach to planning, organisation
and delivery of a training programme. Important points have been suitably elaborated
and, if required, further reinforced through examples. Where necessary, ‘guidelines’ have
been added to assist the trainer in carrying out specific tasks.
z It has been written in a characteristic reader-friendly language and style, consistent with
special attributes and characteristics of the targeted group of readers. It ensures that all
levels of trainers, the experienced ones or those who are just entering the field, are in a
position to fully assimilate its contents.
z At the beginning of each chapter, learning outcomes from the chapter have been clearly
spelled out to indicate to the reader what to expect from the following text. It establishes
the framework for the chapter and helps in a more focused approach in the presentation
of the material. The learning outcomes also act as points of reference for the reader. Simi-
larly, at the end of each chapter, key learning points and conclusions have been brought
out to facilitate a quick revision. Besides, where appropriate, some checklists have also
been included, as part of the main text, for a swift browse and as an aid to memory.
z The Handbook has a substantial number of tables, charts, diagrams and figures. They
highlight certain specific points of the text, present some key aspects at a glance or provide
xxvi z Every Trainer’s Handbook
a helpful break from the narrative text. This enhances the quality of presentation and
assists the reader in grasping and assimilating the material with greater ease.
z Where necessary, supplementary materials have been provided in marked boxes or as
supplements and appendices.
z Wherever suitable, the text directly addresses the reader to enhance its value as a reader-
friendly publication.
z To refer to a trainer, participant or an individual in singular form, the pronoun ‘she’ has
been used throughout the Handbook. This is not a discrimination against the males. There
are reasons for following this approach. The repeated use of she/he, her/him or herself/
himself is somewhat awkward and can also interfere with the flow of reading. Different
gender forms could have created considerable confusion. Incidentally, this style may also
provide a balance as most of the books use the pronoun ‘he’ for such references.
z In the Handbook, each training element or topic had been discussed keeping in view the
needs of trainers who are responsible for designing and delivering comprehensive and
high-quality training programmes. However, in practical terms, trainers’ requirements
differ substantially, depending on the level and nature of the programme. It is, therefore,
possible that for low profile or homespun programmes, a trainer may use only certain
selected portions of the text. Details may not be necessary.
z While a particular point or training aspect has been discussed where most relevant, in
some other sections too, a need was felt to make a mention of it to emphasise its validity
and relevance. Also, one must remember that the training process could be seen as a
continuum, a product of the interplay of several transactional elements. A lot of things
happen at the same time and in order to understand the process in its totality, the linkages
must be established and the role of each of these elements should be explained. Therefore,
some overlaps were unavoidable. In fact, they tend to reinforce the points.
z Some readers might be looking for shortcuts in planning and delivering training. And
they may find the details more than what they think they would require. But one must
remember that there are no shortcuts if one strives for perfection or wishes to be effective
in the tasks one has the responsibility for. It is, however, likely that if a trainer is organising
a low profile programme only selective parts may be used.
THE TARGET GROUP
The Handbook has been prepared and designed for training managers, trainers and instruc-
tors working in various training and educational institutions. The text has been prepared
in a way that trainers from management as well as the social development field will find it
equally relevant and useful. For wider relevance and use, examples have been drawn from
diverse settings. The Handbook will also be useful for organisers of workshops and seminars,
as the basic approach and process followed in organising these activities is similar to the one
adopted for designing and implementing a training programme.
1
Training—Concept, Meaning
and Scope
This chapter serves as the base or foundation chapter for this Handbook. It aims to bring
out different dimensions of the concept of training and discuss its scope and application
as an important instrument for professional and personal growth and development of an
individual. Hopefully, our discussion will attend to your concerns and queries on the concept
of training and clear your thoughts on the core issues related to it. It is imperative that we
come to an understanding on certain fundamentals about training before we take the pro-
cess forward to consider more crucial areas of a training programme. Specifically, the chapter
deals with the following major areas, each covering several key points:
Understanding Training
Key Facets of Training
Levels of Training
Modes of Training
2 Every Trainer’s Handbook
Learning Outcomes
After going through this chapter, you will be able to:
Define and discuss the concept, importance and scope of training as detailed in this
Handbook.
Identify and analyse reasons that constitute the bases for organising individual,
group or organisation-based training.
Deliberate upon various aspects of participatory and facilitative training.
List out and discuss different modes of training.
1.1 UNDERSTANDING TRAINING
1.1.1 Meaning and Scope
With the recognition of training as an important avenue for growth and development of
individuals, groups and organisations, its scope and application have been considerably
widened. While, largely, it still remains a key tool for enhancing job-related performance
and organisational effectiveness, its value is being increasingly acknowledged in engender-
ing behavioural changes and in developing life competencies, leading to personal growth.
It equips an individual with the competencies that help her copet with day-to-day problems
of living and manage interpersonal relations, improving her interpersonal effectiveness. A
number of enterprising individuals and institutions are now offering short-term training
programmes, helping individuals live a qualitatively better life. Thus, training has influenced
every facet of an individual’s life. As a result of these developments, programmes on human re-
lation and personal development training now occupy a significant place in the realm of training.
Training, however, should not be considered panacea for all job-related problems or
ills. There are a number of problematic situations in which the solution could be located
within the organisation or its functioning. Training becomes a sound option only when
it is categorically established that it will effectively address the problems an individual or
an organisation is facing. This will become amply apparent when the training process is
discussed further in this and the following chapters.
Although training, as appropriate within the framework of this Handbook, can be con-
sidered to be apolitical, it is not possible to insulate it completely from ideological pressures
and undertones. In most cases, it is influenced by a set of norms and values that represent
the broad parameters and objectives of social and economic development that the society
sets for itself and the path it endorses for achieving them. This, in fact, makes training more
purposive and expressive in the context of a society or a nation. It is, therefore, important
that while training focuses on developing knowledge and competencies appropriate to work
and life situations, it should, directly or by implication, aim to foster such values in the par-
ticipants that are consistent with those prevalent in the larger society, outside the domain
of the training programme. For instance, in a democratic society, training should not only
communicate democratic norms and values but also reinforce them through education and
Training—Concept, Meaning and Scope 3
practice, thus strengthening the democratic system and its functioning. However, if there is
perceptible conflict between these two sets of values, an individual can be face to face with
a dilemma. She would not know whether to accept and adopt the values promoted through
training or to follow those that are generally recognised outside the training programme.
This is not to suggest that training has to necessarily conform to the existing societal values.
If training gets restricted by the prevalent values, it is likely to stem the growth of society. It is
imperative that training should continue to be on the cutting edge of fostering and promoting
the values that aim to remove barriers to progress, widen the horizons of an individual, are
supportive of growth and help create new avenues and opportunities for productive engage-
ment for people.
There are other aspects of this issue as well. The training process itself is based on a set of
values. When we emphasise participatory training, values such as dignity of individual, respect
for others’ points of view and freedom and opportunity to share one’s ideas in training are
inherent to this approach. We are essentially suggesting some overarching values that should
become the basis of the training process, guide the trainers in adopting appropriate training
styles and stimulate behaviour changes in the participants consistent with these values. It is
necessary to emphasise that interpersonal relations in a training group are conducted on the
basis of certain code of conduct and norms of behaviour accepted by the group.
1.1.2 Concept of Training

There is no dearth of definitions of training, each one giving it a different emphasis and focus.
Without getting involved in the complexities of an all-inclusive comprehensive definition,
we will attempt to bring out the key elements that constitute training. This will help you
understand the meaning and scope of training, as appropriate to the contents of this Handbook.
In order to arrive at a better understanding of the concept of training, let us consider some
responses that the participants of a training programme for trainers gave in this regard.
Some sample responses were as follows:
‘The aim of training is to develop potential knowledge and skills of the trainees to carry
out defined tasks and responsibilities.’
‘Training enhances efficiency and develops a systematic way of performing your duties
and assigned tasks.’
‘The aim of training is to infuse scientific thinking and planning and working method-
ically and efficiently.’
‘Training is a process of learning and unlearning—to acquire/enhance skills and
knowledge and put it into practice—to enable the trainee to do his job efficiently.’
‘Training is about behaving differently and not necessarily knowing more.’
‘It is a process of attitudinal change that integrates with life, work and self-development.’
From the aforesaid responses and a comprehensive perusal of the views of experts in the
field, it is possible to deduce the following salient points.
Training is a process with clearly defined parameters. It has a beginning and a def-
inite end, until the process starts all over again at a subsequent time and, probably, in
another setting. Activities and events are arranged in a way that there is a perceptible
forward movement, progression and growth of the process itself. Training activities
and events are cohered and blended in a harmonious, integrated way. The entire
process is guided by the programme and learning objectives.
It can also be viewed as a process of empowerment of the participants. It helps them
understand their training needs in the context of the training and set reasonable and
realistic learning objectives. The trainers make available an environment that enables
them to make optimal use of the opportunities provided for learning by promoting
their active and meaningful participation in training activities. Though the process
is stimulated by the trainers, the members of the training group work together to
reinforce it. Empowering also means fostering a sense of commitment and infusing
an urge in the participants for subsequent action on the basis of learning acquired
during the programme.
Training induces behavioural changes in the areas of knowledge and competencies
that are helpful in improving performance in work situations and/or contributing to
self-development. Thus, training goes beyond the confines of its venue or setting.
It does not stop at acquisition of knowledge and competencies but emphasises
the application of learning to the situations confronted by the participant in post-
training scenario.
During a training programme, participants are not offered a package of ready-made
solutions or responses to problems/situations that an individual encounters in real-
life settings. It gives her insights into different dimensions of these situations or
problems. It aims to develop in her the capabilities to formulate appropriate re-
sponses to various life situations through a process of perception, understanding
and analysis. Thus, training is not all about learning specific working methods and
procedures to manage work-related or day-to-day problems or conditions. While
in some cases, it may suggest some responses to handle specific situations, training
has to be seen as the process through which one acquires competencies to cope
with a variety of complex, difficult situations. A participant should know how to
improvise and adapt, using her ingenuity, in carrying out assigned tasks in an ef-
ficient manner.
For many, training is a journey of self-awareness and self-discovery, leading to growth
and development. It helps the participants explore and realise their potentialities
and talent. It facilitates a process through which a participant is able to identify her
strengths and shortcomings. It assists her in becoming aware of what she knows
and what she does not know. This is a necessary step not only in providing the basic
motivation for learning but also in fostering self-esteem and assisting in developing
a realistic self-image.
Training also assists in removing mental blocks or dispelling those reasons that
prevented a participant from using the full range of her capabilities. During the
process of training, an individual is ‘brought into contact’ with her hitherto untapped
abilities. Comments, such as ‘I did not know I could do this’; ‘I cannot believe this is
my work’; ‘Now I realise that I am capable of doing this’, are not uncommon after a
training activity that helps a participant bring to surface her unexpressed potential.
It familiarises a participant with the most effective ways of using her existing know-
ledge and competencies, thus helping her in maximising the results from her efforts.
In some cases, this by itself could be helpful in improving the level of performance.
Training has intended as well as unintended results. Although activities are organised
in pursuance of the programme objectives, a number of secondary benefits accrue to,
at least, some, if not all, participants. For instance, some participants improve their
communication skills through participation in discussions; some learn to appreci-
ate the points of view of others and develop greater tolerance of disagreements and
dissent; some enhance their social skills and some others grow in self-confidence
through participation.
Training develops in an individual the ability to translate acquired concepts, prin-
ciples, knowledge and competencies into perceptible and functional behaviour or
actions, and vice versa. Thus, it helps in establishing a relationship between theory
(or knowledge and conceptual understanding) and practice.
Although training ostensibly targets an individual or a participant in a given training
situation but, in many cases, the final converging point is the organisation. She
contributes to organisational effectiveness through her own growth and enhancement
of competencies.
Sometimes, training brings about profound and far-reaching changes in behaviour
patterns of an individual that influence her social and personal life, thus improving
its quality. It has been observed that Personal Development Programmes have a
powerful impact on the personality of an individual.
(For cross-reference to this section, see Chapter 8.)
1.1.3 Training and Education
Essentially, training and education are both growth-oriented and directed at the individual.
Both aim to develop in an individual the capabilities to face the challenges and complexities
of life and shape the future; although the approach followed in achieving this objective dif-
fers. As life becomes more competitive and complex, there is greater emphasis on the respect-
ive roles of education and training. To some extent, these roles are becoming increasingly
complementary. Education provides the basic foundation for setting an individual on course
in life and training provides the necessary competencies for carrying out professional and
personal responsibilities in an effective manner. In some cases, training fleshes out some
areas covered under education and builds on them. However, there are some dissimilarities
between the two approaches to learning. These are discussed in the following paragraphs.
This discussion will help in better understanding of the two terms, in the context of this
Handbook and in defining the scope of training.
Education is directed more towards the future of an individual. It prepares her for
upcoming challenges of life, shapes her career and grooms her for social responsi-
bilities. There is minimal reference to the past of an individual. On the other hand,
in training, the past and present of an individual—her performance, level and range
of her competencies, attitudes and values, the approach she follows in carrying
out her responsibilities, her interaction with others, work-related problems, and
so on—provide a crucial frame of reference. Based on this information and data,
training aims to assist the participant in evolving new perspectives for her life and
deciding on a course of action to be followed by her in the foreseeable future.
In training, the emphasis is on developing the repertoire of a participant that assists
in improving her work-related performance or enhancing her interpersonal effect-
iveness. Thus the scope of training is limited, defined by the programme objectives
and its contents. It is specific and structured. As indicated earlier, it emphasises ap-
plication and the practical aspect of knowledge and competencies and not just their
acquisition. Training has a shorter-term perspective of an individual’s life. On the
other hand, education, barring perhaps professional courses, is usually not targeted
to specific behaviour or functions. It has a long-term perspective of an individual’s
life and its scope is wider. It is more inclusive than training and lacks the specificity
of a training programme.
Transfer of training to field situations and its impact on the performance or behav-
iour of an individual can be monitored and assessed. And through appropriate inter-
ventions, environmental or personal obstacles that an individual confronts in the
process of application of training can be overcome. However, in the case of educa-
tion it is very difficult either to monitor the transfer of learning to life situations
or to intervene in removing the obstacles. What happens after an individual has
completed her education is not only difficult to monitor but also, sometimes, im-
possible to even find out. In developing countries, due to limited employment
opportunities, it is not unusual to find an individual taking up a job or embarking
on a career that deviates substantially from the nature and content of the education
she had received.
Changes in training are more perceptible and are open to measurement and evalu-
ation. Validity and relevance of training and its linkage to ground realities can be
assessed more concretely in training than in education.
To a large extent, education has its roots in the cultural ethos and social milieu of
a community or a nation. It has an abiding relationship with social processes and
societal forces operative at a given point in time. Development of socially accepted at-
titudes and values is a key concern of the educational process. On the other hand,
although training is also based on an ideology and fosters appropriate social values
in the participants, the emphasis is relatively less.
Social institutions, such as the state, the family and the community, play an import-
ant role in the educational process although they may not be directly associated
with it.
Although in most cases, training is imparted through a group situation, it is a loose

and temporary grouping. The training group is assembled for a fixed period in
pursuance of defined objectives and disperses after the programme ends and the
objectives are deemed to have been achieved. On the other hand, education relies
heavily on the group life of an individual, something that is more enduring and
lasting than a training group.
Table 1.1
Key Attributes of Training and Education—An Overview
Training Education
Although training is concerned with Education is mainly directed towards the
the future of an individual, still her past future of an individual and any reference to
and present provide a crucial frame of her present state is incidental.
reference.
The scope of training is limited, Education is not usually targeted towards
determined by the training objectives. It specific behaviour. Therefore, it lacks the
is specific and highly structured. It has specificity of training. Education has long-
relatively short-term perspective of the term perspective of an individual’s life.
future of the individual.
Transfer of learning can be monitored Difficult to monitor how the learning
and assessed. The organisation and even acquired is being used by the individual.
the training agency can exercise greater The educational institution has virtually
control on the process and even extend no formal control on the situation and
guidance. circumstances of the individual after she has
completed a particular course.
Training has less emphasis on Education is firmly rooted in the culture
ideology and social values as it stresses of the society. One of the key concerns
development of knowledge and of education is the inculcation of socially
competencies. Societal forces play a accepted values in an individual. Social
far less significant role than they do in institutions, like state, family and
education. community, play an important role in the
education of an individual.
In training, the group comes together In education, the group is more enduring
for a specific purpose and disperses after and there is sustained interaction over a
the programme objectives are assumed long period of time.
to have been achieved.
1.1.4 Training and Teaching
Although some educationists and teachers are inclined to use these two words
interchangeably, it is useful for you to understand the two terms, as appropriate in
the present-day context. Both are interactive processes, based on communication

between a receiver and a giver (of learning). Both aim to promote learning. Although
training is often distinguished by its use of a variety of learner-friendly methods, huge
strides in educational technology have helped in developing teaching methods and
techniques that are learner-friendly and take into consideration the learning styles
of the learners. Progressive and enlightened teachers in educational institutions, the
world over, have infused a new thinking in their approach to teaching, bringing it
closer to the one followed in training. However, the competence of the teachers
in the use of more innovative teaching methods other than the conventional ones
remains a crucial issue for the educational institutions.
Training and teaching have some distinguishing attributes. Teaching still follows a
curriculum-oriented approach, complying with a predetermined schedule of work.
There is less flexibility. Therefore, many a time, a teacher has to overlook her con-
cern for the students’ learning and abide by the established regime of the work
allocated to her. In teaching, despite the new thinking and approach, the option to
use different learning methods is limited. In many cases, especially in developing
countries, neither the facilities for experimenting with new approaches in teaching
are available nor does a teacher have the flexibility in terms of time.
In training, the interaction between the trainers and the participants is sustained and
intense. In fact, active and meaningful involvement of the participants in all aspects
of the training is considered a very significant factor for the success of a training
programme. On the other hand, teaching cannot claim that level of interface between
the teacher and the students.
There is a lot of reliance on the teacher for learning. As a result, the intra-group pro-
cesses are not important. However, in training, the situation is markedly different.
This is partly because in training, besides the trainer, the group is often considered
an important source of learning and participants learn and grow through interaction
with their co-participants. Thus, in training, group processes play a very significant
role in realising the expected training outcomes.
The rapport or the type of relationship that exists between the teacher and the student
is qualitatively very different from the participant–trainer relationship. The for-
mer is a more enduring and long-term association. The participant–trainer rapport,
on the other hand, may last only for the duration of the training programme.
Qualitatively also, the teacher–student and the trainer–participant relationships are
contrasting. In view of her knowledge and experience, a teacher is often viewed with
a lot of deference and treated with consideration. However, in training where adult
participants come with a baggage of knowledge and experience, the trainer does
not enjoy similar status. In fact, some participants can be very discerning and they
closely assess relative professional competence, experience and communication skills
of a trainer, before she is accepted. Thus, for a trainer to establish her credibility with
the group is a major task. Sometimes, the trainer is just considered as first among
equals in the group.
The teaching areas for a teacher are well defined in accordance with the curriculum
and her qualifications but, in the case of a trainer, it is expected that she should have
a wider base of knowledge and expertise. In fact, in most cases, the training contents
or modules emphasise an interdisciplinary approach in learning.
1.2 KEY FACETS OF TRAINING
1.2.1 Participatory Training
Understanding Participatory Training—Some Key Aspects
The trainer acts more as a facilitator, working at the same level as the participants.
There is blurring of difference between the trainer and the participants.
The trainer and the participants are part of a communication network that promotes
active interaction among all its constituents.
There is an environment of ease and comfort for all. Participation becomes an
enjoyable experience and the participants take initiative in sharing their views and con-
tributing to the success of the programme. There is real and genuine participation.
There is all-round respect for the views, opinions and comments expressed as part
of the training activities and exercises.
The trainer is supportive of the learning process and establishes and nurtures an
environment that promotes risk-free participation.
The group and the trainers are active resources for learning. The trainer acts as guide
and mentor.
Participatory Training—Some Basic Principles
It is the logical extension of the principles of adult learning that emphasise active and pro-
ductive involvement of the adult participants not only in their own learning but also as an
important tool in promoting learning of other members of the training group as well. In the
present-day approach, training is seen as a process of growth wherein the participants not
only develop knowledge and competencies but also learn to behave differently, engendering
changes in job or day-to-day life. The approach to participatory training is based on the
following key fundamentals:
An important assumption that forms the basis for participatory training is that adult
participants are capable and willing to take greater responsibility for their learning.
They prefer an informal approach that provides them space and opportunity to
plan the course of action in their own way. For them, learning is not an abstract but
a tangible phenomenon as they are capable of relating it to their real-life situations
and future requirements. They are, therefore, in a position to assess relevance or

otherwise of learning.
(For cross-reference see ‘Distinguishing features of adult learners’ under Chapter 2.)
Participatory training recognises the right of a participant to take appropriate deci-
sion with regard to her learning needs and the manner in which she wants to learn,
including the pace of learning. There is also a premise that people learn faster and
the learning is more enduring and permanent if they are responsible for it.
This approach aims at creating learning possibilities, through a range of training
activities, but the learner decides what she wants to learn based on her own require-
ments. Of course, the trainer assists the participant in taking informed and con-
sidered decisions, by clarifying learning objectives for each training activity or
module and matching them with her personal learning objectives. The method a
participant chooses to internalise learning is also left to her.
Participatory training is directed at enhancing participants’ potential for learning
and building confidence in them. This, in turn, involves the following:
Developing their capacity to perceive, making a critical appraisal of what is pre-
sented to them during training and taking appropriate decisions in the context
of their present state of learning and future needs.
Providing opportunities for reflection and analysis.
Enhancing their communication skills that facilitate effective sharing.
Helping them express their experiences as comprehensible concepts, theories and
working methods.
Providing them an environment in which they are stimulated to share their ideas
and viewpoints in a free and frank manner.
Helping them to explore ways to solve their problems and investigate their own
reality on the basis of their own experience.
Assisting them to get in touch with their hidden or dormant talents and
potentialities.
Participatory training stipulates involvement of mind (sharing ideas, viewpoints and
experiences with members of the training group), heart (manifested through high
level of motivation; possibility of active participation acts as a powerful impetus
for learning and enhances motivation; bonding with other members of the group
and emotional sharing) and body (physical participation in all action-oriented train-
ing activities).
Participatory training will also involve taking on board participants’ learning styles
and, where necessary, assist them in modifying them to make them consistent with
the methods and techniques adopted for delivering the programme.
People do not change or accept the suggestion to change simply because they are
asked to. They change and are willing to invest their time and efforts only when they
are convinced of the need for it and are confident of their abilities to bring about
the desired transition in their professional or personal behaviour. Participatory
training methodology provides the necessary impetus and creates opportunities

for the participants to initiate the process of change.
Participatory training assumes that an adult learner brings with her considerable
experience and knowledge, and this should become the basis of sharing and learning
for the entire group. Thus, every participant is capable of contributing to the learn-
ing of others, including the trainer. The approach envisages engaging participants
both as subjects and objects in training rather than merely as objects.
Some Key Prerequisites for Participatory Training
Previous experience of the participants, appropriate to the training contents, is the

basis of sharing and participation. Participatory training assumes that people know
something of value that they can share with others. It refuses to believe that there
are people who know nothing worth sharing.
Participants should be clear about their personal learning objectives, consistent with
the overall programme objectives.
Participants’ ability to communicate effectively.
Willingness and ability of the participants to make meaningful and productive
contribution.
Existence of training environment that stimulates and acknowledges active
participation.
Training theme/area is amenable to the underlying norms, principles and requirements
of participatory training.
1.2.2 Facilitative Training
Facilitative training is a term that is increasingly finding a place in the modern-day training.
In essence, it may be deemed as a more intensive form of participatory training (discussed
earlier) where the group plays a major role in its learning and takes greater responsibility for
realising the programme objectives. When we speak of relative roles of the group and the
trainer in a training programme, on one end of the continuum is the group that is largely
dependent on the trainer for providing the direction and taking the learning process forward.
Evidently, the trainer exercises substantial control on the contents of the programme and the
group processes. On the other end of the spectrum is the group that is willing and capable
of taking greater control of the learning process, including the contents. In substantive term,
it assumes the position of a self-directed group, generating its own impelling force and
deciding on its course of action that will help it in achieving the desired results. In such
cases, the role of the trainer is limited to keeping a watch on the contents and processes and
intervening only when she is convinced that the group has gone off the designated track or
is being manipulated by a few with a personal agenda. Thus, it is only a stand-by support
mechanism.
In practice, however, no training programme can be delivered consistently from either

of these extreme positions. In a typical programme, the trainer may adopt differential ap-
proaches guided by the circumstances and situations prevailing at a given point in time,
though, in most cases, she may opt to take a course that lies in-between these positions. In
training workshops where the participants are from senior management and bring to the
event substantial knowledge and experience, there is a good deal of scope for conceding
to the group the level of control (on contents and processes) that will facilitate the task of
conducting its activities and discussion in a productive way. On the other hand, in some
other programmes, there are situations when the trainer has to take greater control (of both
contents and processes) to ensure that it is kept on track for the realisation of the objectives.
Here also, there are occasions when the training group is extended considerable scope and
opportunities to decide on the contents and the processes. This is generally the case when
training activities—discussions or exercises—are conducted in small groups. The trainer may
define the tasks and set out broad objectives but leave the key operational aspects to the
group. In such situations, these subgroups assume substantial control on the activities and
the process of completing the tasks. It has been observed that trainers are willing to assign
greater responsibility to the group only when they are convinced of its abilities to take on
the challenge. Generally speaking, it does not happen in the initial stages of a programme.
Therefore, facilitative training may be deemed as situational and depends on the nature
of the activity, ability of the group and the stage of the programme.
1.3 LEVELS OF TRAINING
1.3.1 Individual-based Training
Pre-service Training
An individual may possess Training helps in acquiring

Training
skills that are not relevant skills that are relevant to the
to the intended job. intended job.
Developing New Skills
After completing a course of formal education, some people may choose to acquire new skills
to become more employable or to start their own enterprise in the field of their interest. This
training is also referred to as non-formal or continuing education. As indicated earlier, a
number of private or state-sponsored institutes offer a wide range of training programmes
aimed at achieving these objectives. Some public and private sector business concerns also
organise similar training programmes. The nature and content of such programmes depend
on the demand and supply position in the employment market or on the requirements of
business concerns. For instance, in India, a growing number of private institutions, especially
in metropolitan cities or major towns, offer a range of short-term training courses in areas
such as computer technology and application, marketing, personnel management, fashion
designing, advertising and interior decoration. These are popular courses with young men
and women, considering the available employment opportunities.
Orienting New Incumbents or Entrants to the Organisation
When an organisation recruits new staff, it is necessary to orient them with its functioning
and their job, as part of the induction process. Thus, there is an assumed training need, com-
mon to the new staff. This could be satisfied through an in-house training programme, by
contracting an appropriate training agency for the task or by engaging a group of trainers.
Although the primary objective of an orientation programme is to acquaint the partici-
pants with the nature of the job and their responsibilities, it helps them in a number of other
ways by:
Familiarising the participants with organisational goals and structures, policies and
working procedures, methods of functioning and its general work culture.
Making them aware of the expectations of the organisation, more specifically their
immediate superiors, including standards of performance. It also provides an op-
portunity to the new incumbents to express their expectations from the job and the
organisation.
Orienting the new incumbents with their job responsibilities and equipping them
with various methods of performing the assigned tasks in an effective manner.
Addressing their initial concerns about the job or the organisation.
In-service Training
Improving the Level of Performance
Possesses X,Y, Z skills but

Higher level X, Y, Z skills.
of lower level. Needs to Training
More effective use of the
develop ability to use them
existing skills.
more effectively.
An important basis for training is deficient performance or low proficiency of an individual.

The performance is not up to the expectations of her immediate superiors or the organisa-
tion. There is a perceived gap between the expected and the actual performance of the in-
dividual. The appraisal of the performance of an individual is based on an assumption that
the organisation has set out clearly defined criteria and standards of performance and she
is aware of the expectations of her superiors. This shortcoming in the performance can be
attributed to several factors, acting independently or in concert. Some of these could be as
follows:
An individual does not possess the required knowledge, skills or know-how for per-
forming the responsibilities or tasks assigned to her.
The working environment in the organisation (working conditions, attitude of col-
leagues and/or superiors, relationship at the workplace, and so on) is not conducive
to an efficient performance.
The responsibilities or the tasks that an individual is expected to carry out are not
clearly defined. As a result, there is a lack of understanding of the job on the part of
the individual. It is also possible that perceptions of an individual and her immediate
superiors about the tasks that she is expected to carry out differ. She might be carry-
ing out her responsibilities in accordance with her own knowledge of the job but
the superiors may evaluate her output and performance on the basis of their expect-
ations. In such cases, the gap in the expected and the actual level of performance of
the individual can be attributed to difference in the perception of the expectations.
The expectations of the supervisors or the organisation have not been properly con-
veyed to the individual. It is also possible that the organisation has not established
clear-cut criteria and standards of performance.
Due to some personal circumstances, an individual is not able to put in her best in
the job. Family problems or simply a lack of motivation and commitment can hold
back an individual from giving her best to the job. It is also possible that an indi-
vidual believes that the job is not consistent with her competencies, interest or career
ambitions.
If the reason for deficient performance lies beyond the level or nature of knowledge and
competencies required for performing the tasks, intervention through training is unlikely to
be helpful. It is, therefore, necessary that immediate superiors or the management should
analyse the reasons for deficient performance before exploring ways and means to address
the problem. It is probable that the solution is located within the organisation or with the
individual. A helpful discussion with the concerned individual or some counselling may
achieve the desired results, without resorting to training. After analysing the reasons, a deci-
sion can be taken whether training is the appropriate option.
Assignment of New Responsibilities/New Role Dimensions
Adding X,Y,Z skills

Possesses A,B,C skills but
Training appropriate to the new job
requires X,Y,Z skills for new
but also sharpening the use
job responsibilities.
of A,B,C skills.
An individual may be assigned new responsibilities or her immediate superiors may re-
define her work parameters. This could be for reasons of promotion, as part of normal ad-
ministrative reshuffle, due to the organisation’s policy of redeployment or periodic lateral
movement of the staff. When a person moves into a position of higher responsibility, it can
be assumed that there will be a gap between her current capabilities and the knowledge and
competencies required for the performance of the new job. Similarly, when an employee
takes up new responsibilities in a lateral movement, there is a possibility, albeit temporary,
of a mismatch between what she can do and what must be done to carry out the job in a
satisfactory manner. In both these cases, the organisation may either opt for on-the-job
informal training or nominate the concerned staff to an appropriate training programme.
Introduction of New Strategies and Working Methods in the Organisation
In this world of intense competition, an organisation, whether engaged in business activities

or social development is constantly striving to gain a competitive advantage over other con-
tenders. It explores ways and means to increase its productivity, level of proficiency of the
staff or its ability to provide more efficient and cost-effective services to its client groups.
For achieving this, the organisation may, at any given point in time, introduce new working
methods, procedures or practices. Training needs can also emanate from an organisation’s
future plans or a shift in its priorities. Changes in criteria and standards of performance
can also create a need for training. When the exercise to orient the staff with these changes
involves a substantial number of personnel, training could be an expeditious and cost-effective
option. The training may be organised through in-house facilities or a training agency may
be commissioned for the job.
Advancement in Technology
In view of innovations and changes in technology, related to its methods of production,

a business organisation may consider it imperative to update the skills (mostly technical)
of its staff. New machinery is installed or new plants are commissioned but for producing
new products or providing new services, the staff should be trained to operate the new
equipment. It is also possible that someone in the organisation has found an innovative
and cost-effective way of handling certain operations and the management wants this to
be adopted by others as well. Here training can help achieve the objective.
Organisational Policy
Some organisations have a policy of sending their staff for training on a regular basis. For
instance, in India, defence forces and some financial institutions send their staff for training
programmes as part of a regular update, regardless of whether a training need exists or not.
Some major private and public sector organisations also follow a similar practice. In most
cases, the objective is to keep its staff abreast with the latest working methods, innovations
and management practices. This could be either a response to some competition or a strat-
egy to keep the staff in a high state of efficiency and preparedness. It also gives the staff an op-
portunity to reflect on their performance, share their experiences with persons from similar
backgrounds, prepare themselves for facing new challenges in the job and reaffirm their
commitment to their job and the organisation. It provides them with a stimulating and in-
vigorating experience. Unfortunately, though, for some organisations this could be merely
an image-building exercise.
1.3.2 Group-based Training
Group-based approach is different from individual-based (discussed earlier) or organisation-

based approach (discussed later). In our context, the factors that distinguish an interest or
function-based group from an organisation are its nature, size, composition and status. They
are not necessarily institutionalised groups. They might have been created for a specific pur-
pose, assignment or mission and, in many cases, with a predetermined life span. The members
share a common agenda or purpose. These groups are self-reliant and self-governing hav-
ing their own identity, work culture, set of working procedures and objectives or targets to
achieve. They may or may not be part of a larger organisation. However, even when they are
part of a larger organisation, they may have own set of functions and norms of operations.
Therefore, for the purpose of training, they can be considered as independent units.
Examples are project teams, self-help groups, working committees, task force, ad-
venture or exploration teams, sports and games teams, special groups set up for
conducting certain events, departmental units, youth clubs, group of volunteers and
women’s groups.
In this context, training may have two distinct objectives: enhancing intra-group func-
tioning and teamwork, and/or developing competencies in the specific area of operations of
these groups. For instance, some individuals may be working on a project as a team that may
be implemented over a period of time. It is important that the members of the group should
understand one another in order to be able to work together; evolve appropriate working
norms and procedures; develop complementary competencies so that they are able to provide
inputs for successful completion of the project; define roles and responsibilities and develop
suitable mechanism in which each member gets the support of other members regardless
of her responsibilities and nature of tasks. In such cases, training is considered an option
because it helps in developing it into a productive and dynamic unit within a relatively short
time and in a professional and purposeful way. In the absence of concerted effort through
training, the group may require relatively longer time to mature into a working outfit. Even
all aspects of its functioning may not be addressed in a professional way. Generally, this train-
ing is customised, consistent with the training needs of the group.
1.3.3 Organisation-based Training
As the term indicates, this training aims to provide a more effective and efficient base to func-
tioning of an organisation by enhancing the potential of the personnel associated with it
and by strengthening and reinforcing the organisational processes. Here, the training is not
directed at individuals (as in individual-based approach) but on the overall functioning of the
organisation. The participants are considered as the constituents of the larger organisation.
While some programme may cover all key aspects of organisational functioning, others
may focus on some selected ones. In such cases, the management may identify certain oper-
ational aspects that need to be attended to for more harmonious and effective functioning of
the organisation. Some of these areas could be organisational communication, management
of personnel, interdepartmental coordination, inter-personal relationship among the staff,
teamwork or decision-making in the organisation. The management may feel convinced that
professional intervention in the form of training is the best option. They may realise that the
situation demands not only an objective and professional analysis of the problems but some
suggestions on possible responses as well. Following from there, it may either request an
established training agency for organising the programme or commission a team of trainers
for the purpose. In such cases, training aims to provide an opportunity to the personnel to
have a free and frank exchange of views on the issues relevant to effective functioning of the
organisation, develop necessary competencies, deal with areas of disagreement and potential
conflicts and foster appropriate attitudes and values for enhancing commitment to work
and better teamwork. The training may bring together personnel from different levels of
management to pool in different perspectives, areas of responsibilities and methods of
working. In the light of the ensuing discussion, the management may draw up an action
plan for translating the recommendations into action, thus improving the state of affairs in
the organisation. Generally, this is a customised programme, based on the training needs
identified by the senior management of the organisation.
(For cross-reference see Chapter 4.)
1.4 MODES OF TRAINING
Although this Handbook deals with formally organised training programmes, this section
briefly discusses other modes of training that are available to organisations and institutions.
1.4.1 Face-to-face Training
This refers to the conventional mode of training. It is distinguished from other modes of
training because it is based on group approach—with participants getting together at one
venue and undergoing the programme with the help of a training team. This Handbook is
based on this mode of training and, therefore, no further elaboration is necessary here.
1.4.2 On-the-job Training
There are situations when the management recognises that the need for training exists, but
in view of some compelling reasons, it is not possible to send the individual to a formal train-
ing programme. It is also possible that at a given point in time, training opportunities are
not available; or the organisation cannot afford to send the individual away for the duration
of the programme. In view of these circumstances, the management may be constrained to
take the option of on-the-job training.
The locale for on-the-job training depends on the nature of the responsibilities that the
individual is expected to carry out. It can either be within the organisation itself or in the
field. In the latter case, it may be described as field placement. There are managers who
prefer this method of training as this gives them control on the learning process that is
missing in the formal methods. However, while it is recognised that people learn best when
they are actually engaged in action in realistic setting, it is possible to achieve optimum
results only when the exercise is properly planned and structured. The performance of
the individual and the progress of the process should be monitored to realise full learning
value from the experience. In a variation of the approach, the trainee may be given a lot of
scope and opportunity to pursue the assignment in her own way, with the option to solicit
the guidance and assistance from other colleagues or seniors, whenever needed. This helps
in developing her confidence and foster an attitude of self-reliance as she engages in coping
with day-to-day problems and difficulties associated with the tasks and responsibilities she
is expected to carry out.
Specific Features of On-the-job Training
Focus on Individualised Training
In on-the-job training, there is greater focus on the individual. Her training needs
are the prime concern of those responsible for organising the programme.
As it is a one-on-one situation, it is possible to monitor the progress of the indi-
vidual. However, this can only be done if proper mechanism is set up for regular
communication between the trainee and the supervisor and prompt feedback. The
training should be periodically reviewed, in terms of content and the process, and
where necessary, suitably modified to ensure that it remains consistent with the
training needs of the trainee.
This type of training provides flexibility, both in approach and in content. The train-
ing activities and the specific tasks given to the trainee may be determined on the
basis of her learning styles, pace of learning and ability to comprehend and intern-
alise the learning accruing from the experience.
Because of its focus on the individual, there is greater commitment and involvement
of the trainee in the training process. Motivation level is generally high and the
individual is willing to make extra investment in the process. If proper care is taken
in the selection of projects and experiences for the trainee, she is encouraged to relate
better with the process as well as the content of the training.
Personalised training provides opportunities to the trainee to be creative and explore
her own potentialities in a systematic way.
This personal approach, however, can, sometimes, work against the interests of the
trainee. As there is direct and regular interaction with those who are responsible for
her training, the trainee may feel exposed, and somewhat insecure and vulnerable. She
may even feel that she is being controlled and manipulated by the supervisor. Informal
on-the-job training, therefore, requires deft handling and efficient supervision.
As the setting for the training is the job itself, sometimes, the training aspect can get
relegated to a secondary position because of the demands of the job itself.
Unpredictability of Results
On-the-job learning has an element of unpredictability built into it. Many a time, this train-
ing is referred to as learning by trial and error or learning the hard way. Although appropriate
opportunities may be provided to the trainee, it may not be easy to ensure that she makes
optimum use of each one of them and learns from it. As a result, it may not be possible to
set out concrete learning outcomes from the experience. This is specially the case when a
proper structure is not put in place or there is no effective supervision of the learning. Thus,
the experience may not lead to desired learning and growth in the trainee. It is also likely
that the activities or the tasks in which she is engaged may be of a routine nature and not
contribute much to the development of whole range of competencies required for the job.
The person going through an on-the-job experience may pick up competencies, develop
standard ways of doing things or even patent some recipes for dealing with certain situations
and problems, as they exist today. But if there are new demands in her job at a later stage,
she may find it difficult to cope with the new challenges.
Active Monitoring and Supervision
In structured on-the-job training, an important element is active monitoring and super-

vision. In view of better knowledge of the abilities of the trainee, the supervisor is in a good
position to establish realistic standards of performance. As guidance and supervision are
readily available to the trainee, she is in a good position to relate the learning to her real
training needs. Valid learning is reinforced and rewarded instantly and learning that is not
useful or does not correspond to the job requirements may be ignored or corrected. This,
however, presupposes exercise of special skills on the part of the supervisor. In most cases,
as the supervisor may be holding higher position than the trainee in the organisational
hierarchy, she may, sometimes, feel restricted or overwhelmed.
Absence of Interaction
In formal training, a lot of learning accrues from interaction and sharing experiences with
other participants of the group. This element is absent in individualised training. However,
it is possible to introduce it through networking with some other trainees undergoing similar
training experiences elsewhere. Staff members from the same organisation and with simi-
lar job responsibilities may also be invited to interactive sessions with the trainee.
Greater Emphasis on Practice and Doing
In on-the-job training or field placements, the emphasis is on practical work in live situations.
As the trainee comes to grips with the real world and copes with actual problems, she is in
a better position to evolve proper responses. Dealing with real situations helps the trainee
develop her competencies, appropriate to the job requirements.
Easy Transfer of Training
One of the key aspects of on-the-job training is that there is no transfer problem, since learn-
ing takes place in authentic situation.
Less Cost-effective
Individualised training is not cost-effective. It is time-consuming, commits a lot of resources,

both in terms of finance as well as personnel.
1.4.3 Distance Training
The need for distance training arose because the training agencies felt that due to financial
and time constraints, they were not able to meet the increasing demand of the organisations
for training their professional functionaries. On the other hand, these organisations also felt
that some other means of training has to be explored because they could not release the per-
sonnel to attend training in accordance with the time schedule of training offered by the
training agencies. Distance training provides a good option to both the training agencies
and the organisations. The former can reach out to a larger number of prospective trainees
for their training programmes and the latter can get their personnel trained while they
remain on the job. However, it is still a long way before distance training gets recognised as
a viable approach to professional training. Nevertheless, it may be helpful for you as a trainer
to briefly examine the pros and cons of this emerging field.
Distance training is the extension of the concept of distance education to the area
of training in the professional areas. As is evident from the term itself, in distance
training, learning takes place from a distance and the trainee has greater responsi-
bility for getting engaged in the process. She draws up her own time schedule and
decides on the pace at which she wants to learn, depending on her convenience, level
of motivation and environment.
Under conventional training, a participant learns through inputs by the trainer, her
active engagement with various training activities, interaction with other participants
and the trainers, material made available by the trainers and her own observations
in the sessions and in informal settings. However, in the case of distance training,
there is far greater reliance on the material produced by the training agency and on
other readings and printed material suggested by the designated tutors. Of course,
some agencies introduce the element of interactive learning by organising Personal
Contact Programmes for the trainees, arranging video conferencing and using other
communication avenues. These techniques enable the trainees to interact with those
who have produced the training material, the tutors and other trainees in their re-
spective settings.
In normal training programme, direct and face-to-face interaction between the
trainer and the participant facilitates instant communication focusing on the points
raised by the trainer, other participants or through the material provided by the
trainers. The participants can seek immediate clarifications, raise queries and present
their points of views. In distance training, these elements are missing. As the trainee
follows the learning material, she has to defer her queries, doubts and clarifications
until the time she gets the opportunity to communicate with appropriate persons. In
some cases, this may weaken her motivation and enthusiasm for learning. It is, there-
fore, important that the material has to be prepared in a style that responds to at
least some immediate questions and concerns that arise in the mind of the learner.
In other words, the study material has to not only communicate the content to the
learner but also promote self-learning and motivate her. The crucial role of the study
material in distance training, therefore, cannot be overemphasised.
The present scenario suggests that many training agencies are inclined towards col-
laborating with Open Universities for delivering their training programmes because
these universities have a vast network of learning centres and other infrastructural
facilities. While this partnership is useful in many ways, especially in optimising the
use of available resources, excessive reliance on Open Universities for delivering the
training can dilute the training objectives as set out by the training agencies.
Distance training has the potential for both pre-service and in-service training. Pre-
service training offers opportunities to learners to acquire professional qualifications
in areas that are in demand by the employing agencies, thus making them more em-
ployable. In-service training responds to the increasing desire on the part of serving
professionals to improve their qualifications for furthering their career prospects.
While some areas are more amenable to distance training others are not. For in-
stance, in the development of competencies in a particular area distance training has
limited role.
1.4.4 E-training
E-training is a general term used to refer to a form of learning in which the instructor
and student are separated by space or time, and the gap between the two is bridged
through the use of online technologies.
E-learning is used interchangeably in a wide variety of contexts. In companies, it
is referred to the strategies in which the formal network is used to deliver training
courses to employees. In the context of distance education programme offered by
Open Universities, it is defined as a planned teaching/learning experience that uses
a wide spectrum of technologies, mainly Internet, to reach learners at a distance.
Lately, in most universities, e-learning is used to define a specific mode to attend a
course or programmes of study where the students rarely, if ever, attend face-to-face
sessions or for on-campus access to educational facilities, because they study online.
Developments in Internet and multimedia technologies are the basic enabler of
e-learning, with content, technologies and services being identified as the three key
sectors of the e-learning industry.
E-learning is naturally suited to distance learning and flexible learning, but can also
be used in conjunction with face-to-face teaching, in which case the term ‘blended
learning’ is commonly used.
Along with the terms learning technology, instructional technology and educa-
tional technology, the term e-learning is generally used to refer to the use of tech-
nology in learning in a much broader sense than the computer-based training or
computer-aided instruction of the 1980s. It is also broader than the terms online
learning or online education that generally refer to purely web-based learning. In
cases where mobile technologies are used, the term m-learning has become more
common. E-learning, however, also has implications beyond just the technology
and refers to the actual learning that takes place using these systems.
E-learning services have evolved since computers were first used in education. There
is a trend to move towards blended learning services, where computer-based activ-
ities are integrated with practical or classroom-based situations.
E-learning lessons are generally designed to guide students through information
or to help them perform specific tasks. Information-based e-learning content com-
municates information to the student. Examples include content that distributes
the history or facts related to a service, company or product. In information-based
content, there is no specific skill to be learnt. In performance-based content, the
lessons build off of a procedural skill in which the student is expected to increase
proficiency.
Communication technologies that are used in e-learning are generally categorised
as asynchronous or synchronous. Asynchronous activities use technologies such as
blogs, wikis and discussion boards. The approach here is that participants may engage
in exchange of ideas or information without the dependency on other participants
or their involvement at the same time. Electronic mail (e-mail) is also asynchronous
as in that mail can be sent or received without having both the participants’ involve-
ment at the same time.
Synchronous activities involve the exchange of ideas and information with one
or more participants during the same period of time. A face-to-face discussion is
an example of synchronous communication. Synchronous activities occur with all
participants joining in at once, as with an online chat session or a virtual classroom
or meeting.
RECAP OF KEY LEARNING POINTS OF THE CHAPTER

Training and education are both growth-oriented, directed at an individual. As
continuing education gets emphasised, the roles of education and training are
becoming increasingly complementary.
The scope of education is much wider as compared to training. Education takes a
long-term perspective of the life of an individual. On the other hand, training is
specific and more structured.
Training and teaching promote learning through interactive processes. However,
to a considerable extent, teaching still follows a curriculum-based approach, with
less scope for experimentation and initiative.
Training is a process, an organised sequence of events, activities and tasks.
Training cannot be deemed to be a response to all performance-related problems.
It does not offer packaged solutions, but enhances the capabilities of an individual
for formulating responses to various situations and problems, through an intensive
process of diagnosis and analysis.
Training is a journey of opportunities for self-awareness, self-exploration and growth.
It widens the knowledge base of an individual and induces behavioural changes
appropriate to the work or life situations.
Training is not just about acquiring knowledge and competencies but it also
prepares an individual for action in specific areas of work or life.
Participatory training recognises the right of a participant to take appropriate
decision with regard to her learning needs and the manner in which she wants to
learn, including the pace of learning. It is based on an assumption that everyone
has something to share with others in the group that is of value and substance.
In essence, facilitative training may be deemed as a more intensive form of participatory
training where the group plays a major role in its learning and takes greater
responsibility for realising the programme objectives. It becomes a self-directed
group, generating its own impelling force and capable of deciding on its course
of action.
In individual-based training, pre-service training is aimed at preparing an
individual for a job or an assignment; and in-service training is directed at
enhancing proficiency, preparing her for new responsibilities or adapting to new
policies and working methods of the organisation.
Group-based training focuses on interest or function-based groups whether

belonging to a larger organisation or operating independently. Besides developing
necessary competencies related to its specific activities, the training aims to
enhance intra-group functioning and teamwork.
Organisation-based training is directed at improving organisational functioning
and strengthening organisational processes.
Some organisations may take the option of ‘on-the-job’ training of their personnel.
This is a highly individualised mode of training that has emphasis on practice and
actually carrying out the tasks. However, to yield good results, it requires active
monitoring and supervision.
2
Process of Learning
in a Training Programme
This chapter examines learning from different perspectives—first as a broad and general
concept, and then its scope and dynamics in a training programme. As a professional trainer,
it is important for you to fully comprehend different aspects of the learning process in training
to enable you to plan and deliver a high-quality programme. Therefore, this chapter occupies
a very important and significant place in this Handbook as the foremost responsibility of a
trainer is to promote the learning process. You can further build on your understanding
of various topics and issues discussed in this chapter through further readings and your
experience. Specifically, the chapter deals with the following major areas:
Learning in the Present-day World

Understanding Learning—Concept and Dimensions
Process of Learning in a Training Programme
Components of Learning
Distinguishing Features of Adult Learners
Learning Process—Uniqueness to an Individual
Participants’ Learning Styles
Four Ways in which Participants Learn
Methods of Learning in a Training Programme
Factors Influencing the Learning Process
Learning Outcomes
Discuss the meaning and scope of learning as explained in this Handbook.

Describe various dimensions of the learning process.
List out and explain the various components that constitute learning in training.
List key attributes of an adult learner that should be kept in view by a trainer.
Explain how the learning process is unique to an individual, including her learning
style.
Elaborate on the ways through which participants learn.
List and discuss methods of learning in a training programme.
Catalogue and analyse personal and environmental factors that impact the learning
process in a training programme.
2.1 LEARNING IN THE PRESENT-DAY WORLD
Before we discuss the process of learning in a training programme, it will be helpful to look
at its importance and place in our everyday life and understand its various nuances.
In the fast-paced and highly competitive world of today, learning—knowledge, compe-
tencies and experience—has acquired a new meaning and value in our life. It provides access
to better career and job opportunities, secures social status and recognition, and contributes
immensely in improving the quality of life of an individual. It widens the horizons of a person
by opening a window to the outside world and letting in fresh air of knowledge, making her
more progressive and enlightened. Those who are not able to cope with competition are left
by the wayside. It is really a matter of survival of the most proficient, informed and skilled.
Human learning and growth is a complex process. It represents a constant interchange
between a shared social and cultural pattern of a society, community or group, on the one
hand, and personal behaviour and attributes of an individual, on the other. Thus, learning
as a process and as an activity is as much a socially shared endeavour as it is an individual
effort.
Underscoring the significance of the oft-repeated adage, ‘learning is a lifelong pursuit’,
educationists and planners have evolved the concept of continuing education. It affirms
that the completion of the formal phase of education does not signal the end of the learning
phase in the life of an individual. She should be provided opportunities to continue her
quest of learning, updating her knowledge and, where possible, augmenting her repertoire
of competencies. Recognising this, a large number of institutions have entered the arena of
continuing or non-formal education in a big way, offering opportunities to those who have
either missed out on the formal system of education or had to drop out, to improve their
qualifications and enhance their competencies. Many universities and Open Universities offer
a wide range of opportunities to those who wish to follow formal courses of study. With
the emergence of computer technology and the introduction of programmed instruction,
Process of Learning in a Training Programme 27
learning has acquired a new dimension and meaning. People now have almost instant access
to a wide range of knowledge in any desired area. This easy accessibility has extended a
whole range of opportunities for many.
Learning helps one establish a bond with people. It promotes social interactions. If an
individual has the ability to have an informed and meaningful conversation on issues of
topical or general interest, she finds easy acceptance in a social group. In today’s world,
personal credentials of an individual are often enhanced through her intellectual capabilities
and the learning and knowledge she carries with her.
Highlighting the importance of information in an individual’s life, many democratic
countries have declared the ‘right to information’ as a fundamental and inviolable right of
a citizen.
2.2 UNDERSTANDING LEARNING—CONCEPT AND DIMENSIONS
2.2.1 Learning is a Universal Phenomenon
Learning has no boundaries or limitations though the nature and its context differ consider-
ably from individual to individual and group to group. All human beings, regardless of
their dissimilarities and pursuits in life, are constantly engaged in the process of learning,
even if its nature, quality and meaning differ for the people. Thus, learning is, indeed, a
universal phenomenon. In all cases, it enhances the ability of an individual to engage in
her life objectives—social, economic or personal. All human beings have a desire and urge,
whether expressed or unexpressed, for learning, although the degree of the efforts one makes
in its quest and the manner in which the objective is realised, may differ. All people may also
not get equal opportunities for learning. Learning can, therefore, be deemed a basic right of
an individual and, to considerable extent, her responsibility as well.
2.2.2 Learning as a Lifelong Pursuit
Learning starts almost soon after birth and continues unabated till death. There is hardly a
time when an individual is not learning, though it is not always that she makes a conscious
effort for it. However, the course it takes in the life of an individual depends on a number of
factors—needs of an individual, opportunities available, ability to make use of opportunities
and personal circumstances—at a given point in time. The content, intensity and pace of
learning vary from time to time in the life of an individual as also from person to person. It is
extremely rapid at the beginning of our lives, though a good deal of it during this stage could
be at a subconscious level. In the later stages of life, this process may slow down somewhat.
But learning continues through a process of checks and balances, cross-fertilisation and trial
and error. And every person goes through this process in accordance with her objectives and
situations. It is accelerated when an individual perceives personal meaning in the new learn-
ing and considers it relevant and useful for her. Thus, motivation for learning also varies.
2.2.3 Learning under Formal and Informal Conditions
In educational institutions, the setting is relatively formal and the activities are more
structured. On the other hand, the socialisation process that occurs in a family setting can
be viewed as a long, continuous learning process although the environment is informal and
the activities are not necessarily structured. A considerable amount of learning also takes
place through peer groups and other social relationships that an individual establishes and
nurtures. We learn from everyday happenings and events and even from people whom we
meet casually. In fact, no human encounter is without learning even when it has unpleasant
or adverse consequences for us. Whether we experience success or failure, there are always
lessons to be learnt from it, although, it is not always that we recognise or acknowledge the
messages that emerge from these events. In many situations, learning may not be deliberate
or self-directed. It just happens. It must also be remembered that an individual learns not
necessarily by participating in activities or events, but through other methods such as obser-
vation and study as well.
2.2.4 Learning as a Basis of an Individual’s Behaviour
Learning results in the development of certain behaviour patterns of an individual. These

guide and impact her day-to-day actions, responses to different situations and problems, her
relationships and the way she carries out job responsibilities. These patterns of behaviour
remain as part of an individual’s personality until the time they are replaced by new learning
in a particular area. New experiences of an individual may reinforce, negate or add to the
earlier learning. And this process goes on as a part of an individual’s life, resulting in new
and incremental learning.
However, for learning to manifest itself in an individual’s life, it has to make its way through
a complicated mental process of analysis, reflection and internalisation. It is then translated
into perceptible behaviour patterns or response to real-life situations. There are no short
cuts for effecting behavioural changes through learning. They evolve gradually over a period
of time.
2.2.5 Learning as an Integrated Process in an Individual
Learning is not merely a cognitive or an intellectual exercise. It is the result of dynamic inter-
action of physical, cognitive and emotional aspects of life of an individual. The extent to
which these elements are harmoniously integrated in the learning process depends on the
perception of an individual of the role these elements will play in the course of action
necessary for achieving the objective. If the whole persona of the individual is involved in
the process, there is no superficiality, and the learning is thorough and profound. It is also
important to remember that if learning remains at the mental level, it may not get translated
into behavioural changes or reflected in the actions of an individual. Learning that comes
about through involvement of emotions and sensibilities of an individual is much more

enduring in nature and there is a greater likelihood of its application to life situations. This
learning will enhance the level of confidence and self-belief in an individual.
2.2.6 Stimulation for Learning
The process of learning gets stimulated when an individual is convinced of the need to bring
about changes in her actions, behaviour or any other aspect of her life but believes that
she does not possess the necessary knowledge or skills to effect the desired changes. This
strong urge for change provides motivation and impetus for the individual not only to
make full use of the opportunities that come her way but also to create them for acquiring
the required knowledge and competencies. However, all learning cannot be prompted by a
desire for change or for carrying out certain tasks. Many of us get interested in learning not
for short-term dividends or objectives but view this as an opportunity for our growth and
development. We may not look at the application or use of this learning in the foreseeable
future, but want to store it as a resource for use later in life when the situation demands it.
In all cases, the common factors that contribute to greater learning are pursuit of personal
interest, intrinsic motivation and internal commitment.
2.2.7 Learning is an Evolutionary Process
Learning is an evolutionary process. As one advances in life, so also one moves in her learning.
Knowledge once gained may lead to a desire to realise more knowledge and this process
progresses unabated in one’s life. There is no defined cut-off point for learning, prescribed
parameters or limit on its pace. It is instigated by certain situations and circumstances in
one’s life and gets further strengthened and nurtured by people around and environment
that are supportive of this process. Learning gets its meaning and substance through
proper guidance and direction. However, in following this course of action, an individual
is constantly engaged in the task of rejecting some learning as wrong and unproductive and
not worth keeping in the repertoire; and acquiring new learning to achieve new objectives
and carry out new responsibilities and assignments.
2.2.8 Learning as a Shared Undertaking
Education and learning are now considered important prerequisites for empowerment of a
community or people, in general. It is widely accepted that a key element of empowerment
is easy access to information and knowledge—information about one’s rights and the oppor-
tunities available for social and economic development, and an understanding of the role and
accountability of various social, economic and political institutions or agencies. Realising
this, social organisations, especially in developing countries, now organise a wide range of
educational activities as part of their community development programme. They believe that
social or economic transformation can be brought about only with the active and productive
participation of an informed and enlightened community. Such a community can be more
assertive and can espouse its interests and causes more effectively.
2.3 PROCESS OF LEARNING IN A TRAINING PROGRAMME
2.3.1 Need for an Integrated Approach to Learning in Training
In a training programme, learning is a complex, multi-dimensional process. It is like a jigsaw

puzzle where all pieces should fit in a clearly defined arrangement, to give us the complete
picture. There are myriad factors and conditions that influence the learning process. To
further compound the situation, there are many players in the process—the participants,
trainers, the agency, support staff, and so on. Your task as a trainer is to ensure that all these
factors, components and personnel work in concert and harmony, reinforcing the efforts of
one another to strengthen and promote the learning process. You, therefore, have to adopt
a strategy that takes into consideration the roles these can play in furthering learning of the
participants. An integrated approach to learning will be a key factor in the success of the
programme.
In order to evolve an implemental approach, you need to address the following issues
that are central to working out an integrated strategy for the training that will not only
enhance the process of learning but also help you realise the training outcomes. You need to
work on these issues before the event commences and continue to monitor your efforts as it
progresses. Some of them are as follows:
There are cases when things may not just work in accordance with your expectations
and the plan of action. You may encounter unexpected problems, situations and
concerns that may have the effect of derailing the programme from its designated
path. You may be in a position to have some degree of control on some of these
situations but there will be some that may well lie beyond your domain. You have to
be fully prepared to face such situations and your strategy should provide adequate
safeguards to ensure that the learning process is kept on course for the realisation of
the programme objectives. The strategy should provide for constant monitoring of
the process with the aim of exercising considerable control on the factors that either
support or inhibit it.
Each of the stakeholders may have its own agenda to pursue the training programme.
Sometimes they have not only competing but also conflicting interests. To further
compound the situation, each may have its own preferred way of operating to achieve
its objectives. For instance, the training agency, in some cases, may not be averse
to compromise on the contents and process for the sake of outcomes that could
be crucial to its financial interests and relationship with the donor or sponsoring
agency. On the other hand, the members of the training team may also have their
own agenda, some overt and some covert, depending on their position and status in
the agency. They may even have divergent views on issues associated with training.
It is, therefore, necessary that at the planning stage itself, these issues should be
discussed frankly and in an open environment and all concerned—training agency,
training team and the support staff should reach a broad agreement on how the
programme will be implemented, especially with regard to the learning process.
The attitude of the trainers towards the participants is another issue that can influence
the learning process. While some trainers may regard the participants as partners
in training, others may look upon them as inconvenient elements that need to be
put up with for the sake of the programme. They may feel that the participants are
out to test their knowledge and competencies and assess their ability as trainers.
These differing attitudes need to be dealt with within the training team as part of its
preparation for the programme; otherwise this can inhibit the process of bonding
with the group, thus affecting the learning process.
Before the programme begins, the training team should decide on the degree of em-
phasis that needs to be given to the process, contents and training outcomes. It has to
constantly keep track of the progress of the training and review the situation, when
necessary. These decisions will have a direct impact on the delivery of training.
The training styles of the trainers may not be consistent with the learning styles
of the participants. This can have an adverse effect on the learning process. It is,
therefore, important that the trainers should not only be fully aware of their own
training styles but also make an earnest effort to find out the preferred learning
styles of the participants. Undeniably, the learning styles will not be homogeneous
but the important aspect of this exercise should be to find out the dominant styles in
the group. This will help in developing a strategy that is inclusive and responds to
these different learning styles of the participants.
2.3.2 Cycle of Learning in a Training Programme
The first thing that a participant does to get actively engaged in the process of her
learning is to recall her experiences, competencies and knowledge pertinent to the
topic or issues under discussion in the training session or to the training activity.
Rather than processing the entire experience and full range of her repertoire that
can lead to cluttering of mind, she may open only a particular window that connects
her to the session or the activity. However, just reflecting on the experiences is not
enough. The key task will be to interpret these experiences in terms of knowledge,
concepts, theories, patterns of functioning, and so on, and express them in coherent,
practical and comprehensible manner.
Of course, recalling experiences without positioning them in proper context—
her responsibilities in the organisation and, indeed, its functioning—may not be
meaningful or realistic, affecting the process of active learning. Once the contents
and context are established, she will be better prepared to get fully involved in the
learning process.
The next step, perhaps, is to identify specific areas or issues for greater focus and
clarity of purpose. She must also construct a broad picture of the changes that
she wants to bring about in her behaviour and actions, again in the context of the
learning that is likely to accrue from the discussion or participation in the training
activity. This frame of reference will reflect her training needs, appropriate to that
topic. It is expected that she will modify it as the session or the activity progresses.
Once the areas for learning are recognised, she has to persuade herself to take action
to get connected to the process and participate. For that, she has to build a strong
desire in her to bring about the necessary changes in her behaviour or actions
pertaining to her job or life situations. In order to evoke her intrinsic motivation
and commitment to take the process forward, she must find meaning and value in
the learning. This is crucial for her active participation.
The next step is to seek opportunities to learn. In fact, those participants who are
motivated by a strong desire to learn and grow will not wait for these openings, but
go ahead and create them. These learning possibilities include active participation in
training activities, following and comprehending inputs by the trainers, interacting
with other participants with a view to learn from their experiences, perusing the
materials provided by the training team, informal sharing with members of the
group and the trainers and engaging in extensive reading on the topics/issues.
Once the participant is mentally ready to learn, the actual process gets unfolded. As
she comes across a new learning, regardless of its source (mentioned earlier), she will
be constantly reflecting on her earlier knowledge and experience. If the new learning
affirms her earlier learning or adds to it, she will go along and accept it readily.
However, if the new learning appears to be at variance with her previously validated
knowledge and experience, she engages in the task of assessing relative veracity,
value and practical utility of the learning. Acceptance of the new learning depends
on the outcome of this analysis.
The next point in this process is collating and organising the learning that has accrued
from her efforts during the training sessions and integrating it in usable ‘packages’,
relevant to her job responsibilities and life situations. The ‘packaged’ learning is not
limited to knowledge and competencies but includes the emotional content also.
It is this emotional element that provides the necessary motivation and encourage-
ment to the participant to translate the learning into job or life situations.
2.3.3 Learning as an Interactive and Collaborative Process
Learning in a training programme has certain aspects that are different from those that we
normally associate with the process in our daily life. Some of them are as follows:
It is a highly collaborative process in which all constituents work together.

It is more intensive and consistent.
Has greater focus.
It progresses in formal and informal settings.

It thrives in a proper environment.
Unlike our normal life situations, learning in training is the result of collaborative effort of
the main stakeholders of the programme. There is a constant interchange between all the key
stakeholders—training team, participants and the training agency—present in the training
with a shared objective of enhancing learning. Your task is to ensure that these constituents
work in complete harmony, each carrying out its designated role and responsibilities suitably
throughout the programme. Even the support staff associated with the organisation of the
programme, the overall work culture of the agency and the physical environment it offers for
training also have a role in promoting learning.
On its part, the training team is responsible for organising training activities and providing
inputs on various topics and modules. It helps create an appropriate environment for learning
to proceed unabated. The agency makes all physical arrangements and provides facilities for
training that are supportive of the learning process. The participants respond through active
participation and contribution to all training activities, by affirming their commitment to the
programme and conducting themselves in a way that is consistent with the expectations of
the trainers and the agency. They conform to the ground rules and norms established by the
agency and the training group. The participants bring with them a package of rich and varied
experiences—a key source of learning. On the other hand, the prime task for the training
team is to facilitate the sharing of these experiences and ensure that it leads to learning. It
guides and controls the interactive process in a way that enhances communication among
the participants and enables them to learn from one another in a dynamic way. During the
discussions, they seek clarifications, express their views and raise queries. The team, in turn,
is expected to listen carefully to their views and respond appropriately to their queries.
And this collaboration and reinforcement of each other’s efforts continue throughout the
programme, resulting in learning.
Learning is more intensive in a training programme because a wide range of training ac-
tivities are organised to promote the process in the participants. The manner in which the
participants get stimulated and interested to get involved in these activities is a significant
factor in the success of the programme. The extent to which they get involved in these
activities is, to a considerable extent, a measure of their interest in their own learning.
During these activities, as well, the role of the trainer is crucial. She must ensure that the
training activities are designed in a way that is consistent with the learning objectives of the
specific topic or the training area, and the programme is delivered in a manner that generates
enthusiasm and interest among the participants for active participation.
Learning in a training programme is also consistent because there is sustained action from
all sides. The participants are here with a purpose and all efforts—in the session or outside
it—converge on optimising the learning outcomes from the training. There is a schedule to
which the training team and the participants are expected to work. The objectives that are to
be realised through the programme and its contents lend considerable focus to the learning
process. It must, however, be remembered that while most of the learning is generated
through focused and designed action, its scope is not limited to the programme theme or
contents. Participants may learn from other informal sources and settings, not reflected in
the schedule.
The environment within the training room and outside it plays an important role in pro-
moting the learning process. It affects the mental and physical preparedness of the partici-
pants. Positive and promotive training environment can help in taking the learning process
forward and sustaining the interest and enthusiasm of the participants. It is, therefore,
important that the training agency should take special care to provide appropriate physical
environment during the programme.
A key imperative for a successful training programme is the establishment of an active
and functional bond between the participants and the trainers, based on mutual sup-
port and respect. This relationship underpins all learning activities and interactions during
a programme. There is considerable investment, in time and effort, from both sides. It is,
therefore, necessary that the training team and the participants should have unity of purpose
as both have high stakes in the success of the programme.
As mentioned earlier, learning does not take place only in sessions and during the
training activities. It continues well beyond the classroom and there are many opportunities
available to the participants to learn through informal interactions with the trainers and the
participants.
(For cross-reference and further details see Chapters 5 and 8.)
2.3.4 Conscious and Subconscious Learning
In a training programme, while most of the learning takes place at the conscious level, in
many cases, a significant part occurs at the subconscious level as well. A participant may not
be fully aware of all the learning that her mind gathers and internalises. A major reason for
this phenomenon is that a participant is so intensely engaged in the training activities that
she does not have an opportunity to sit back and reflect on the learning. Thus, it is quite
conceivable that learning at the subconscious level is not perceived or acknowledged by
the participant during the programme or even soon after a training activity is completed.
Nevertheless, it surfaces in response to specific circumstances or an appropriate situation.
Sometimes, the subconscious learning is reflected in the improved performance of a par-
ticipant in the post-training scenario, and the way in which she responds to a challenging
situation or handles a problem.
2.4 COMPONENTS OF LEARNING
2.4.1 Information
As the term denotes, it refers to some basic statistical data, facts and figures, which are part
of the training inputs.
Examples: Demographic data on a particular community; schemes and programmes

of government or non-governmental agencies for certain sections of the population;
legal provisions or legislation; job specifications; list of agencies/personnel working
in a particular area for networking; pro forma for completing performance report; or
staff rules and regulations.
You may provide the information—in the form of printed materials or documents—as
support materials for certain training areas or topics. These materials may be given either
in advance or as part of a training activity. Generally speaking, presentation of information
may not require a substantive discussion. However, the participants are encouraged to seek
clarifications on related issues or seek additional data so that the information is more com-
prehensive and meaningful to them. In some cases, the information or data may become the
basis or provide necessary inputs for following discussion on a related topic or issue. Un-
doubtedly, this will make discussion more purposeful and substantive. However, the value
and relevance of the information provided to the participants on a particular topic depend
on its nature and quality. It is important that you let the participants know of the relevance
of the information and data provided to them, and they fully understand their use and
application. This is to be considered as a part of the training process.
2.4.2 Knowledge
Knowledge means dynamic and analytic understanding of theories, concepts, principles and
issues related to various topics that constitute part of the programme contents. This may
either be in the context of the work responsibilities of the participants, understanding the
target groups or people with whom they are working; or pertaining to their application
to specific situations in the performance of their job or in social interactions. Evidently,
interaction of the participant with the trainers, other members of the group and training
materials is at cognitive level.
Examples: Strategies and approaches to development; principles of effective manage-

ment; problems of youth; critical analysis of issues related to gender and development;
theories of social action; dynamics of human behaviour.
Development of knowledge in a training programme means that a participant:
Becomes familiar with a range of similar or differing interpretations of various the-

ories and concepts associated with a specific topic or module.
Acquires the capabilities to critically analyse theories, concepts and principles, pre-
sented during the training, in the context of her work and that of the organisation.
Develops the ability to establish a functional linkage between knowledge and action
in the field, in pursuance of the discharge of her responsibilities; and
Evolves a base and a frame of reference for further development of her knowledge
in related areas.
Knowledge by itself is of no use or value if it remains static or ‘sits’ in the mind of a person.
It acquires meaning and assumes an active form when it:
Assists in the analysis and better understanding of the problems in professional or

personal life.
Helps in developing appropriate responses to a variety of life situations.
Is applied in planning action with respect to a particular project, programme or task.
Becomes the basis of a meaningful interaction with others; or
Is shared with others and contributes to their growth and development.
These are substantive, dynamic and productive aspects of knowledge. When knowledge
interacts with real-life situations, the results (successes or failures) are analysed and learning
internalised for guiding and planning future response or action. This is the birth of an
experience.
2.4.3 Skills and Competencies
Though the terms skills and competencies are often used interchangeably, it is possible
to make a distinction, no matter how subtle it is. In my view, competency is the ability to
make effective and efficient use of the skills possessed by an individual in carrying out a
task or initiating an action. Therefore, while one can describe skills in absolute terms, com-
petency has an element of evaluation, related to the manner in which the skills are put to
use and the outcomes. It also has some undercurrent of motivation. For instance, when a
person possessing the driving skills is able to drive efficiently through the traffic, she may be
assumed to have acquired the competency. Similarly, a person may possess communication
skills, but when it gets translated into a meaningful and productive dialogue with others,
it can be referred to as competency in communication. It must, however, be mentioned that
one cannot develop competency in any area unless she possesses basic and relevant skills in it.
Therefore, skills precede development of competencies in any particular area. One develops
competencies in a particular area through repeated practice of skills in that area. Therefore,
competency is more about acquiring ability for effective use of the skills. (However, for ease
of discussion and understanding of the readers, we will use the two words interchangeably
in this Handbook.)
A skill or competency is manifested in an action, whether in the performance of a job-
related task or in any other aspect of life. It guides an activity and results in a definite,
observable and tangible output. There is clear evidence of effort. Therefore, while knowledge
is shared through verbal or written communication, skills or competencies are located in the
mind (or hands) and perceived through action and accomplished tasks. If we say that an
individual has the necessary skill or competence to perform a task, we mean that she has the
ability to carry it out in an effective or efficient manner.
Here, it is necessary to make a distinction between physical (or technical) and mental
skills. Technical training emphasises development of physical skills. For instance, driving a
motor vehicle, operating a machine, making a table or conducting agricultural operations.
All these relate to the development of physical skills although in the performance of the task
a lot of thinking is invested. However, if an individual has the capability to plan a project or
construct an instrument for carrying out a survey, the skills could be referred to as mental
skills. A large number of management and planning skills are mental skills. Mental skills
entail the ability to analyse a situation or a problem and decide on an appropriate course of
action. It involves thinking, acting and carrying out a task or an activity.
In a training programme, skills or competencies are developed through exercise and practice.
The ways in which this is facilitated are left to the decision of the trainer, keeping in view
the nature of the assignment and the level of the participants. However, before a participant
is actually engaged in an activity through a project or an assignment, she should be made
familiar with the skills required for performing a particular task and how to use them. The
fundamentals of application should be established. This can be done through a discussion, a
demonstration or any other suitable method.
2.4.4 Knowledge of Skills and Competencies
There are situations in a training programme when either due to constraint of time or due
to some other compelling reason, it is not possible for you to include practical assignment or
projects in the programme. In such cases, you can familiarise the participants with the nature
and range of skills required for carrying out a particular task, through training methods
such as case study, in-basket exercises, business games, demonstration and discussion. The
objective is to make them ‘knowledgeable’ about the skills or competencies. Once they
have acquired the ‘knowledge of skills’, the participants may find suitable opportunities in
the field to practise and develop them. Although this may not be the most appropriate way
of developing skills in a participant, nevertheless, through this strategy, you can ensure that
the participants do not completely miss out on an important area of training. You must,
however, ensure that the programme objectives clearly specify what you plan to achieve in
this area during the training programme.
2.4.5 Attitudes and Values
Along with a repertoire of knowledge and competencies, the participants bring with them
a package of personal preferences, prejudices, attitudes and values. Each individual has a
unique way of perceiving and interpreting situations and communicating with people. Her
response to people, circumstances and problems is often guided and shaped by these
distinct attributes. Thus, attitudes guide a person to behave in certain ways in particular
situations.
These personal characteristics become relevant in a training situation mainly for two
reasons. Some of these values and attitudes might act as constraints in the effective perform-
ance of the job by an individual. They may, also, adversely affect her interpersonal relations
with colleagues and superiors in the organisation. Therefore, your task is to make a partici-
pant aware of her attitudes and values, and indicate how these are helping or impeding the
performance of her job or the achievement of personal goals. The programme may also
aim to foster new and more values and attitudes in an individual with a view to engender
appropriate behavioural changes.
The extent to which a training programme emphasises development of attitudes and values
depends on the nature and scope of training. Some ‘Personal Development Programmes’
may specifically aim to engender changes in the behaviour patterns and personal traits of
the participants through laboratory training and specially designed exercises. Training will
involve identifying desirable attitudes and values that contribute to the improvement of work
climate and the participants’ relationships with subordinates, colleagues and supervisors.
It also leads to personal growth. The participants can be assisted in assessing where they
are with respect to the desired attitudes and behaviour patterns through a process of self-
appraisal and self-analysis. As a trainer, it is your task to convince them of the relevance and
value of these desired changes in their job or personal life. You can then engage them in a
process that helps them to introduce these changes and integrate them in their personality.
The programmes that aim to develop knowledge and skills may have a comparatively
smaller element of behavioural changes, highlighting only those personal aspects that are
relevant to the participants’ work situation. It has been observed that even when no specific
activity is included in the programme to effect changes in attitudes and values of the partici-
pants, the process of interaction during the training programme and the opportunities it
presents to a participant to examine her personal attributes result in some behavioural modi-
fication. It is suggested that in long-term programmes, some elements of personal develop-
ment should be included to enhance self-awareness and increase interpersonal effectiveness.
The attitudes and values of a participant also influence her interaction or relationships
with other members of the training group and the trainers. These can affect her motivation
and participation in training activities. Therefore, a component on personal development in
a training programme is immensely helpful in promoting healthy relations within the group,
thus facilitating learning.
2.5 DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF ADULT LEARNERS
It is possible to identify some general attributes that are common to adult learners, although
you need to take into consideration individual differences. They may be present in the par-
ticipants of a training group in varying degrees, depending on the length and nature of their
job experience and other personal factors. These characteristics assume greater relevance
and significance in an in-service training because, expectedly, the participants are adults and
they come with some prior work and life experiences. You will be able to find out the extent
to which these attributes will influence your interaction with the group, the delivery of the
programme or the learning process only when you construct the profile of the group on the
basis of information provided to you by the nominating organisations. Based on these data,
you will be in a better position to develop an appropriate strategy for the delivery of the
training, ensuring better outcomes.
Some of key specific features are discussed in the following paragraphs.
2.5.1 Owners of Unique Personal Experience
Adults perceive themselves as owners of unique and rich experience and knowledge. They
have gone through varied circumstances in life and confronted complicated, difficult prob-
lems. They are well aware of the complexities of life, in professional or in social situations.
And, in most cases, they are keen to convey this message to others in the group and the train-
ers, explicitly or through their interactions with others. Therefore, the participants have a
desire (sometimes, even compulsive urge) to share these experiences with others in the group.
These experiences, however, can influence the programme in two contradictory ways. On
the one hand, they can become an important and a useful source of learning not only for
other members of the group but also for them, through a process of review, reflection and
collation. These participants will be constantly looking for opportunities to draw on their ex-
periences to enhance the learning process. On the other hand, some participants can become
obdurate and closed to the learning process, precisely because of these experiences. They
may get trapped in their experiences and become inflexible, less persuasive to new learning.
They may, in this way, miss the learning opportunities. This behaviour or attitude can also
undermine the progress of the training process itself.
Role of the Trainer

Your role, as a trainer, is to adopt a strategy or methodology that assists the group in
bringing into play these experiences. You must aim to use them as a basis for building
the learning process and advancing it further. If these experiences remain dormant
and are not brought out in the open, the group does not benefit. An important task
for you, therefore, is to facilitate the recall of those experiences that are relevant to the
programme, specifically the topics or the modules that are being covered in the session.
You must assist the participants, first, in unfolding and processing these experiences
and, then, in translating them into concrete and comprehensible concepts, principles,
working methods or statements. Provide opportunities to the participants to critically
examine their experiences in the light of new inputs provided by the trainers and the
experiences of the co-participants. You should encourage them to be more open and
receptive to new ideas and suggestions.
(For cross-reference see the section ‘Cycle of learning in a training programme’.)
2.5.2 Concerned with Short-term Application of Training
Generally, adult learners are willing to put in extra efforts in training activities when they per-
ceive that the acquired learning would bring them immediate benefits. They seek immediate
outcomes from this learning. They do not want to look beyond a certain point in time,
especially with regard to their job situation. They have less interest in the learning that
promises rewards and advantages in the longer term. This characteristic is more conspicuous
in those adult learners who have long years of experience and exposure to a variety of
situations behind them. As they are already engaged in certain pursuits of life, they want
that they should be able to make use of the learning acquired from the training in the tasks
that they are expected to perform as part of their job responsibilities or in life situations.
Role of the Trainer

You need to keep this in view while planning a programme. Work out an appropriate
strategy for its delivery, and accordingly prepare your own inputs and presentations.
You must, however, remember that no training can exclusively focus on short-term
application of the learning. A part of it may have long-term relevance for the work
of the participants. A lot depends on the nature of the programme and its objectives.
You should explain this position to the participants. Perhaps, the best option for you
is to indicate short-term as well as long-term application of training. This will clarify
some of their misgivings about the training. It is always helpful if the participants are
aware of the short- and long-term implications of the training to their work. Their
response to the training activities will be far more affirmative.
(For cross-reference see Chapters 4 and 5.)
2.5.3 Capable and Willing to Take Greater Responsibility

for Their Learning
Adults profit more from self-directed learning. They disapprove of any attempt by the train-
ers or anyone from outside to use arbitrary and overbearing methods to direct the learning
process. Adults do not learn because the trainers tell them to get engaged with the process,
but they are guided by their own needs and interests. They are willing to take responsibility
for their learning and less inclined to accept controls or directions. They want to have a
greater say in the manner in which the training activities are delivered and want to be active
partners in the learning process. They prefer an informal approach that provides them space
and opportunity to plan the course of their involvement in the training.
Role of the Trainer

To facilitate learning in adults, the relationship of adult learners with the trainer has
to be mutually respectful and supportive. As they are keen to get actively involved
in the organisation of training activities and delivery of the programme, you should
not only provide opportunities for their active participation but also encourage and
recognise it. If you appear to be directing them, some participants react aggressively
in words, action and behaviour. This creates disquiet and stress in the group, adversely
affecting the learning process. Your role is to provide an environment that encourages
and facilitates the process of inquiry, exploration and analysis. Right from the time
the programme commences, your effort should be aimed at establishing a two-way
communication with the participants.
2.5.4 Ability to Construct or Visualise Real-life Situations
It is relatively easy for adults to construct real-life situations as they have a long experience of
living in the real world. Even while sitting in a session and interacting with trainers and co-
participants, adult learners are in a position to revert to the situations they have confronted
in their lives with ease. For them, learning is not an abstract but a tangible phenomenon as
they are capable of relating their learning to what they already know and have experienced,
to the situations they are going through or are likely to encounter in their job or life.
Role of the Trainer

It is recommended that you develop training inputs around issues or problems that
are rooted in ground realities related to the lives of the participants. Take special care
to include examples that are realistic and relevant in your presentation. All training
activities and the training methods you use should also reflect this specific attribute of
adult learners. For instance, training methods, such as case study, role-play and the use
of audio-visual materials, should focus on real-life events and situations. This brings
training closer to the participants’ life and job experiences and helps you in establishing
a link between theory and practice. The participants remain in constant contact with
ground realities and this promotes their meaningful and productive participation in
training activities. Sharing sessions acquire greater substance and value.
2.5.5 Have a Well-defined Self-image
In view of their background and experience, adults generally have a well-defined self-image.
They are aware of their capabilities and achievements. This can be helpful for the learning
process as the participants are aware of what they know and what they do not know. Self-
awareness enhances self-esteem and self-effectiveness, promoting purposeful participation.
However, there is another dimension of this trait. If this self-image is built on an unrealistic
appraisal of personal abilities and competence, it can create a problem of attitude. Some
participants carry their organisational position or status to the programme and expect
other members of the group and the trainers to acknowledge it. They consider themselves
more than equal to the task at hand. In such cases, they may find it difficult to establish a
harmonious relationship with other members of the group and the trainers. This also in-
hibits their participation in training activities.
Role of the Trainer

Right in the initial stage of the programme, you should make an assessment whether
your training group has participants who carry an unrealistically high self-image. If
so, prepare your strategy to counter their behaviour, actions and attitude. Do not get
intimidated by them. It will be helpful if the ground rules are established in a way
that dissuades these participants from behaving in a manner that is detrimental to
the programme. From time to time, you should also make statements that reinforce
your resolve to treat all participants equally, regardless of their position in their
organisations. This will not only deter them from following their own design but also
give confidence to others who may feel subdued in the presence of these participants.
On the other hand, you must also extend support and assistance to those who are low
on self-esteem and are not unwilling to participate more actively.
2.6 LEARNING PROCESS—UNIQUENESS TO AN INDIVIDUAL
2.6.1 Learning Is an Individual Process
Learning is a highly individual and unique process. The participation of an individual in

the learning process is stimulated by intrinsic motivation and nurtured by an environment
that encourages her to explore and discover the meaning of training in work-related re-
sponsibilities and other aspects of life. Each participant responds in her own distinct way to
the same stimulus and environment in accordance with her own ability to comprehend and
internalise the learning that the programme promotes and offers to the participants.
2.6.2 Decision to Learn Lies with the Participant
The process of learning is controlled by the participant and not by the trainers. People do
not learn or change their behaviour—professional or personal—merely because they are
asked to do so. They take action to bring about the desired changes only when they recognise
the value and importance of these changes to them. Their motivation can get reinforced if
someone guides them on the right path to these changes. However, they will bring about
these changes in the manner that suits them and on their own terms. Therefore, the decision
to learn lies fully with the participant. She has to be a willing learner. The role of a trainer is
limited to providing opportunities for learning through a variety of activities and interactive
process, creating a learning environment that is conducive to learning, removing mental
blocks and extending support and help to the participants, whenever they are in need of it.
2.6.3 Selectivity in Learning
This may be considered as an extension of the aforesaid principle. A participant accepts or

rejects particular learning in accordance with her training needs, interests and perceptions.
There is, therefore, an element of selectivity in learning. She must be able to recognise and
appreciate the worth of the learning in the context of her work or personal life. She is likely
to learn the most from training activities that she perceives as relevant, useful and stimu-
lating. Thus, it is quite conceivable that all participants will not get involved in a uniformly
comparable manner in all training-related action in a programme or learn to a similar degree
from a particular training activity. Therefore, you should not get unduly concerned if you
find that a few participants do not take interest or get involved in a training activity in the
same way as others do. In the final analysis, it is the participant who decides which learning
package she wishes to take home and what behavioural patterns she wants to adopt.
2.6.4 Pace of Learning
There are two aspects of this distinctive feature of the learning process. A participant does
not learn at an even pace throughout the programme. There are highs and lows (peaks
and valleys) in individual learning, depending on personal and environmental factors at
a given point in time. It is likely that while in one situation, a participant finds it diffi-
cult to comprehend and internalise learning, in another training activity, she does it with
relative ease.
(For cross-reference of this section see one on ‘Factors influencing the learning process’ later in
this chapter.)
2.7 PARTICIPANTS’ LEARNING STYLES
From the discussion in the earlier paragraphs, it is evident that all participants do not learn
in the same way. They have different learning tendencies and preferences and, as a result,
their response to different learning stimuli also varies. Every participant has a distinct way
of gathering, absorbing, processing and internalising learning. This, essentially, constitutes
a participant’s learning style. However, the learning style of a participant is not always
explicit or expressed clearly; nor is it consistent throughout the programme. She is amenable
to modifying it in light of the situations that she confronts during training, the learning
opportunities available and the training activities.
It must, however, be emphasised that a participant’s learning style is not necessarily a
measure of her intellect and learning abilities. It only suggests a preference for the manner
in which she wants to learn, if she is presented with a range of opportunities and has the
option. It also implies that learning is boosted if the stimulus is in keeping with the learn-
ing preference of the participant. Without going into a detailed discussion on the genesis
of learning styles, it would be worthwhile to indicate that, in most cases, these tendencies
may be traced to the upbringing of an individual, her personality traits, cultural factors in-
fluencing her or earlier learning experiences.
In the context of a training programme, learning styles of the participants can be discussed
on the basis of four major aspects. These are:
Preference for specific type of training activities.

Willingness to put in extra efforts for learning.
Degree of dependence on the trainer.
Level of interpersonal competencies.
2.7.1 Preference for Specific Type of Training Activities
During a training programme, the trainers organise a number of activities to advance the
process of learning. The expected mode of participation by the participants differs accord-
ing to the nature of activities as also the learning outcomes. In some, the participants are
simply required to listen to presentations made by the trainers, some aim to facilitate and
encourage interchange of experiences and views and some others are designed to engage
them in action and stimulate participation. These activities may be organised at the training
venue or in other settings. In addition to this, group or individual assignments are also an
important component of the training.
The extent and the nature of participation in a particular training activity depend on the
way in which a participant understands and perceives the dynamics of a training activity and
its value to her learning. This provides the necessary motivation for her participation. It must,
however, be understood that all activities do not excite and stimulate all the participants in
the same way or measure. Some participate in a specific training activity with considerable
enthusiasm and motivation, while others may not find it as interesting and enlivening. You
would have noticed that a participant who, the other day, appeared to be disinterested in
discussion on a case study suddenly changes gear and participates with a lot more zeal and
fervour in project work, or vice versa. This reflects her preference for a particular training
activity in pursuit of her learning objectives. It does not, however, mean that this preference
inhibits her active participation in other activities though the degree may differ. Often,
the choice of the participant is not limited to one activity. The following discussion would
be helpful in understanding the learning styles of the participants in the context of training
activities.
Some participants feel more involved when they are engaged in practical work—
in action-oriented tasks. Activities that take them out of the classroom environ-
ment stimulate them. Even a role play provides them an opportunity for action and
physical movement. These activities enhance their learning.
On the other hand, there are some who demonstrate a marked preference for inter-
action at the cognitive level and respond with a lot of vigour and enthusiasm when
their mental faculties are actively engaged. They are usually at their creative and
productive best when a training activity gives them an opportunity to conceptualise,

analyse issues or develop arguments. This interaction at the cognitive level can have
several variations. Some participants enjoy communicating with other members of
the group and enjoy an opportunity to share and exchange views and experiences
with them. This approach provides considerable scope for cross-fertilisation of ideas
and for examining one’s own concepts and principles. Some others have a penchant
for visuals—pictures, posters, charts and films—and colourful presentations. They
are capable of constructing real-life situations through visuals and get enthused and
inspired by them. Still some others prefer reading materials, notes and written briefs.
Some participants consider group activities as a major source of learning. They
choose group activities over those that require them to work on their own. For
them, participation in a group situation minimises risk, reduces threat perception
and provides an appropriate learning environment. The presence of people inspires
them, provides stimulant and spurs them to give their best. They may be convinced
that this situation offers them a better prospect for optimising learning.
On the other hand, some participants are more comfortable when they work on
individual assignments or projects, or get an opportunity to learn on their own.
They feel that by working on individual assignments, they have the freedom and
scope to explore and learn in their unique way and at their own pace. There are no
pressures on them. They feel that they are in control of the learning process. They
are willing to invest a lot more than others but on their own conditions and in the
way that they consider consistent with their abilities and personal preferences. They
have considerable faith in their capabilities. For them, the presence of other partici-
pants during a training activity is a source of distraction and inhibits action and
initiative. Some believe that participation in a group activity involves risk and can
even pose a threat to their efforts. It can place them in a situation of competition
that they may not like.
2.7.2 Willingness to Put in Extra Efforts for Learning
The learning style can also be determined on the basis of the extent of efforts a participant
is willing to make for her learning. This style, therefore, is directly related to intrinsic desire
of an individual to learn in order to advance the process of growth and development and a
realistic assessment of her abilities in order to put in the necessary efforts for achieving her
objective.
Some participants are ‘dynamic learners’. They are willing to invest a lot to make full
use of the learning possibilities. In fact, they explore and even create opportunities for
learning. They do not hesitate to venture into hitherto uncharted areas or course of
action and are not averse to taking risks if they are convinced that their efforts could
lead them to their learning objectives. And here we are not talking of those who
are demonstrative in their actions and participation because of a desire to dominate
the group, draw attention or make their presence felt. They have their personal
hidden agenda though they may not be explicit or expressive in their efforts. On
the other hand, dynamic learners are sincere in their endeavour, are inclined to take
greater control of their own learning process without aiming to dominate the group
and want more freedom of action in the training activities without impeding the
participation of others. Sometimes, they may be inclined to set rather ambitious
learning objectives or agenda for themselves. Nevertheless, they are zealous about
achieving them.
On the other hand, some participants can be regarded as ‘compliant learners’. They
set limited parameters for their efforts and follow well-established procedures for
pursuing their learning objectives. Often, they are not too concerned about their
professional or personal growth and, therefore, aim for modest learning objectives.
They are unwilling to take undue risks and not ready to put in extra work. They are
reluctant to endeavour beyond these limits or take an unfamiliar course of action as
they seek assured learning outcomes. They are not proactive. They are willing to let
others, including the trainer, take greater control of the learning process and are less
obtrusive.
2.7.3 Degree of Dependence on the Trainer
The degree to which a participant is dependent on the trainer for her learning needs can
also be a determinant of a particular learning style. The reasons can be varied. In certain kinds
of socio-cultural environment, it is always the elders or the seniors in a family or a group
who guide the young, resulting in curbing of their initiative. The young, therefore, adhere
to a culture of dependency. Such participants may be too sluggish and not feel impelled to
make any serious effort to engage actively in the process of their learning. They would rather
leave it to the trainers to assist them in this task. They follow the trainer’s instructions or
guidelines and are reluctant to take charge of the endeavour to realise their objectives.
2.7.4 Level of Interpersonal Competencies
Learning style of a participant is also considerably influenced by the interpersonal compe-

tencies of a participant. These are manifested during a training programme in the manner in
which she expresses herself—verbally or through other means—and her ability to establish
and nurture functional relationship with the trainers and co-participants during the pro-
gramme. Every individual has a ‘comfort zone’ of communication and bonding with others.
Similarly, a participant also defines her comfort zone with respect to the trainers and other
members of the training group. This will be reflected in her communication with others and
her actions during the programme, including her participation in different training activities
and the level of confidence. She may demonstrate some constraints or mental blocks in her
interaction with the trainers and co-participants, and her involvement in training-related
activities. Thus, these factors will impact her learning style.
Role of the Trainer

(Participants’ Learning Styles)
As a trainer, you should recognise these differences in the learning styles of the par-
ticipants. You may have your own preferred learning style but it will not be realistic to
expect the participants to have similar styles. Remember that you should not appraise
a participant’s capabilities on the basis of her learning style.
In order to evolve a more realistic and practical approach to training, it is necessary
for you to have a general understanding of the learning styles of the training group.
You must examine the implications of the participants’ learning styles in the context of
the learning process, the training activities that you propose to organise as part of the
programme and your own presentations. You should attempt to put together a broad
picture of the likely learning styles of the group from the data available on the group. In
situations where it is not possible to gather adequate information on the participants’
learning styles, you will have to rely on your previous experience. However, you must
keep your eyes and ears open to pick up clues from the participants during the initial
activities of the programme. As the process moves forward, you will find enough
pointers that will be helpful to you for modifying the approach and making it more
responsive to the participants’ learning styles.
An important part of your training strategy is to use a wide range of training methods
and techniques, of course, relevant to the learning objectives. This ensures that every
participant is in a position to benefit from learning opportunities provided through
varied training activities, in accordance with her learning style. It is an important
challenge for you to ensure that the participants do not only learn from the training
activities that are consistent with their preferred learning styles but are willing to put
in an extra effort to learn from one another as well.
Some specific actions in this context are suggested as follows:
In using a variety of training methods and techniques, you must ensure that consist-
ency of the learning process and momentum of the programme are maintained.
You must constantly emphasise the need for active participation in all activities
regardless of their preferred learning options. Encourage and support those who
are willing to take up the challenge and enhance their participation in all training
activities. Assist them in moving out of their predetermined parameters or ‘comfort
zone’ to explore and experiment. Enhance their risk-taking abilities and ensure that
the threat perception is reduced. While doing this, continue to provide appropriate
learning environment. This will help the participants widen the scope of their
learning abilities, thus forwarding their learning.
Underscore the value of sharing and learning from the group while emphasising
the importance of individual learning. It will also be helpful if you are able to dem-
onstrate a relationship between cognitive learning and practical aspects of the work
of the participants.
To the extent possible, ensure that the dependency of the participants on you is kept
to the minimum so that they have full opportunity to demonstrate their initiative
and ability to take independent action.
2.8 FOUR WAYS IN WHICH PARTICIPANTS LEARN
Let us now examine different ways in which a participant learns in a training programme.
The discussion will facilitate our understanding of the learning process from the participants’
standpoint. Broadly, it is possible to discern four such ways. They are:
Affirmation or endorsement of existing learning.

Building on present level of learning and competencies.
Development of new knowledge and competencies.
Learning after going through a process of de-learning or unlearning.
This differentiation is, in a way, arbitrary. The scope of each of these modes is not restrict-
ive and depends on the individuals or the situations. In any given situation, it is quite con-
ceivable that learning accrues to a participant from a particular training activity in more
than one of the above-mentioned ways. For instance, part of the learning could be in the form
of affirmation of existent knowledge and competencies of a participant, but, at the same
time, some of it could also be new learning for her. Learning flowing from a training activity
could also have varied meaning and value for different participants. For one participant it
may only build on her existing repertoire of knowledge and competencies, but for another,
it could mean getting introduced to a new area of learning. This diverse phenomenon is
observable more in groups that are heterogeneous in terms of participants’ experience and
competencies. In homogeneous groups, the situation could be substantially different. For
example, for the participants of an orientation programme, most of the learning could be
new across the group as the participants prepare for their forthcoming job or assignment. If
at all, there will be insignificant differences.
It is also possible that in the initial stages of the training, training activities may not offer
anything new to the participants by way of learning but as it progresses, most of the par-
ticipants may find that they are entering new and hitherto unexplored areas of learning.
It depends on the topics and issues you have included in the training, its schedule and the
meaning and relevance a training activity has for a participant.
In order to make full use of every learning opportunity, a participant must be aware of
her existing level of knowledge and competencies and be clear of her learning objectives.
In other words, she should know what she knows and what she does not know. In a training
programme, this assessment, of course, has to be restricted to the areas likely to be covered
by it. Further, it is immensely helpful if a participant is aware of the nature of experiences
and knowledge other members of the group possess. This assists her in locating the right
sources of learning, appropriate to her learning needs.
2.8.1 Affirmation or Endorsement of Existing Learning
When a participant shares her experience and ideas in training, either within the group or
in interaction with the trainer, she may find that there are others in the group who sub-
scribe to her ideas, appreciate and endorse her actions or agree with her point of view.
This endorsement reinforces her learning, is reassuring and gives her confidence. With most
of us it is a natural urge to seek approval and recognition for our actions, behaviour and
viewpoints of those with whom we interact on a professional or personal basis. How other
members of the training group regard and value her ideas and actions has a lot of mean-
ing and significance for a participant. Affirmation and positive response act as a strong
motivating influence for more active participation in training activities. This also helps in
building strong bonds within the group.
2.8.2 Building on Present Level of Learning and Competencies
In a training programme, learning can also mean assisting a participant in enhancing her
existing competencies to a level that will enable her to deal more competently with work
and life situations. There is an implicit acknowledgement that the participant possesses the
basic competencies and knowledge—appropriate to the theme and the training areas—and
what is required is their updating in the context of the perceived job or life requirements
of the participant. This learning could also involve suggesting more effective methods of
using the existing competencies to produce optimum results. These efforts would result in
providing a sounder base for achieving greater efficiency in the job.
2.8.3 Development of New Knowledge and Competencies
Another way in which a participant learns is when she acquires competencies that she either
did not possess at the time of commencement of training or had, at best, a very general
understanding of them. In such cases, the training aims to widen the range and scope of
her competencies or provide new knowledge to enable her to become more efficient and
productive.
2.8.4 Learning after Going through a Process of De-learning
In certain situations in a training programme, de-learning (or unlearning) precedes new

learning. It is, however, often not easy for an individual to discard existent ideas or familiar
ways of doing things and adopt new ideas, methods of working or patterns of behaviour.
An individual can get so used to her ideas or particular ways of doing things that when
she is challenged, the first reaction is to defend her position or viewpoints and reject those
of others. She tends to resist learning that involves changes in self-organisation, actions
and ideas, hitherto considered appropriate and workable by her. Yet as part of learning,
it is often necessary to change old and, perhaps, ‘comfortable’ ways of working, behaving
and thinking. For many of us, change, anyway, is a painful, and, often, an unwelcome and
threatening process. A participant’s decision to change old ways, however, depends on the
meaning and value that a participant ascribes to the views and suggestions of others. The
source from where the persuasion for change comes and the manner in which it is put to
an individual are also prime considerations for her before she takes the decision to bring
about the desired changes. In the learning process, perception of threat is minimised when
the participants are given greater control and responsibility for their learning. In such cases,
she is likely to be more open and willing to change.
2.9 METHODS OF LEARNING IN A TRAINING PROGRAMME
In a training programme, trainers are not the only source of learning for the participants.
In fact, it is not good for its success if the participants depend largely on the inputs by the
trainers. Learning can become lopsided and even uneventful. This may also preclude the
possibility of using all available sources and avenues for learning. You have, therefore, a
responsibility to promote the use of other learning methods, described in the following
paragraphs, and prepare the participants accordingly. You should promote interaction
among the participants through suitable training activities and encourage them to be alert
and observant to prepare them for taking full advantage of every opportunity that comes
their way for learning. You must also recognise that learning is not limited to the classroom,
sessions or training activities. It goes beyond these settings. You must, therefore, ensure that
the general environment in the programme contributes to the learning of the participants.
Five key methods of learning can be identified. These are:
Direct inputs by the trainers.

Learning through sharing within the training group.
Learning through practice and exercise.
Formal or informal methods of observation.
Out-of-session exchanges with participants and trainers.
2.9.1 Direct Inputs by the Trainers
In a training programme, a key function of the trainer is to provide suitable and quality
inputs in the areas covered by the schedule. As indicated in Chapter 8, a trainer is also
a subject matter specialist in areas or topics for which she is specifically responsible. A
trainer is expected to be mentally and professionally prepared to organise training activities,
appropriate to the topics or modules, and make useful contribution. Inputs by the trainers
can take any of the following forms:
Lectures or presentations.
Interventions during discussions to present varied dimensions of the issues under
discussion or a different point of view.
Opening remarks when introducing a new topic, module or training activity.
Interventions during the conduct of training activities, extending guidance and sup-
port. She may even indicate learning.
Debriefing at the end of a training activity or method (for example, after role play
or a field trip).
Responding to questions of the participants; clarifying or elaborating on points
raised by the group.
Summarizing comments or concluding remarks.
Informal, out-of-session discussions or conversations.
A trainer also acts as a role model for the participants. They learn a lot not only from
her training style but also from the manner in which she conducts herself in and out
of sessions.
The training team also provides inputs through documents and printed materials, distri-
buted either in advance of the session or after its conclusion. These could be summaries of the
inputs, learning outcomes from a session or a module, or specific learning packages.
The inputs by the trainers would generally focus on the following:
Elaborating various theories, concepts and principles connected with the topics or
related issues.
Presenting ideas and viewpoints on different issues that come up for discussion.
Highlighting issues and analysing problems to promote discussion in the group.
Bringing out learning outcomes from training activities.
Providing information on any aspect of the theme of the programme.
Giving guidelines for effective functioning of the training group or proper organ-
isation of training activities.
2.9.2 Learning through Sharing Within the Training Group
In any training programme, especially in in-service programmes, the training group is a

powerful and rich source of learning. The wide variety of experiences and knowledge that the
participants bring with them provide a sound basis for the promotion of the learning process.
Group-based training activities are most productive when the objective is to (a) develop
mental skills; (b) facilitate an exchange of views and ideas on specific topics and issues;
(c) help in the critical appraisal of theories and concepts; (d) bring out varied dimensions
of a topic; or (e) analyse different approaches adopted by the participants in carrying out
work-related tasks. Proper guidance and monitoring is required for all group-related training
activities and events. The extent to which this key learning resource is productive and useful
depends a lot on the ability of the trainer in handling the activity, preparing the participants
for the training activity, managing the group processes and facilitating the discussion. She
must know when to provide greater control to the group on the learning process and when
to intervene and how. Therefore, the role of the trainer is crucial.
The following factors promote sharing in a training group. The trainer, therefore, must
ensure that all these factors play a positive and productive role through guidance and
support:
Adequate preparations of the group for active participation in the training activity.
Clarity on the objectives and scope of sharing. This enables the participants to be
specific and focus only on relevant experiences.
Willingness on the part of the participants to share their experiences and views
without fear of adverse reactions, rejection or repudiation, that is, the environment
is conducive for free and open sharing.
Their ability to recall and bring forward experiences that are relevant to a particular
topic or activity.
The ability to translate their experiences into concepts, principles and approaches
which can be aptly put across to others in the group and understood by them.
Communication skills of the participants.
(For cross-reference and further details see Chapters 4 and 6.)
2.9.3 Learning through Practice and Exercise
Another key method of learning is through individual or group practical assignments—by

doing things. These are not simulated exercises but involve actual work—a physical activity.
Participants are given specific tasks or projects to be completed within an allotted time. The
training team may organise special projects or activities for individual participant or smaller
groups at the training venue itself, send them to other agencies for specific assignment or
project or short-term placements, or even to the communities or field. For instance, carrying
out a field survey, sales promotion exercise, and working on machines and other mechanical
gadgets. The main objective is to develop physical or mental skills of the participant or to
familiarise them with actual working conditions, through direct exposure. If it is a writing
assignment, a participant may require perusal of materials, researching and consulting
others in preparing the assignment. This helps in broadening the base of knowledge. There
are also exercises and activities for enhancing self-awareness and increasing interpersonal
effectiveness.
2.9.4 Formal and Informal Methods of Observation
It is not correct to assume that a participant learns only through direct participation in a train-
ing activity or through verbal exchanges. Trainers the world over consider observation as a
key method of learning. Observation, as a method of learning, does not mean a superficial
or casual glance at an activity or event. It goes beyond what is perceived by the naked eye.
It is through intent and design that observation becomes a productive and useful exercise.
There are some who are adept at observing, drawing conclusions and deriving learning out-
comes from an activity. However, others who are not so proficient in observation skills
can get better results if the exercise is structured and planned well in advance of a training
activity. The process involves observing how a person performs an activity or carries out a
task, assessing the nature of investment and effort, monitoring the progress of the activity and
evaluating the outcomes. It helps in picking out key learning points. For instance, in training
for trainers, the participants can learn a lot by observing the trainers make presentations or
conduct training activities.
2.9.5 Out-of-session Exchanges with Participants and Trainers
An important aspect of participation in a training programme is the opportunity it pro-

vides for informal, out-of-session interaction and contacts with other members of the group
and the training team. This is particularly true about residential ones. These interactions are
an important source of learning not only in training areas but in personal development as
well. Regardless of the nature of relationship and its underlying purpose, these encounters
can be enriching, leading to growth and learning. Generally, the participants are keen to
establish relationships with those with similar background, interests or experience. But some
in the group seek to establish contacts with those who are more knowledgeable or possess
richer and more varied experience. They consider this as a unique opportunity to widen their
horizons. They regard these interactions as an extension of the learning process, beyond
the classroom. In my encounters with training groups, I have seen some participants plan
even these informal sessions. This is a useful and productive leisure-time activity for some
participants and the training team should support and encourage it.
2.10 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE LEARNING PROCESS
The course that the learning process takes, and the pace at which it progresses, depends
considerably on the response training evokes in the participants, and their general attitude
towards the programme. If you have a highly motivated group that is assured of its value and
relevance, small problems or aberrations in the delivery of the programme are overlooked.
On the other hand, if you have a group that lacks interest and purpose, even minor problems
or inadequacies get exaggerated and become grievances or issues of argument and discord.
Such situations have adverse consequences for the learning. It is, therefore, important that
you should be sensitive to the training environment, monitor it properly, identify factors
that influence the training process and take necessary steps to ensure its smooth conduct.
Your task as a trainer lies in strengthening factors that assist the process of learning and
mitigating the impact of those that undermine it.
In almost every programme, there are some participants who do not have a clear per-
ception of the meaning and relevance of a training activity in the context of their training
needs. They are not sure of the direction they should take in the training activity. Sometimes,
they appear to be confused and clueless. This affects their motivation and inhibits their
participation in training activities. There are myriad reasons for this. Here, therefore, is a
crucial task for a trainer. Through an informal conversation with these participants, you can
find out what lies behind their apparent behaviour and attitude towards the programme,
the training group or the trainers. This helps not only the participants but the programme
as well.
Learning can be influenced both by personal (directly related to the participant) as well
as environmental (associated with the training environment) factors. These are, however,
not necessarily exclusive categories. There could be considerable interplay between them.
You must also note that all factors may not operate at the same time, or with all partici-
pants in same measure. A participant formulates her views about the programme on the
basis of her own perceptions and assessment of it, as a whole, or a particular training activity.
Some factors remain active through the duration, while some others become relevant only
under specific circumstances or in relation to a particular situation at a given point in time.
Also, some factors influence the learning process independently while others may work in
concert. It is also possible that one factor may influence a participant at a given time, but on
other occasions, some other factors could shape her response and behaviour.
2.10.1 Personal Factors
Desire for Personal Growth and Development
Some participants have an intense urge for personal growth and development and consider
the training programme as a means to realise this objective. They are desirous of widening
the horizons of their knowledge and enhancing their competencies. These serve as the
motivating factors. They look beyond immediate benefits accruing from the training. They
are not inhibited in their pursuit by extraneous factors that are likely to influence them in
a negative way. The working environment in their organisations also does not affect their
motivation. They do not wait for the learning opportunities to come their way but look
for them. They are also willing to invest a lot to get the desired results. These participants
generally have a high degree of commitment to the programme and a positive attitude
towards their co-participants and the trainers.
Role of the Trainer

This group is important for you in the delivery of the programme. It can be of
immense help to you in promoting the learning process. These participants can be
used as catalysts or pacesetters for training activities. You, should, therefore, identify
them and provide necessary support and encouragement to them. You must, however,
ensure that they do not dominate the larger group, inhibiting others from active
participation. You should also not be perceived by other participants to be leaning
more to this group. This can defeat your objective.
Incentives or Benefits for Learning
Some participants expect specific pay-offs or benefits—in the form of increments, promotions,
recognition, awards or improvements in their career prospects—from their partici-
pation in the training programme. Some business concerns and governmental and non-
governmental organisations have a policy of giving increments, higher grades or promotions
to those who undergo specialised in-service training in their respective areas or fields.
Knowledge of these incentives enhances participation of these participants. Some partici-
pants take special interest in the training if it is accredited to a prestigious institution, leads to
the award of a diploma or a certificate or promises some form of formal recognition of their
participation. The reputation of a training agency or the high professional credentials of the
trainers is an important factor in generating interest in some participants.
Role of the Trainer

You, as a trainer, should take note of these motivating influences. If you find that these
incentives are missing from the programme or this factor is not relevant in the case of
a majority of the participants, you should emphasise its other interesting features that
the participants may find attractive and interesting. Highlight these as important pay-
offs that will have the potential of motivating and stimulating the participants.
Consistency between Personal Learning Objectives and Programme Objectives
You may create a very persuasive environment for learning but if the participants are not
convinced of the meaning and usefulness of the training to them, their participation lacks
enthusiasm or commitment. Those who are aware of their training needs and are able to
translate them into specific learning objectives are in a good position to assess whether their
objectives are reflected in the overall programme objectives or are being met through the
training activities. If it is affirmed, they are likely to take more interest in them. This con-
sistency enhances their commitment. They are prepared to put in extra time and efforts. Do
not forget that the bottom line is that the participants decide whether to get actively involved
in the training process or not.
Role of the Trainer

Your task is to help the participants set out their learning objectives right at the begin-
ning of the programme. Remember that it is quite conceivable that some participants
may not be in a position to perceive their training needs and, therefore, find it difficult
to set out their learning objectives. They may need your help. While presenting the
agenda to the group, you should make an attempt to broadly identify the participants’
training needs and explain to what extent these are reflected in the programme ob-
jectives and its contents. This will be very reassuring for the participants and they will
be in a better position to set out their learning objectives. It will also be helpful to the
group if you remind it periodically about the degree of accord between their learning
objectives and the programme objectives, especially when you are taking up a new
topic, organising a training activity or making your presentation. You will keep the
group constantly with you and this acts as a strong motivating factor.
Self-image and Level of Self-esteem
Self-belief and confidence of the participants are an asset for the trainers. However, as indi-
cated earlier, if some participants possess an unrealistically high level of self-esteem and
demonstrate a larger than life self-image, there could be problems in the group. In a hetero-
geneous training group, participants come from diverse backgrounds and with varied
experience. They may have widely differing status and position in their respective organisa-
tions. Participants with senior positions in their organisations or those who have vast experi-
ence in a particular field may use every opportunity to assert their position and importance.
They may feel that their exalted background qualifies them to assume leadership of the
group, dominate the proceedings of the programme and frequently challenge the trainers
and other participants. For some of them, the training is of secondary interest. Some may
even feel that they do not need training. These attitudes can influence other participants as
well and it might lead to unfavourable fallout for the programme.
The level of self-esteem of the participants also affects learning. If participants are low
on self-esteem, they may be reluctant to participate. They suffer from a sense of inadequacy
and incompetence and are convinced that they have nothing substantial to offer to the group.
They may even harbour imaginary and unsubstantiated fears and apprehensions about the
programme, the participants or the trainers. These participants are vulnerable to those who
manipulate the group to realise their own agenda.
Role of the Trainer

You can set proper climate by asserting, right at the beginning of the proceedings, that
status and position of members of the group are of no consequence to the training
team. You must assure the participants that all will be treated on par. Once this mes-
sage gets across to them, the potential troublemakers may be persuaded to exercise
self-restraint. You should also assist the group in formulating ground rules to
effectively curb such tendencies. Emphasise the responsibility of the group to ensure
that all members are enabled to participate in training activities, regardless of their
background and status. You should also be prepared to extend support to those
with low esteem and help them overcome their inhibitions and apprehensions. If the
situation demands, work individually or with smaller groups of these participants to
remove self-restraining influences and mental blocks.
Situation in the Organisation
As the learning process progresses, every participant starts reflecting on the use and appli-
cation of acquired learning in back-home situation. If the environment in the organisation
is not staff-friendly, and a participant foresees no real possibility of utilising the learning in
work situations, she can become indifferent to the training process. A participant can over-
come this inhibiting factor if there are other strongly motivating or helpful factors for sus-
taining her interest and encouraging her participation. Otherwise, her participation remains
low. On the other hand, if a participant is confident of getting appropriate opportunities and
support from immediate superiors for implementing the training she has received, she will
participate in training activities with greater vigour and enthusiasm.
Role of the Trainer

As a trainer, you should be aware of the extent of this concern among members of
your training group. You may consider including it among the issues that you would
like to address in the initial stage of the programme. Have a free and frank discussion
with the group and make the participants familiar with the general scenario in the
organisations with regard to the application of training to the field. Do not present
either an unrealistically optimistic or a discouragingly dark picture. They should be
aware of the likely impediments that await them. It will be helpful if you present some
guidelines to overcome these difficulties. This approach will help remove a number
of their misgivings and concerns. If this discussion is held over for the last stage
of the programme, its usefulness will be minimal. As indicated in a later chapter, the
training agency should also have a proper contract with the sponsoring organisations
that emphasises their responsibility to ensure that the benefits of the training are not
frittered away and proper use is made of the learning in improving the performance of
a participant and enhancing organisational effectiveness.
Reason and Manner of Nomination
The reason behind nomination of a participant and the manner in which it is made has
considerable bearing on her motivation. The mandate of her superiors, their expectations
and the extent of her accountability are key elements for creating interest in the programme.
When the training agency invites nominations for the programme, the criteria for selection
are also set out. However, there are a number of situations when an organisation nominates
participants on the basis of arbitrary criteria or considerations that could be quite different
from those suggested by the agency. Sometimes, an organisation has its compulsions for
not being able to send the most suitable participants and could end up nominating those
who should not be there. There are occasions when unwilling participants are nominated
to attend a programme. It is not difficult to estimate the kind of problems trainers might
encounter.
To illustrate this point further, some interesting cases of inappropriate nomination are
presented as follows. Many trainers will confirm similar experiences.
A participant was sponsored by a reputed national organisation to attend train-

ing in another country as a reward for her good work. As all expenses were paid
by the training agency, it was an attractive offer for the organisation. Her lack of
interest in the programme drew the attention of the trainers and during the follow-
ing discussion the real reason for her indifferent attitude to the programme was
brought to light.
A participant was nominated by a national government to a long-term programme
organised by a specialised international agency with the mandate to evaluate the
training programme to help the government decide whether it could send its offi-
cials for training in future. Obviously, the participant had an overbearing attitude.
He did not consider himself to be a part of the group. He was insolent and was
reluctant to participate in training activities. To make matters worse for the trainers,
he made no secret of his ‘mission’ and other participants soon knew about it.
A government official was nominated to attend a programme to facilitate his trans-
fer to some other department. His superiors wanted to transfer him from the present
department as he was a liability but he thwarted their earlier attempts by using his
political connections. The superiors thought that if he was away to another country
for the programme, he would not be in a position to pull the strings in time. He
was actually transferred during the programme and informed of it only after his
successor had taken charge of the post.
The communication from the training agency inviting nominations was circu-
lated to appropriate persons, asking them to indicate whether they were willing to
attend the programme. As the venue and the package were not attractive, no one
was keen to attend. The organisation felt that the allotted seats had to be filled and,
therefore, the senior executive issued an office order nominating some participants.
The result was that those who attended were unwilling participants.
Role of the Trainer

Your responsibility as a trainer is to ensure that the organisations nominate only those
participants who ‘should be there’. However, once the group has arrived, your options
are limited. You have the responsibility to see that all participants are fully aware of
their role and responsibilities in the context of the programme. If you identify some
participants who appear to be disinterested, make an attempt to find out the reasons.
If it is improper nomination, discuss the situation with the concerned participant. You
may argue that as she is there it will be advisable to make the best of the opportunity
presented to her for personal growth and learning. You should also remind her of the
contractual agreement for participation in the programme.
Previous Training Experiences of the Participants
A participant’s past encounters with similar programmes also influence her motivation
and become a factor in determining her attitude to the programme or the training team. If
her earlier experience has been rewarding and productive, she starts with a lot of enthusi-
asm and vigour and looks forward to this new experience. On the other hand, if the previous
experience has been frustrating and nothing worth talking about, the participant’s inter-
est will be far less. She will approach the training with circumspection. In the case of some,
this frustration may even result in lack of faith in the training process itself. It is, however,
possible that more discerning participants may put these unhappy experiences aside and
regard the current experience as a new one, worth investing their time and effort.
Role of the Trainer

It will be helpful if you have relevant data or information on participant’s previous
training experience. You may wish to supplement this information through some
informal interaction with the participants. The objective should be to get a broad picture
of earlier training experiences of the participants. Also, during your initial comments
to the participants, remember to emphasise that every experience is different and they
should be open and willing to make an unbiased assessment of the programme they
have come to attend. You may also want to give them polite reminders on these lines
later, if you feel there is need.
Participants’ Learning Styles and Skills
As indicated earlier, learning is a highly individual and personal phenomenon. It is, there-
fore, important that an individual should have the necessary capability to translate experi-
ences and interactions during the programme into concrete learning points. She should
have the ability to understand the substance of the training activities, select those points
that are in accord with her learning objectives and internalise this learning. She should feel
confident in assuming control of her learning. A participant’s learning style should also be
consistent with the training methods and techniques. If a participant lacks the necessary skills
to make the best use of the opportunity offered for learning, her participation lacks energy
and motivation.
Role of the Trainer

You should start with the premise that not all participants possess similar learning
skills. As a trainer, you are expected to be familiar with the learning styles of adult par-
ticipants. It should, therefore, be your endeavour to ensure that the training method-
ology and the methods you use in the delivery of the programme are consistent with
the participants’ learning styles. You should be willing to modify your strategy in
accordance with the requirements of the group. Try to make learning as easy and
learner-friendly as possible. Use your skills to get proper feedback from the participants.
Find out to what extent they are in a position to comprehend the contents of the pro-
gramme. Assess their response to various learning stimuli. Identify those who require
special help from you or the co-participants. From time to time, highlight learning
points and, where possible, provide learning packages.
(For cross-reference see an earlier section of this chapter.)
Family Situation and Personal Problems
In long-term training programmes, especially those organised away from participants’ home-
towns, the family situation plays an important role in the motivation of the participants.
There have been instances when an illness in the family, domestic problems or just being
away from their dear ones for an extended period, became strong reasons for tension and
stress with some participants. Sometimes, a participant can get so embroiled in a personal
problem that she loses her interest in the programme.
The participants should be physically fit. Training can be physically very demanding.
Long and intensive working hours are not unusual. Participation in training means a lot
more effort than what a participant might be used to in the work situation. If a participant
is not prepared or willing to put in an extra effort, her interest gets adversely affected.
Therefore, it is important that a participant possesses the necessary energy and stamina that
carry her through the heavy schedule. A participant should also be mentally alert.
Role of the Trainer

Without frightening them, it is good to alert the participants about the training
conditions and work schedule. They should know what awaits them. In fact, this
should be a part of the training agency’s contract with the participants. If you discover
that some participants are going through some personal problem and that is affecting
their motivation, you should step in to address the situation. Personal counselling can
be helpful in some cases but in some others professional assistance may be required.
It is advisable that for long-term programmes, the agency should engage the services
of a professional counsellor. As part of professional development of the training team,
the agency should also train some trainers in counselling, for in-house facilities to deal
with small personal issues.
2.10.2 Environmental Factors
Programme Contents or the Topics
Participants’ initial concern is to ascertain to what extent the programme reflects their
training needs and expectations. They examine the relevance of the content to their present
work and responsibilities. Once they are satisfied on these two key points, their attention
turns to other aspects. Some of the questions that could agitate their mind are:
To what extent do the topics included in the schedule respond to their training needs?
Will the topics and modules instigate action and excitement?
What specific aspects or features of the topics are likely to be covered?
What changes, in terms of knowledge, competencies, and so on are likely to be
engendered by the topics and modules?
What challenges does the programme offer to their intellect, abilities and pre-training
experiences? At what level are the inputs likely to be pitched?
Is the schedule crammed? Are they trying to achieve too much within a limited
period?
Role of the Trainer

One of your tasks in a training programme is to explain key features of the programme.
You must inform the participants about the topics that would be covered, elaborating
where necessary. This will set at rest some of the participants’ concerns and assure
them of its relevance to their training needs. Proper packaging and presentation are im-
portant for a successful venture. When you take up a new topic or module, introduce
it in a manner that the interest and curiosity of the participants are aroused. Explain
the scope of the module and set out the expected learning outcomes. This will help
create a proper learning environment for the module or the training activity.
Training Strategies, Methods and Techniques
Training methods are important instruments for transmitting contents to the participants.
In order to create an environment in which learning takes place in a relatively risk-free and
non-threatening manner, you should use learner-friendly training methodology and train-
ing methods. Every training method should have an element of motivation built into it.
This facilitates active involvement of the participants in the training process. If training
methods fail to enthuse them and put them at the centre of the training activity, their motiv-
ation will be affected. If proper training methods are used, they energise even the lethargic
and disinterested participants. Training methods also help in internalising learning.
Role of the Trainer

As part of your professional growth, you should develop expertise in the use of various
training methods. Remember that your real test lies in using them judiciously and
productively. The selection of the methods is crucial to the outcomes of the training
activity. You should also be aware of the participants’ learning styles.
( For cross-reference and details see Chapter 6.)
Trainer/Training Team
The training team is the pivot of the programme. A competent and dynamic team is a
key factor in stimulating and nurturing the interest and motivation of the participants. An
enthusiastic and committed trainer can inspire them and encourage active participation. Their
response to the training activities and the learning stimuli depends on their assessment of the
professional competence of the trainers and the manner in which they conduct themselves
during the training activities. They watch with interest how these individuals carry out their
designated roles and tasks. Specifically, their focus will be on the following elements that
constitute the profile of a trainer:
Trainer’s style of training and the manner in which she makes her presentations or
conducts training activities.
Expertise and proficiency in the topics/modules for which she is particularly
responsible.
Level of confidence in handling the training group.
Manner in which a trainer responds to challenges, problems or difficult situations
during the delivery of the programme.
Rapport with the participants and the way in which she interacts with them.
Faith in herself and what she is doing.
Functioning of the training team—degree of cooperation and mutual support.
Commitment to the programme.
Role of the Trainer

You must remember that the trainers come under the participants’ scrutiny from the
time they arrive. Therefore, you need to be watchful of your actions, behaviour or
the ways in which you express yourself right from the time you first meet them. An
important factor that influences the participants is the manner in which the training
team projects itself. If the members provide support to one another and present an
image of a cohesive, harmonious team, the response of the participants will be positive
and productive.
(For cross-reference and more details see Chapter 8.)
General Learning Environment
General environment at the training venue is also important for your programme. This
includes:
General ambience of the training venue—whether the surroundings are con-

ducive for training.
Quality of living arrangements for the participants—without being luxurious, these
should be comfortable; where a participant is able to relax after a day’s hard work;
and where it is possible to pursue private study or complete personal assignments.
Training facilities—classroom arrangement, training equipment, information panels,
and so on.
Attitude of administrative or support staff towards the participants.
Administration of the programme—the manner in which administrative aspects are
handled.
Arrangements for leisure-time activities—enabling the participants to recoup their
energy level.
Out-of-session activities.
Role of the Trainer

Your objective is to provide an environment that supports the training activities.
You must ensure that there are no distractions that can take away the participants
from their main objective of training. The environment should, at the same time, be
physically and mentally stimulating and relaxing. Take care of living facilities; small
problems can, sometimes, snowball into bigger issues making your task even more
difficult. Make sure that all the support staff are on board and are fully aware of their
responsibilities and capable of carrying them out competently. They should be fully
supportive of the training.
Relationship with Other Members of the Group and the Trainers
Here, we are considering two sets of relationships in a training programme: participant–

participant and participant–trainer. In its own special way, each relationship contributes
to the training process. Let us first consider the participant–participant relationship. It is
an important transactional element. A positive and harmonious relationship serves as a

confidence-building measure in the initial stage of the programme. If it is based on mutual
assurance and faith, it facilitates sharing and strengthens the learning process. On the other
hand, if the participants’ energy and efforts are used up in coping with trivial and frivolous
issues, or in reconciling personal differences, the group gets distracted. As a result, the
learning process is adversely affected and the programme objectives get sidetracked.
Another aspect of this relationship is the bond that exists between the trainers and the par-
ticipants, individually and as a training group. If this bond is one of support and assurance,
the learning process is enhanced. Although this relationship is directed at promoting
professional interaction with the participants, it cannot be totally devoid of the emotional
component. They should feel comfortable and not have inhibitions to come to you with a
personal problem, whether related to the programme or not. This could be a test of strong
trainer–participant bonding.
Role of the Trainer

By fostering a warm and functional relationship with the participants, you provide
support and encourage them to participate actively in all training activities. The
objective should not be to establish control over them. Informal social interaction
with the participants strengthens this relationship but you need to be careful and keep
this relationship within the professional parameters. If you are overly friendly with
some, it reduces your ability to be non-partisan during training activities. Also, you
may find it difficult to deal with problems that call for firm handling, especially if the
situation involves those who are closer to you.
(For cross-reference see Chapters 5, 7 and 8.)
Size and Composition of the Training Group
The size and composition of a training group are key aspects of a training programme. If the
group is too small—less than 10 participants—trainers are in a position to give personalised
attention and the participants are better placed to realise their personal learning objectives.
However, as opportunities for interaction and sharing are limited, the environment can
become dull and boring, affecting the learning process. If it is a long-term programme,
the problem is more conspicuous. As the participants are familiar with one another, there
is a lot of predictability about the actions and behaviour of one another. This can repress
participants’ curiosity and enthusiasm. On the other hand, a very large group—more than 35
participants—has an overabundance of interactions, and hence the group dynamics become
complicated. At times, you may find it difficult to handle and properly interpret or guide
the interactive process in the large group. The possibility of group discords and conflicts is
very large, especially in a long-term programme. It may lead to development of cliques that
may affect the group processes. This is not healthy for the group. More people may vie for
leadership of the group, leading to unhealthy competition.
Another aspect of the composition of the group relates to the ‘package’ of knowledge,
competencies and experience the participants bring with them. If they bring different per-
spectives to various issues that are likely to come up for discussion, the interaction can be
livening and enriching, and most of them will be motivated to get involved. On the other
hand, if the participants are rather low on the knowledge and competencies quotient, par-
ticipation in training activities will become dreary and uninspiring.
If the group is from one organisation, the participants get an opportunity to consider
organisational issues from different perspectives and discussion can be interesting and
enriching. However, there is a flip side to this. If the situation is not properly handled, it can
generate disagreements. In a programme where seniors and subordinates are together in a
group, free and frank discussion could be hampered, especially in some cultural settings. It is
suggested that in such cases, the training team should have a prior discussion with the senior
management of the organisation and get their mandate for an open discussion.
Role of the Trainer

If the group is diverse—in terms of experience, status or level of expertise—you need
to be more careful in planning the training strategy. The dissimilarities can be an
asset or a negative aspect, depending on your approach and ability to handle divergent
elements and situations. In such groups, you will find a range of perspectives and
experiences that can be pooled for promoting the learning process. You have to turn
the group interaction into enriching encounters for the participants. On the other
hand, these incompatibilities could engender irreconcilable differences or discordant
voices in the group, with each subgroup or individual attempting to gain more space
and dominate the training process. If it is a multinational or multi-ethnic group, your
problems can get further multiplied. Some participants from socially and economically
advanced countries may adopt a condescending attitude towards those from the deve-
loping world. This affects not only relationships in the group but the training process
as well.
Learning has acquired a new meaning and value in the life of an individual.
It provides her access to better opportunities in life and also improves its quality.
As a general concept, the key dimensions of learning include:
Learning is a universal phenomenon.
It is a lifetime pursuit.
Learning takes place under formal and informal conditions.
Learning as the basis of an individual’s behaviour.
Learning as an integrated process, combining physical, cognitive and
emotional aspects.
Stimulation for learning is provided by intrinsic motivation and internal

commitment.
Learning is an evolutionary process.
It is a shared undertaking.
In a training programme, it is imperative to have an integrated approach in which
there is complete harmony in the expectations of different stakeholders, ways of
operating in varied situations, extending mutual support, and responsiveness to
diverse training and learning styles.
In a training programme, learning is an integrative and collaborative process,
involving the stakeholders, the support staff and a number of factors that come
into play, as the programme is rolled out. It is also highly intensive and consistent,
and follows a focused approach.
Learning is a highly individual and unique process. Each participant responds in
her own distinct way to the same stimulus and environment in accordance with
her own ability to comprehend and internalise the learning.
Specific characteristics of adult learners are:
Owners of unique personal experience.
Greater concern with short-term benefits.
Willingness to take greater responsibility for their learning.
Capable of constructing real-life situations.
Possess well-defined self-image.
Conscious of their position and status.
Learning styles of an individual can be analysed on the basis of the following four
aspects of training:
Preference for a particular type of learning activity—action oriented or
cognitive.
Level of initiative in learning—‘dynamic learners’ or ‘compliant learners’.
Degree of dependence on the trainer for learning.
Level of interpersonal competencies.
There are four basic types of learning that occur in a training programme:
Getting affirmation or endorsement of existing knowledge, views, working
methods, and so on, from members of the training group or the trainer.
Adding to or modifying one’s existing level of knowledge and competencies.
Inculcating new skills and knowledge.
Process of unlearning or discarding the previously held views, concepts,
approaches to work, and so on.
In a training programme, learning takes place through five key methods:
Verbal or written inputs by the trainers or resource persons.
Process of sharing experiences with other members of the training group—
group acting as the key source of learning.
Engaging in action or practical work—motor activity or mental exercises.

Through formal or informal methods of observation during training activities.
Informal out-of-session contacts with other participants or trainers.
In a training programme, motivation to participation and learning is affected by
the following factors, directly related to a participant:
Desire for personal growth and development.
Incentives or benefits flowing from attending training.
Consistency between personal learning objectives and programme
objectives.
Self-image and level of self-esteem.
Working environment in the organisation, especially with regard to the pos-
sibility of transfer of training to work situations.
Reason and manner of nomination.
Previous training to experiences.
Participants’ learning styles and skills.
Family situation or personal problem.
The following factors, related to the training environment, influence the learning
process and motivation of the participants:
Programme contents or the topics.
Training methodology, methods or techniques.
Training team or the trainer.
General learning environment in the programme.
Nature and pattern of relationships within the training group.
Training group—size, composition and other features.
3
Making Stakeholders Partners
in Training
This chapter deals with the roles and the responsibilities of the key stakeholders in a training
programme. It also discusses the benefits that accrue to each of them, regardless of the level
and nature of their involvement. The issues that have been discussed are of prime significance
for you and the training agency as the planner and implementer of the programme. The
message this chapter attempts to convey is simple and straightforward. Each stakeholder
should be fully aware of its obligations to other partners in organising the training and must
be held accountable for fulfilling them. It underscores the need for collaborative efforts of all
stakeholders. A section on ‘contracting’ has been included to emphasise the need for the train-
ing team and the training agency, as crucial stakeholders, to enter into some form of formal
agreement with the nominating or sponsoring organisations and the participants for carrying
out their tasks effectively. Specifically, the chapter focuses on the following major areas:
z Stakeholders and Beneficiaries

z Key Role and Responsibilities of the Stakeholders
z Contracting with the Stakeholders—Need and Scope
70 z Every Trainer’s Handbook
Learning Outcomes
z Understand the role of major stakeholders in training and list their key responsi-
bilities in respect of the training programme.
z Draft contracts on the basis of specific requirements of the programme that the train-
ing agency and the training team will sign up with the nominating organisations
and the participants.
z Prepare structured instruments that set out the conditions for participation and
general conduct (for the participants) during the programme as pre-training and
start-up agreements.
3.1 STAKEHOLDERS AND BENEFICIARIES

In any training programme, several organisations, agencies and individuals are involved in
planning and delivering it. The nature and scope of their involvement, however, differ con-
siderably. Also, the benefits that are likely to accrue to each of these stakeholders are differ-
ent. There are two ways in which we can discuss the position and relative importance of
these stakeholders in the context of a training programme. One: the benefits that are likely
to result for each of them through the training programme; and two: the level and nature
of their contribution in its planning and delivery. The stakes of each one of these collabor-
ative partners in the programme are also dissimilar and so are the criteria and standards for
measuring its success. However, the degree of their stakes is not necessarily determined
by the measure of benefits that they get. The level of their efforts and the extent to which
success of the programme depends on their performance are also important factors that
determine their stakes.
Some of these stakeholders contribute indirectly to the planning and delivery of the train-
ing while others have direct and, perhaps, more active and substantive role and responsibil-
ities in the process. Similarly, some are immediate beneficiaries of the programme, while
others are indirect recipients of the benefits. Another point that requires mention is that the
benefits each stakeholder derives from the programme are not always proportional to the ef-
forts and the contribution they make towards its success. Let us elaborate on this.
z The role of the organisations that nominate participants in the planning of the pro-
gramme is limited to providing data and information on the training needs and ex-
pectations of the participants as well as their own. (This will be discussed in detail
later in this chapter.) However, in the delivery, their contribution is minimal though
they still have an interest in the learning of their nominees during the training. In
some cases, though, the organisations may not even be concerned about it. Undoubt-
edly, they are the immediate and, perhaps, one of the biggest beneficiaries (other
being the participants). The trained participant contributes to its functioning and
productivity through newly acquired knowledge and competencies.
Making Stakeholders Partners in Training z 71
z On the other hand, the trainers (or the training team) are, perhaps, the most im-
portant players in the planning and delivery of the programme. In fact, its success
depends, to a great extent, on their competencies and experience as trainers and
the manner in which they deliver the training and empower the participants to
optimise their contribution and involvement in it. Therefore, their stakes are very
high. However, when we look at the benefits that accrue to them, they are, at best,
indirect beneficiaries. They may have a feeling of self-fulfilment and achievement for
carrying out their mission successfully, and gain professionally from the experience.
Some may receive commendation or testimonials from the seniors in the agency,
but nothing much beyond this. If they are independent consultants, there is better
possibility of securing similar assignments in future. Once the programme is over
and the participants return to their respective organisations, their role is minimal.
They have virtually no control on the work-related activities of the participants for
which they received training. The trainers do not benefit at all from the knowledge
and competencies acquired by the participants and their productive use. If the nom-
inating organisations extend active cooperation, they may provide information on
how training is being used by the participants and the organisation. If the feedback
is positive, the training team has a reason for feeling satisfied with their efforts. On
the other hand, if the reactions are not complimentary, the trainers get useful data
for future programmes.
z The case of the training agency is more or less similar. It plays a key role in planning,
organising and delivering the programme, including responsibilities for administ-
rative work and arranging logistics. In other words, it is also a key direct stakeholder.
However, it only benefits indirectly from the success of the programme. It may feel
satisfied that the event had been successful, its reputation may get enhanced and it
may receive greater recognition from other similar agencies.
z The participants are among the key stakeholders. Although they may not have an
active role in the planning of the programme, they are extremely important players in
its delivery. In fact, their active involvement is very crucial to its success. The whole
learning process in the training is aimed at them. A key task for the trainers is to
optimise their participation in all training activities. However, their case is unique
as they are also the prime and immediate beneficiaries. A lot of changes take place
in them, both at all levels, leading to their professional growth and personal devel-
opment. They are better equipped to face the challenges of life, in general, and their
job, in particular.
z In cases where the funding for the programme has been provided by a donor agency, it
too becomes a stakeholder, depending on the nature of its involvement in the training.
Table 3.1 provides an overview of key functions or responsibilities of these stakeholders.

The table should be studied with the following riders.
z In some cases, the funding agency may be different from the agency that sponsors
the programme. It may receive finances from the funding partner and then promote
the programme in accordance with its own framework of goals and policies.
Table 3.1
Roles and Responsibilities of Key Stakeholders
Stakeholder Roles and responsibilities Benefits

Funding or z Ensures that the funds are used in accordance with the z Fulfils its mandate given by donors
sponsoring declared objectives and agreed plan of action for the to the funds
agency programme z Improvement in its status and
z Some agencies are keen on an assurance about the quality position as a good funding agency if
of training the programme is successful
z Provides evaluative inputs on the programme to the
training agency and other key stakeholders
Agencies z Assists the training agency in identifying its training needs z Its nominees are trained in the
nominating or those of its nominees competencies that will enhance their
participants z Selects appropriate participants in accordance with the performance
criteria and requirements set out by the training agency z Improvement in organisational
z Communicates expectations from the programme to their functioning through contribution of
nominees and the training agency the trained participants
z Keeps in regular contact with the training agency to secure
information on the progress and performance of their
nominees, especially if it is a long-term programme
z Provides appropriate opportunities and support to their
participants to facilitate transfer of training to the field
situation
z Maintains the performance or actions of their nominees
after the training programme and provides necessary data
to the training agency
Training agency z Provides an environment that is conducive to learning, z By successfully planning and
including physical facilities delivering the training, its credibility
z Ensures effective coordination between the trainers and the among other similar agencies is
support staff associated with the delivery of the programme enhanced
z Maintains contacts with the sponsoring agencies, especially z It may get more assignments from
in a long-term programme and keeps it informed of the funding or sponsoring agencies
progress and performance of its nominees z Through appraisal of the
z Maintains consistency between what it advocates in the programme, it has the opportunity
programme and what it practises in its own functioning to improve its future training
z Assists in the professional growth and development of the initiatives
training staff; maintains the training team; keeps pace with
the developments in the field of training
z Appraises its work on a regular basis
Training team z Key stakeholder in the planning and delivery of the z Professional growth and
programme (details are given in subsequent chapters) development
Participants z Participate and contribute to all training activities z Substantive changes at professional
Set out personal learning objectives and direct efforts to and personal levels
realise them z Better equipped to carry out the
z Extend support to the training team in achieving the responsibilities in a more effective
programme objectives and maintain learning environment manner
z Assist co-participants in realising their learning objectives
Note: For riders for the table see pages 71 and 74.
z Generally, a training agency may be responsible for organising training through its
professional staff—the training team. However, in some cases, it is likely that the
funding or the sponsoring agency may commission a team of trainers—independent
consultants—for planning and delivering the training.
z There are also cases when a programme is sponsored and funded by an organisation
for the benefit of its own either newly recruited or serving personnel. The objective
may be to enhance its productivity and functioning or as induction or orientation
programme for the new staff. In such cases, the organisation becomes the main
stakeholder, combining the role and responsibilities of the funding, the sponsoring
and the nominating organisations. The participants may be drawn from either one
organisation or its sister organisations or affiliates as well.
3.2 KEY ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE STAKEHOLDERS
3.2.1 Funding or Sponsoring Agency
Pre-training
Funding agencies, national or international, are indirect stakeholders in a training activity.

They provide financial support for conducting training programmes, on request from either
training agencies or development organisations. Generally, funding is for training that
strengthens programmes and services for the welfare of the community, at large, for special
target groups and/or for training in special themes/areas that fall within the parameters
of the work of the donor agency, on the basis of agreed objectives and procedures.
The role that the funding agencies play differs in accordance with their mandate, policies
and procedures of providing financial and other resources for development projects or sup-
porting specific training programmes. In the context of training, the agency may identify
appropriate training agency, consistent with its policies and on the basis of the position,
status and areas of expertise of that agency. Some funding agencies are likely to play an active
role in deciding on the target group, the nature of organisations from which they should
be drawn and also give their inputs with regard to the contents. They are keen to ensure
quality of the training. However, they have limited role in its delivery. On the other hand,
some funding agencies have the policy of not interfering with the programme details once its
broad framework is agreed. They are not keen to play an active role either in its planning or
in the delivery. In such cases, the disadvantage is that the training agency may also become
somewhat complacent about the quality of training and invest only that much effort that
will carry them through the schedule with some degree of success. They may only be keen to
meet the administrative and financial requirements of the agreement on the basis of which
they received funds. Evidently, the training suffers.
Post-training
In order to meet their own administrative requirements and ensure legitimate use of the
funds, an end-activity report or evaluation is asked for from the implementing agency. The
format of the report and the details it seeks will differ. In some cases, the funding agency
may also have comprehensive discussion with the training agency on various aspects of the
programme.
3.2.2 Organisations Nominating Participants
Pre-training
An organisation is the first contact for a training agency after a training programme is
conceived or planned. If an organisation sponsors the training for its own personnel or
has requested for a customised one, it has greater interest and higher stakes. On the other
hand, if it has been developed by a training agency and the organisations are only expected
to nominate participants, the nature of their response and commitment to the programme
vary. Some organisations take it as a serious business and even senior management personnel
get involved in the process of selection and maintain communication with the agency, before
and during training. However, others take only a casual interest and consider nominating
participants as merely an administrative exercise or organisational obligation.
It is important that as a trainer, you should be aware of the responsibilities of the organ-
isations that have been invited to nominate participants. You should also be conscious of
the factors that guide the action and attitude of these organisations towards the programme
or the training agency. Accordingly, you should plan your interaction with them. Do not
take things for granted and expect them to respond to your communications promptly or
fulfil their part of the responsibilities. You must be persistent in following up with them to
get the desired results. You should attempt to establish a relationship with them that goes
beyond the planning and delivery of the programme.
A sponsoring organisation has a crucial role in all phases of training. Some of the specific
tasks in which an organisation gets involved are discussed below.
Identification of Training Needs
Regardless of on whose initiative the programme is being organised, an organisation is ex-

pected to assist the training agency in identifying the training needs of its nominees. These
needs should not only be reflective of their job responsibilities and level of performance but
also be indicative of their position and role in the overall functioning of the organisation. In
fact, ideally, the statement of needs conveyed to the training agency should include those of
the participants as well as the organisation.
It is important that the organisation participates in this process out of a genuine com-
mitment to the training programme, as a key stakeholder. Its concern for the training of its
nominees should find expression in the effort it makes for ensuring that the training needs
of its nominees are communicated to the training agency well in advance of the programme
so that they find expression in its contents.
However, it has been my experience that if an organisation has direct interest in a pro-
gramme and, perhaps, greater stakes, financially or otherwise, it is willing to put in an extra
effort in assisting the training agency in this task. On the other hand, if it is sponsored by the
training agency, some participating organisations are somewhat indifferent to the process
of identifying training needs of their nominees. Some even consider it not worth a serious
effort. It is, therefore, necessary that as a member of the training team, you should make
every effort to get their active collaboration in this exercise. You should make them realise
that proper inputs from them at this stage will help make the programme more respon-
sive to their needs. They should be reminded of their stakes—their nominees spend quality
time of the organisation at the programme.
Selection of Participants
Selecting participants in accordance with the criteria set out by the training agency is an-
other key task for an organisation. Generally, its interest in selecting appropriate participants
depends on a number of factors. Some of these are indicated as follows:
z Perhaps, the most important factor that persuades an organisation to respond

promptly and positively to a request for sponsoring participants is the relevance of
the training contents to its work and functioning.
z A related factor is the value an organisation attaches to training as an instrument for
staff development and growth, and the faith it has in training.
z The person responsible for handling such requests plays a significant role in the
whole exercise. If she is sincere in carrying out this task and willing to invest time
and effort in selecting appropriate persons, both the organisation and the training
agency benefit.
z If an organisation has a well-developed system of evaluation and appraisal of the
performance of the staff, it is in a good position to identify gaps in performance
and determine training needs of the staff. This facilitates the nomination of suit-
able participants.
z The status and credentials of the training agency are important considerations. If it
has the reputation of providing quality training and its team is capable of delivering
the programme effectively, the response from the invited organisations is generally
timely and helpful.
z If the programme involves financial commitment on the part of the organisation—
in the form of course fee, travel, and so on—the selection is likely to be more
judicious.
If an organisation adopts proper procedures for selection and follows the criteria, the
chances are that it would sponsor participants who ought to be there rather than those who
can be there. However, on the other hand, if an organisation feels obliged to respond af-
firmatively to a request and fill the allotted seats, the selection may not be proper. In some
cases, the organisations can end up nominating participants who either want to go (to get
away from the humdrum of their job or the gaze of their superiors) or can be spared without
hampering its work. Of course, if the venue is in another country and the offer is attractive
(with good per diem and nice arrangements for stay), favoured staff may be nominated.
Action of most organisations falls in between these extreme positions, and, consequently,
their interest and investment in the programme differ.
(For cross-reference see Chapter 5, section on ‘Motivation of the participants’.)
Communicating Its Expectations from the Programme
It is immensely useful if an organisation informs its nominees of its expectations from them,
during and on return from the training. The participants should be made aware that they are
accountable both to the organisation and to the training agency, in terms of their conduct
during the programme and active participation in the training activities. It has been observed
that if the participants come with comprehensive briefing from their superiors about the
usefulness of the programme and the status of the training agency, they become active and
useful partners in the training process. It is further helpful if the nominated participants have
some indication from their superiors how they propose to use the training in the organ-
isational work. This enhances their motivation.
An organisation also has a responsibility to communicate to the training agency its train-
ing priorities, of course, within the framework of the programme. It must also inform the
agency of the working environment in the organisation and the constraints within which the
participants function. This information will be of considerable help to the training team.
During Training
Monitoring the Progress of Its Participants
As the actual user of training, it is expected that an organisation should be concerned with
what happens to its nominees during the training. It should be conscious of its obligation as
one of its key stakeholders. It is, therefore, imperative that it maintains regular communica-
tion with the agency, monitoring the progress of its participants. Where necessary, it should
not hesitate to put across its views and suggestions to the agency. This task assumes crucial
importance in the long-term training, as, in such cases, stakes are high for all partners as
substantial investment in money, time and effort is involved. However, my experience is that
most organisations, including those that have nominated participants with clearly defined
objectives, are not willing to make an extra effort to monitor the progress of their nominees.
Many a time, communications from the training agency are not even acknowledged. It is,
therefore, important that the training agency should include this task of the organisation
as part of its agreement with the organisation before the programme commences.
(For cross-reference see later section in this chapter on ‘Contracting’.)
Post-training
Transfer of Training to the Field
An important role for an organisation is in the post-training phase, as, in most cases, the
ultimate destination of training is the participant’s workplace. Within an organisation,
immediate superiors of the returning participant carry more responsibility for facilitating
application of learning. If the training helps in enhancing her performance, they are the
immediate beneficiaries. When a participant returns after attending a training programme,
reactions and responses of her colleagues and superiors vary, depending on the objectives of
her nomination. In a positive and supportive environment, immediate superiors are keen to
find out the ways in which the individual has benefited from the training. They are willing
to provide her opportunities for using the newly acquired knowledge and competencies to
improve her performance. They discuss with the participant how training can be gainfully
utilised for the benefit of the participant and the organisation. Some organisations are known
to even organise special sessions, enabling the returning participants to share the benefits of
the training with other colleagues of the department or the division.
On the other hand, experience of some participants in this regard has been frustrating
and disappointing. On their return, they were told to put their learning aside and revert to
the pre-training working methods and procedures. It may be helpful to record some typical
comments and advice of the superiors:
‘I hope you had a good time at the training. You should now get back to work quickly
as a pile of papers is waiting for action by you.’
‘They must have told you to do things in a different way but we have our own time-
tested procedures and methods of working. Do not bother about what they told you.
We have to work as per the requirements of our organisation.’
‘You see, practice and ground realities are different, what they told you in training
is not relevant here. You must do what is possible within the functioning of the
organisation.’
For some organisations, it is business as usual, as if the training intervention has not
even taken place. The participant returns to the place of work and gets submerged in the
normal routine. The purpose of indicating these reactions of the organisation is to acquaint
you with what may happen in the post-training phase. Your task is cut-out for you.
Accordingly, you should develop your pre-training and post-training interaction with the
nominating organisations and prepare your training strategy. You must take steps to ensure
greater cooperation and support of the organisations in the post-training phase.
3.2.3 Training Agency
It is important for a training agency to remember that every programme is a new challenge,
another opportunity to reaffirm its position and expertise in the field. It cannot afford to sit
back and relax once it has achieved a certain level of credibility with its client organisations.
It is a constant pursuit of excellence because there could be competition. Stakes are high.
Therefore, the agency needs to be proactive in whatever it does.
It has been my experience that if an agency has a sound functioning base and its approach
to work is underpinned by professional rather than extraneous considerations, it holds the
promise of doing a highly competent job. However, if the agency has its own agenda or
motive, its approach is likely to be vitiated. If it considers training an income-generating
activity, its main concern will be to maximise profits. And all its efforts will be directed at ful-
filling the requirements of the donor agency and preparing a good report, thus maintaining
the flow of the funds. The commitment of these agencies to the programme, therefore, is
minimal and they are only interested in completing it and getting a good testimonial from
the participants. They are willing to make compromises with the programme to get a favour-
able response from them.
Perhaps, the most important responsibility of the training agency is to develop a viable
and realistic programme and ensure its effective delivery. These processes are discussed in
considerable detail, later, in Chapters 4 and 5.
General Responsibilities
The training agency has a very important task of maintaining high standards in the field
of training and ensuring that it has a competent, professional team of trainers to carry out
the training activities in accordance with its mandate, policies and goals. It has to constantly
work towards building a positive image among the existing and potential client organisations
and get recognition from other similar agencies. It is, therefore, important that it should
carry out certain key functions that help it to fulfil its professional commitments and uphold
its distinct position. The aim to highlight these responsibilities is to urge the agency to take
cognizance of them and accord them necessary priority.
Consistency in What Is Advocated and Practised
If efficiency, teamwork, motivation and commitment are among the values to be inculcated
in the participants, it is necessary for the agency to exemplify these through its work and
administration. This demonstrates consistency in what is being conveyed to the training group
and what is practised by the agency. Undoubtedly, this will enhance its credibility with the
client organisations and the participants, helping in developing a positive attitude towards it
and its programmes. For realising this objective, the trainers and the administrative staff have
to share the responsibility. Although during a training programme, the participants interact
more with the training team, there are many training-related areas in which they come in
contact with the administrative staff as well. It is, therefore, necessary that the professional
team and the administrative personnel should work in concert, reinforcing each other’s
image. If the participants perceive that these two sections are working at cross-purposes or
have disagreements, the reputation of the agency will be dented, affecting the programme.
Assisting the Professional Growth of the Training Staff
The agency is responsible for providing suitable and supportive climate for effective func-
tioning of the trainers. They should be able to express themselves frankly and without in-
hibitions. The agency should also provide fitting opportunities for their professional growth
and development. It should encourage them to learn from one another through constant
professional interaction. It should also facilitate outside professional contacts and arrange
special programmes for further development of its training staff. The trainers need to be
encouraged and supported in trying out new ideas and approaches and to be innovative. Every
training activity should be considered an enriching and productive experience rather than
just another programme through which the trainers or the support staff can sleepwalk.
The management should also give due attention to the workload of the training staff. Some
agencies want to keep a hectic programme schedule for non-professional considerations or
simply to keep the staff busy. This could result in compromising the quality of training as
there is little time for appraisal of the completed programme as the team starts preparing
for the next. To accentuate the problem further, a trainer may be required to take more
sessions than she can efficiently manage. Under such circumstances, a trainer’s capacities
may get stretched to a limit that affects her performance and enthusiasm.
Promoting Teamwork among the Trainers
In some agencies, colleagues in a training team may continue to work as individuals, follow-
ing their own agenda and attempting to carve out an independent niche or position. Up
to a point, this is an acceptable situation. However, if each acts according to her personal
interests and concerns and not necessarily those of the team or the programme, we may
have problems. The agency has the responsibility of reconciling these seemingly inconsis-
tent or even conflicting agendas and pursuits. It needs to adopt an approach that ensures
harmonious functioning of the team, in the wider interest of the programme and its own.
It must establish procedures and ground rules for effective functioning of the team. It
must also foster a spirit of cooperation and support among its training team. Institutions
and agencies are built on the basis of joint and collaborative efforts and this must be em-
phasised at all times. On the other hand, the agency must also make an earnest effort
to safeguard the interest of the individual trainer and provide opportunities for healthy
competition that can bring out the best in the trainers. Their motivation, initiative and desire
to excel should find adequate expression in their performance and not allowed to fade in
pursuit of teamwork.
Keeping Pace with Developments in the Field of Training
In this world of rapid changes and intense competition in most professional fields, the agency
must constantly strive to stay ahead by strengthening its position and status among the client
organisations. The agency should keep abreast of developments in the field of training and
ensure that these are adopted in its functioning.
It is possible that in certain situations, new developments in the field of training and the
role of the agency as the provider of quality training come in conflict or are inconsistent with
the philosophy, established values and patterns of its functioning. Under such circumstances,
the agency should be willing to take some difficult decisions. The option may be to either
stick to its archaic values and methods of functioning or adopt a more innovative and
dynamic approach, consistent with the latest trends and developments in the field. This can
be a crucial decision but the agency has to take the call, keeping in view its own interests,
those of its client organisations and the training team.
Regular Appraisal of Its Work
A key function of the agency is to engage in regular appraisal of its work, including the
methods adopted for planning and implementing the programmes. Professionally prepared
and well-maintained documentation of its experiences—in the form of case studies, progress
reports, minutes of staff meetings, evaluative comments of participants, notes, and so on—
can be of immense value to the training team. These documents and materials can serve as an
important basis for further growth of the existing trainers and also for on-the-job training of
new professional staff. This documentation also enables the agency to share its experiences
with similar agencies, further enriching its functioning. Many training agencies believe that
the manner in which programmes are planned and executed should remain a closely guarded
secret, not open to scrutiny by anyone. This is not a professional attitude. If the agency is
transparent in its approach in planning and implementing training programmes, it will gain
credence among its client organisations and professionals.
Pre-training
Communication with Nominating Organisations
The agency needs to maintain a constant liaison with the organisations nominating par-
ticipants, not only in the pre-training phase but during and after the programme as well.
It should make a sincere effort to involve them in all aspects of the training to the extent it is
practically possible. This communication should focus on the following:
z Sending them the necessary details on the programme, clearly stating the overall
framework, its scope and the issues that are likely to come up for discussion.
z Methodology proposed to be adopted, especially highlighting the participatory ap-
proach and the expected role and involvement of the participants.
z Some appropriate details about the professional credentials of the training team.
z Target group and specific eligibility criteria for the selection of the participants.
z Expectations of the agency from the organisation and its nominees—prior to the
training, during the course and as follow-up measures on the application of training.
z What will be provided and what not; constraints and limitations of the agency.
The training agency should also spell out the obligations and responsibilities of the nom-
inating agency, especially with regard to the following:
z Communicating the training needs of the organisation and the participants, within
the scope of the programme, well in advance of it to enable the agency to plan the
contents; points of emphasis in training in light of the special needs of the organ-
isation and/or the participants.
z Special characteristics of the participants, appropriate to their active participation
in the training process; their key job responsibilities; strengths and areas of im-
provement in terms of their knowledge base and competencies (related to their job
responsibilities and the theme of the programme); general demeanour.
z Expectations of the organisation from the agency in the context of the programme
and with special reference to the participants.
Communication with the Funding or the Sponsoring Agency
In cases where the programme is funded or sponsored by another agency, you should make
special effort to involve it in its planning. It is important that you should attempt to find
information about the following:
z Broad profile of the agency—its mandate, goals and objectives, key areas of working,
special target groups.
z Expectations from the training agency or the programme.
z Conditions for funding and its financial procedures.
z Areas of special emphasis, if any.
z Post-training requirements in terms of nature of report and details to be included
(format, and so on).
Getting Together the Training Team, Including Outside Specialists
Generally, it is the responsibility of the training agency to put together the team for the
programme—drawn from the professional staff of the agency or from other specialised
institutions or agencies—keeping in view its theme and scope. However, there are cases
where there is specific indication from the funding or the sponsoring agency (as part of the
funding or sponsoring agreement) that it wants to be consulted in the selection of the team.
While many agencies leave the task of sharing or assigning responsibilities for the delivery
and management of the programme—among the members of the team—to the team itself,
in some cases, the senior management may wish to get involved in this process as well. Re-
gardless of the procedure adopted for this task, it is important that individual trainer should
feel comfortable with the assignment—professional or administrative—otherwise her
motivation level or that of the team may get diluted. It is necessary that the team should not
only work together as a unit but also be seen (especially by the training group) to be reinforc-
ing one another in the session or outside it.
During training
Communication with Nominating Organisations
In short-term programmes, it may not be feasible to keep the nominating organisations in-
formed on either the progress of the training or the performance of the participants. However,
if there are special situations arising during the period that you feel should be shared with
the concerned organisation, you should do so without hesitation. However, in long-term
training, it is advisable that the agency should send periodic reports to the nominating
organisations, informing them of the performance of their nominees and progress of the
programme. It is always helpful to let the participants know that you are in contact with their
employers. This keeps them on their toes. Their conduct and participation will be influenced
by this. The organisation should also be urged that they should give due importance to the
report and take prompt action, where necessary. You should, however, take care that the re-
port should be concise, focusing on relevant points.
Providing Appropriate Environment to Participants
An important task for the agency is to provide a healthy and conducive environment to the
participants for learning—an environment in which they feel comfortable and stimulated
to participate actively in the learning process. The agency should ensure that all possible
influences working on the participants, in the session or outside it, formally or informally,
are so organised that they operate in harmony and their impact is positive and supportive,
producing optimum results.
As host to the programme, the agency has the responsibility to provide necessary facilities
and other resources for its successful delivery. It must ensure that physical environment—
living and training facilities, overall surroundings and setting of the training venue, and so
on—is appropriate. It does not mean luxurious arrangements but facilities that are consistent
with the training objectives, training methodology and nature of the group. For instance,
participatory training should find its echo in the layout of the classroom, its decor and the
seating arrangement. If the programme is for senior executives, living arrangements should
be consistent with their position. In a long-term programme, living arrangement should be
such that it provides opportunities to the participants to do their private studies and assign-
ments. It must also be remembered that physical environment provided by the agency and
the manner in which training activities are conducted are indicative of the competence and
efficiency of its staff, their attitude towards the programme and the training group.
Coordinating Professional and Administrative Inputs
A key feature of the delivery of the programme is the harmonious functioning of the pro-
fessional and the administrative units of the agency. We may not realise it but the participants
are fairly sensitive about the general administrative climate of the agency. For instance,
travel reimbursement and return reservations, mechanism for monitoring catering and living
arrangements, organisation of leisure time activities, relationship between the trainers and
the support staff, role of administrative staff in training activities and the style of functioning
of the head of the agency. They draw their own conclusions that may influence their attitude
towards the agency, the training team or even the programme. It is important to ensure that
all those associated with the implementation of the programme have a common orientation,
are supportive of one another and speak in one voice.
Post-training
Follow-up with the Nominating Organisations
For the training agency, transfer of training to the field situations is a matter of considerable
importance and concern. Unless the training delivered by the agency is used productively
by the participants for theirs and the organisation’s benefits, the investment made in time,
efforts and financial resources will not yield perceptible results. It is, therefore, necessary
that the agency should work closely with the nominating organisations during the post-
training period to ensure that the participants get appropriate support and opportunities
for using the acquired competencies to enhance their performance and contribute to the
organisational development. In fact, it has to take the lead in this task. Another important
aspect of this follow-up exercise is assessing to what extent the new learning has contributed
in enhancing the performance of the participants. It is only through these data that the
relevance of training to actual field conditions may be realistically evaluated which further
helps in improved planning of future programmes.
3.2.4 Training Team or Trainers
General responsibilities
A training team represents the commitment and interest of the training agency. It exemplifies
the training agency’s credibility and reputation. As a team and as individuals, trainers have
a lot to gain or lose in a training programme. Now here is an intricate situation. A trainer
has personal stakes in the programme, as a whole, and, more specifically, in the outcomes
of the sessions or training activities for which she is directly responsible. On the other hand,
she owes commitment to the team and shares responsibility for the training activities. In
most cases, the training team is accountable to the agency and the funding agency, if any.
Individual interests may be consistent with the overall interests of the team, get subsumed in
them or be at variance. The extent to which a trainer follows her personal agenda depends on
a number of factors. Some trainers consider the programme an opportunity to prove their
competence, to excel. This sets the stage for competition that can, sometimes, degenerate
into dysfunctional conflict situations. Effective functioning of the team depends on the
degree of professionalism that has been instilled in the members by the agency management.
The level of confidence of the members on their own competence, mutual trust and faith
in the ability of the team to deliver are some of the key factors that help in the smooth func-
tioning of the team.
There is another dimension to the functioning of the training team. A recently recruited
or relatively new entrant to the team is likely to consider the programme, especially her ses-
sions, as a chance to establish her as a part of the training team and secure a position in it.
Thus, stakes for her are higher than for those who are already an important part of the team
and have nothing new to prove, except reaffirming their competence and status. Challenges
faced by the members of the training team thus differ and their actions and reactions are
guided by the agenda that gets precedence at a given point in time.
The outside resource persons or experts add another element to the issues of responsibility,
accountability and commitment to the programme. In most cases, their frame of reference is
limited to their assignment. They feel directly responsible and answerable for their sessions
and not for the programme, as a whole. In fact, some outside experts may play down the pro-
gramme in order to make their sessions stand out in comparison. On the other hand, the
training team can find itself in a difficult situation if a resource person fails to come up to the ex-
pectations of the participants. It has to own responsibility for the fiasco, but at the same
time, it must move swiftly to remedy the situation and restore the environment.
(For cross-references and details on the role and responsibilities of a trainer see Chapters 5 and 8.)
3.2.5 Participants
Pre-training
Assimilating the Programme Materials
The training agency usually sends a lot of programme-related materials—contents of the pro-
gramme, issues that are likely to come up for discussion during the programme, proposed
methodology and the level of participation expected from the participants—to the partici-
pants well before they leave for the programme. However, it has been my experience that
not many go through the materials carefully. They do not consider this as important. The
result is that they arrive with different perceptions about the programme, the training agency
and the training team. When they are confronted with the actual situation and get proper
information, they appear somewhat surprised and confused. This can affect their attitude
towards the programme. It is, therefore, important that the training agency should take the
initiative in emphasising upon the nominating organisations the need to pass on all relevant
materials and information to the participants, and to brief them about other pertinent aspects
of the training. The participants also have the responsibility to go through the materials fully
and prepare themselves well for the occasion.
Expression of Expectations and Training Needs
The participants must also be encouraged to express their expectations from the programme,
clearly and precisely. It is likely that the management of the nominating organisations may
not be too enthusiastic about this, but in your communication to the organisation and the
participants you should underscore the importance of this exercise for the success of the
programme. Of course, the expectations should be within its scope. The data generated on
the basis of responses received from the participants will be helpful for you in fine-tuning
the contents.
Completing the Pre-training Assignments
Some training programmes may require the participants to complete some written or read-
ing assignments before they arrive for the training. This helps them in their mental prepar-
ation and gets them into participation mode. It is expected that in case some help or guidance
is required at the organisation level, they should be provided that.
This information is generally conveyed to them through a proper communication. How-
ever, this is a requirement towards which the participants are generally indifferent for vari-
ous reasons. In some cases, the information about the assignments is not passed to the
participants and when they arrive, they are often surprised by the information. Some partici-
pants are just inclined to take it easy. Some may even doubt the seriousness of the training
agency itself and consider it as merely a formality. It is also likely that some of them are not
in a position to connect the assignment with the programme.
It is, therefore, important that you should not only convey in precise details the nature of
assignments and how they can complete these, but also indicate in what ways these are
related to the overall theme and the contents and how it will contribute to their better
participation.
During Training
By their very designation and description, participants of a training group are key players in
a training exercise. They are major stakeholders as they put in a lot of time and effort in a
training programme. They participate and contribute to the process of which they are dir-
ect and immediate beneficiaries. They are the object as well as the subject of the training
process. On the one hand, the whole process is directed at them and, on the other hand, each
participant plays a crucial role in reaching out to others in the training group, advancing the
learning process and assisting the team in realising the objectives.
The degree to which a participant is willing to invest, by way of her contribution to the
training activities, is related to the benefits she expects to derive from the programme. In
cases where an individual is sponsored by an organisation, the extent to which she is willing
to put in an effort is related to the expectations of her immediate superior or the organisation.
The stakes for a participant are higher if she is accountable to her superiors on the benefits
she draws from the training. If the reasons for a participant’s nomination are explicit and
linked to her or the organisation’s training needs, she is willing to put in an extra effort to
come up to the expectations of her organisation. On the other hand, if she has been nom-
inated for reasons other than professional, and the organisation has not clearly stated its
expectations, her approach to the programme could be somewhat indifferent. However, it
has been observed that notwithstanding the lackadaisical approach of the organisation, some
participants demonstrate keen interest in the programme. A strong desire to perform well in
the training and making the best of this opportunity to learn and grow provide the motive
force. Some participants perform well to affirm their position and status. Thus, the stakes for
the participants and the reasons for their active involvement in the programme vary.
(For cross-reference and more details see Chapters 4 and 5.)
Post-training
This is a very crucial area for the participants. After receiving training, they might be brimming
with enthusiasm, ready to translate their learning into their performance. However, not all
participants will demonstrate that level of excitement and motivation for post-training action
in their respective jobs. Some of them may not even bother to consolidate their learning and
become aware of their gains from the training. For them, once the training programme is over,
they just revert to their pre-training life.
Creating Opportunities to Apply Training
Not many organisations will be enthusiastic for providing opportunities or appropriate en-
vironment for application of training. It is, therefore, important that rather than waiting for
possibilities to be offered to them, the participants should be proactive and take initiative to
explore them for using the newly acquired competencies and knowledge.
It may also be useful to keep an informal record of how learning from the training is be-
ing applied to the job situations and with what results. This will serve not only as a reference
point but also as a guide for professional growth of the participants. They should also iden-
tify the gaps that they perceive in the training. The training agency will be expecting this
feedback from them. What possibilities are being offered by the organisation and to what
extent they are able to make optimum utilisation of these. Some participants may not be
enthusiastic themselves but point the finger at their seniors. You should be aware of these
tendencies. On its part, the agency should communicate with the participants and get their
feedback.
Integrating Learning with Their Professional and Personal Self
Once the participants return to their job scene and get involved with their usual responsibil-
ities, they may not find it easy to recall the learning acquired from the training. They have
to make a conscious effort to integrate the newly acquired learning in their personal and
professional self, making it a part of them. Any changes that have occurred through training
if not properly identified and consolidated may not get absorbed in the persona and could
even be lost. The participants should take steps to ensure that this does not happen.
3.3 CONTRACTING WITH THE STAKEHOLDERS—NEED AND SCOPE
As there are many stakeholders in a training programme, it is important that well before
it is rolled out, every one of them fully understands and carries out its role, responsibilities
and the obligations to one another. It is apparent that the total success of the programme
depends on all stakeholders performing their part of the overall mission. Obviously, a lot of
coordination work is required and all the stakeholders need to be in regular communication
with one another. Of course, as the ultimate accountability for the training rests with the
training agency and the training team, it is imperative that they lead the efforts and ensure
that every stakeholder is kept in the loop once the process of organising the programme gets
under way. There has to be mutual answerability and for that the training agency should
put in place a mechanism that promotes communication and regular feedback as the process
progresses.
Contracting, therefore, is fundamental to the success of the training programme. In the
absence of working contracts with various stakeholders before the event begins, the ability
of the training agency and the training team to deliver it in accordance with the expectations
of the client groups will be affected. In order to plan a programme that responds to the train-
ing needs of the participating organisations and the participants, these stakeholders should
provide you with appropriate data well before you start planning process. If this is not done,
your ability to develop clear and realistic outcome statements and to prepare your design and
materials will be severely limited. You will have to then rely on your own assessments of the
needs of these client groups, and this may lead to allegations and squabbling later.
It ensures that the two parties understand and are committed to the conditions that gov-
ern their relationship. This involves clarifying expectations, setting the objectives and bound-
aries of transactions (and interactions), establishing the ground rules, deciding on the issues
of confidentiality, outlining the respective roles, putting in place a mechanism for taking
prompt decisions and agreeing on when the transaction ends.
It enables the two parties to develop the trust necessary for any transaction. Trust for
working together, solving problems, empathy and support, even while recognising the dif-
ferences in perspectives and approach. They should feel comfortable with each other.
Specifically, contracting focuses on the following:
z It sets out the role and responsibilities of all stakeholders, helping each of them in
organising their programme-related tasks in a more effective manner, keeping in view
the time schedule of the programme.
z It provides an opportunity to every stakeholder to articulate its expectations from
others in the context of the programme.
z It foresees the grey areas in mutual support and cooperation and provides a forum
for their discussion, thus precluding the possibilities of disagreements and a blame
game after the programme is over.
z It enhances mutual accountability.
z It promotes setting up of a network of organisations and agencies that may augur
well for future engagements.
z Contracting carries assurance and promise for the success of the programme, by fos-
tering a higher degree of commitment and involvement.
3.3.1 Levels of Contracting
Depending on the nature of the programme and the procedures followed in organising it,
there can be several levels of contracting for a training programme. These are as follows:
z Funding agency—training agency.

z Funding agency—sponsoring agency.
z Training agency—agencies nominating participants.
z Training agency—participants.
z Participants—agencies nominating participants.
z Training agency—training team.
z Training team—participants or training group.
Participants will have two-way contract—with the trainers or the training team and with
the employing (or nominating) organisations. With the employing organisation, they will
be expected to have some contractual agreement on their conduct and performance during
the programme and also on their return to the organisations. Their participation and per-
formance will be monitored by the nominating organisations through the training agency or
the training team. Certain standards may be set by them with regard to their (participants’)
performance and actions and behaviour during the programme; for instance, attendance and
level of participation. They will also be expected to ensure that they will be fully utilising the
training to enhance their performance.
Trainers or the training team have a two-way contract—with participants and with the train-
ing agency (although there may not be anything formal on that, but there is accountability
for the trainers to perform and carry out the programme in a successful manner). In cases,
where the training team is an independent group of trainers, they may have direct contract
with the organisations nominating participants as also with the participants. Otherwise, the
training agency will have contract with these organisations and the training team will be only
an indirect party to it.
The trainers may also have a contract with themselves for successful completion of the
programme and for their own professional growth and development. You hold yourself
accountable to yourself. This may appear to be somewhat unusual and even a bizarre
suggestion but can prove to be a very meaningful and innovative initiative on your part for
your professional and personal growth. You will be able to establish standards and criteria for
your performance during the programme and your own objectives to be achieved through
it. Later, you may appraise your work and examine to what extent you were able to realise
your targets.
Organisations nominating participants will also have a two-way contract—with their
nominees and with the training agency (or the training team). While the contract with the
training agency will be more comprehensive covering various aspects related to the plan-
ning and delivery of the programme as also on the transfer of training; the one with the par-
ticipants may be limited to their conduct at the training, especially with regard to the manner
in which they represent the organisation and the application of the learning for improving
their performance.
However, in view of the crucial role that the training agency and the training team play in
the total process, we will focus on those aspects of contracting in which the training agency
or the training team is one of the constituents and is directly involved in the course of action.
Perhaps, the most important levels of contracting are the following:
z Training agency—nominating organisations.

z Training agency and training team—participants.
3.3.2 Contracting with the Nominating Organisations

A very important aspect of contracting is with the nominating organisations. They are not
only stakeholders in the programme but should also be considered as key partners, though
they are not physically present at the training. The participants represent their organisations
and, to some extent, the manner in which they conduct themselves at the programme reflect
organisational culture, functioning and dynamics. One of the factors that determines par-
ticipants’ attitude towards the programme and the training team is the briefing they would
have received from the management. Thus, contracting with these organisations and keeping
them in the training loop is important.
If an organisation is sponsoring all the participants as a part of its development pro-
gramme, there is a substantial reduction in the number of stakeholders. The organisation
puts in all the resources, has special context for the training and well-defined standards for
assessing the outcomes, both in terms of changes in the professional and personal behaviour
of the participants and the programme, as a whole. Considering these stakes, it is only ex-
pected that it will take immense interest in its planning and delivery. This facilitates com-
munication between the training agency or the training team on the one hand, and the
sponsoring organisation on the other, rendering contracting an easy exercise. In fact, the
sponsoring organisation may itself be too keen to finalise a contract with the training agency
as it will ensure that the programme is customised to their specific training needs. In such
cases, it will be equally keen to endorse the proposal of contracting with the participants as
well. Obviously, this will exert considerable pressure on the trainers to deliver and on the
participants to perform during the training. Contracting the post-training role and respon-
sibilities of the organisation and the participants will also be relatively easy as it will be
prepared to monitor the performance of the participants during the post-training period,
ensuring that the knowledge and competencies acquired during the training are optimally
utilised for its growth and functioning.
When the participants are drawn from different organisations or agencies, contracting
becomes more difficult. Different organisations may have their own perceptions of the pro-
gramme and their role and, as a result, they may be reluctant to subscribe to the same con-
tract. They may also have reservations for entering into a contract as they may feel that it
will commit them to certain assurances and promises that they may not be able to fulfil.
Many of them may be averse to the idea of being seen as accountable to the training agency,
the funding agency or the one sponsoring the training with regard to certain pre- or post-
training responsibilities and tasks. Evidently, this attitude is related to the selection proced-
ure generally followed by the organisations when requested to nominate participants for a
training programme. Many of them may not even go through the details—its objectives,
contents, expected outcomes, and so on—to consider its relevance to their working. They
may even find it difficult to perceive a linkage between the programme and the training
needs of the organisation or their participants. In such cases, not only contracting assumes
greater significance but also presents problems for the training agency or the training team.
One silver lining, however, is that contracting may impel the nominating organisations to
make a sincere effort to identify their ‘real’ training needs in relation to what the programme
offers. Thus, they will develop better appreciation of the training programme.
Areas of Contracting
The contract with the nominating organisations may, among others, cover the following
key areas.
Selection of the Participants and Providing Necessary Details
Selection of the participants in accordance with the criteria set out by the training agency,
keeping in view the time schedule. However, the contract must provide for some digressions
from the stipulations in view of special circumstances of a particular organisation. After
finalising the list of its nominees, it should communicate all necessary details to the training
agency. This will help the training team to collate this information and data and put together
a profile of the training group. This will be immensely helpful to the team in finalising the
methodology. Many organisations may not be too willing to make an extra effort to provide
the required information or data about the participants and consider it adequate enough to
communicate the names of the nominees and some other basic information. This tendency
should be discouraged.
Expectations from the Organisation and the Participants
Another important area for contracting relates to the expectations the agency has from the
organisation and vice versa. While expectations of the training agency from the organisations
are mainly programme related, their expectations may extend beyond the programme and
cover its organisational and administrative aspects as well. It is important that the agency
should state clearly what it can provide to the participants and what it cannot. In other
words, the agency needs to inform the organisations even about its limitations and constraints
in terms of both the programme contents and other related issues so that the participants
(and the organisation) are prepared for it.
The contract should also set out the expectations of the agency from the participants.
This is necessary because the organisations must know how the participants are expected to
conduct themselves during the programme, in training activities as well as in informal set-
tings. In fact, this should become part of the formal briefing of their nominees.
Expectations of the Participants
It is also the responsibility of the organisation to convey the expectations of the participants
to the agency. You may, therefore, suggest to the management to have a discussion with their
nominees well in advance of the programme and prepare a statement of their expectations.
It will also be necessary to communicate to the participants’ expectations of the agency from
them. Thus, the organisation acts as an important channel of communication between the
agency and the participants. These tasks should form part of the contract.
Post-training Follow-up
A key area for contracting will be the post-training follow-up work by the organisation—
ways in which the training is expected to be used. Though this contracting becomes relevant
only when the training is over, it is important that there is complete understanding between
the nominating organisations and the agency on this issue well before the programme is
rolled out.
The agency has heavy stakes in the application of training because that is where its efforts
find expression and are evaluated in terms of productive use of the training. If after all this
investment in time, efforts and financial resources, the participants do not get proper op-
portunities and environment and encouragement to transfer the training to the field situation,
the training will virtually come to naught. The need for this effort should be reflected in the
contracting. However, this is a somewhat contentious area. Some organisations may not
concede this task to the agency, emphasising that its responsibility ends with the conclusion
of the training. They may claim that when the participants get back to their jobs, they should
be accountable to the organisation and none else. This will require some persuasion on the
part of the agency.
It is, therefore, suggested that the training agency should have a dialogue with the nom-
inating organisation and identify some areas and possibilities that can be explored for
making optimum use of the training benefits. They must be conveyed the message that the
changes in the participants’ job behaviour can only be evaluated when their performance and
behaviour are evaluated by the organisation. The need for sharing these data should also be
emphasised as part of the agreement as this helps the training agency to assess the training
programme. The training agency continues to be a stakeholder even at this stage and it is ne-
cessary to make the organisations recognise this. This contracting will go a long way in im-
proving the quality of training, benefiting the organisations as well. The reputation and the
stakes of the training agency are higher here because it cannot only rely on the reaction-
oriented evaluation at the end of the programme. It has to measure the impact of the training
to the individual and subsequently to the organisation. It is, therefore, important that some
understanding has to be reached between the nominating organisations and the training
agency on this issue.
3.3.3 Contracting with the Participants
Pre-training
Contracting with the participants is very significant as they are the key players in the pro-
gramme. Contracting is implied in the materials you send to them well in advance of the
training and in the data you gather on their needs, expectations and the general profile,
relevant to their participation in the training. However, there may be some formal contracting
even at this stage.
The key purpose of contracting at the pre-training stage is to prepare the participants
for the programme—mentally, physically and professionally. They must know what to ex-
pect at the programme and what not and what is expected of them at the programme. Some
possible areas for contracting are:
z Some training programmes may require the participants to complete written or

reading assignments before they arrive for the training and this information has to be
conveyed to them through a proper communication. The nominating organisation
should also be duly informed of these assignments. In case, some help or guidance
is required at the organisation level, they should get it from their senior colleagues.
This will help them prepare mentally for the training, provide them the necessary
stimulation and get them in a proper mode for their participation.
z The materials sent to the participants should cover key aspects of the programme—
clearly stating the areas that are likely to be covered, issues that are likely to come up
for discussions, the methodology and the desired level of participation, and physical
facilities and general environment. It is also necessary at this stage to provide some
basic data about the agency and the training team. Information on organisational
and administrative matters is also important as there are generally a lot of queries
and concerns about these issues. This briefing will become the basis for formulat-
ing the ground rules at the start-up of the programme. If all the do’s and don’ts are
left for the beginning of the programme, there is a possibility that the participants
may resent some that they find unfavourable. If they know what to expect and
what not to before they arrive, and there is an agreement on that, this situation can
be avoided. The participants should be firmly advised to go through the materials
carefully and get in touch with the agency if they still have some concerns or queries.
Remember that the nature and extent of information provided to the participants is a
measure of level of the agency’s preparations for the programme, its work culture
and general functioning. Therefore, these materials should be prepared with a lot of
foresight, thoughtfulness and care. To the extent possible, these materials should be
able to set at rest the questions, concerns and curiosities of the participants.
z They should also be encouraged to spell out in writing their personal learning ob-
jectives from the programme. If they come with well-defined targets, they make a
commitment to themselves, to their organisation and to the agency. As a result, they
may be willing to put in an extra effort to get involved in the learning process, thus
enhancing their interest and participation in all training activities.
z The agency should also set out conditions for participation in the training and get
their agreement. Generally, these form part of the communication to the participants
prior to the programme, but in the absence of a formal understanding between them
and the agency, the chances are that they may not give due attention to these, leading
to some difficulties when they arrive for the programme. For your ready reference,
conditions stipulated by an international agency engaged in training in youth devel-
opment are given in Box 3.1. You may adapt them according to your conditions.
Box 3.1
Sample Conditions for Attending a Training Programme
z All participants must arrive by…(the date). No participant will be accepted after that date
unless permission is sought beforehand stating reasons for the delay. The sponsoring
organisation should certify the reason for delay.
z As this is a residential programme, it is compulsory for all participants to stay in the
agency campus. The living arrangements will be similar for all, regardless of participants’
positions in their organisation. No private arrangements will be permitted. As the pro-
gramme leads to an accredited Diploma, every participant will have to put in a minimum
of 90 per cent attendance to qualify for the award of the Diploma. Rules for absence due
to medical or other emergencies will be notified to you on arrival for the programme.
z Participants are expected to participate in all training activities.
z All home assignments should be completed before you join the programme and sub-
mitted soon after your arrival.
z Sometimes, training activities may extend beyond the stipulated hours and all will be
expected to participate.
z Please do not bring your spouse.
Start-up
The second stage of contracting will be at the start-up of the programme—after the partici-
pants arrive and before the actual training process commences. You must, however, remember
that contracting has a very specific purpose, to bring the stakeholders on board and help
them contribute to the success of the programme, therefore guard against contracting over-
kill. You may end up with all contracting but no effective conformity. Be careful that the
participants do not feel weighed down by the burden of contracting. They should not feel
constrained in their participation and while expressing their views on the training and other
related issues in a free and frank manner.
Here for the first time (in cases where there were no opportunities to meet the participants
before the programme) you come face to face with the participants. They are no longer mere
names but they are vibrant living organisms. Their identity is established by their faces and
by the attributes and behaviour they manifest through their interaction with one another
and the training team. Everything becomes so ‘real and alive’ for you. On their part, the par-
ticipants also meet the training team for the first time and their expectations and concerns
may start taking concrete form and substance. These may be different from the expectations
and concerns they had expressed on the basis of the programme-related materials sent to them
earlier. After meeting them, you may also modify your expectations from the participants on
the basis of data and information available to you through this initial interaction. Earlier, you
had data and information on paper but now you are meeting them in person. This two-way
fine-tuning of expectations and concerns, and some basic understanding of them—level of
knowledge and competencies, broad traits of their behaviour and their attitude towards the
programme—will help you put together a more realistic portrait of the group and individual
participants as well. Now you will contract with the ‘real’ persons. This will be immensely
helpful to you in the delivery of the programme.
Some suggested areas for start-up contracting are the following.
Participation in All Training Activities
As part of the pre-training exercise, you may invite the participants to carry out SWOT—
Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats—analysis. This exercise will provide
you data and information—in terms of their competencies, experience, communication and
interpersonal skills, and attitude—that help you formulate a strategy for enhancing their par-
ticipation and promoting the learning process in the group. Obviously, the strengths and
weaknesses will relate to the individual participant, but the opportunities and threats will be
in the context of the group and the training environment. What kind of opportunities they
wish to explore to learn from other members of the group and what possible impediments
they expect to confront in their ‘mission learning’.
This exercise will also bring out their hopes, fears and concerns in the context of the train-
ing, trainers and the group. Once the data are analysed and collated, you may get profile
of each participant appropriate to the training. From these data you may also prepare the
general profile of the group. These data and information should be shared with the group,
and some of the elements can provide you with the basis for finalising a contract (including
the ground rules) between the training team and the participants. These data may also help
you get better insights into the potential, competencies and attitudes of the participants and
the group, as a whole. You must make a sincere effort to balance their hopes and concerns.
These data may also help you fine-tune your training strategy and methodology.
(For cross-reference see Chapter 5, section on ‘Empowering the group’.)
Administrative Issues
This is not complicated and for most part it is informing not really contracting. Plans for
meals, living rooms, start and end times. But acknowledgement of information and agree-
ment with that is also contracting. This minimises their questions later or criticism on certain
administrative issues, ‘We were not told about this’.
It is advised that you prepare a checklist in discussion with the administrative and support
staff as there should be harmony between the organisational rules, regulations and procedures,
and the ground rules for the participants. Some of the areas may be:
z Phone calls.
z Guests (visitors).
z Leave (sickness, and so on).
z Medical care.
z Materials they would require.

z Accounts (travel, expenses, and so on).
If it is a long-term residential programme, it is better to set up a ‘facilitating and ad-

ministrative committee’. All concerns and problems related to administrative issue can be
addressed.
Evening Assignments and Extended Sessions
Another important item of contracting relates to evening assignments or working hours

beyond the schedule. Tell them ahead of time what is expected and specifically how much
time will be required outside the training schedule for completing the assigned tasks. How
often will they get evening assignments? How often you expect the sessions to get extended
beyond normal working hours. It is, however, not possible for you to visualise all the exi-
gencies regarding these extra hours of working. Accordingly, caution the group.
Ground Rules—General ‘Do’s and Don’ts’
The ground rules may relate to general norms of discipline and conduct at the training. This
may differ according to the working methods and procedures of an agency, but broadly the
areas may include:
z Programme agenda—its scope and limitations.

z Reiteration of what you are able to and willing to provide and ‘not provide’. The
limitations should be set out.
z Absenteeism from sessions.
z Intra-group relations.
z Communication with the support staff.
z Decision-making mechanism in the group.
z Handling digressions.
Post-training
While this is a key area of contracting between the nominating organisation and the training
agency, it may be useful to get their views and options on how they foresee the possibilities
for application of training in their job situation. They may not be able to give you specific
plans, but they can provide you with some pointers on what they can achieve if proper
opportunities are extended for application of learning to work situations. Therefore, this
will not be in the form of a formal contract. As noted earlier in another context, there are
many factors that determine the extent to which training can be transferred to actual job
situations.
z In any training programme, several organisations, agencies and individuals are

involved in planning and delivering it. The nature and scope of their involvement,
however, differ considerably. Also, the benefits that are likely to accrue to each of these
stakeholders are different.
z The participants are among the key stakeholders. Although they may not have an
active role in the planning of the programme, they are extremely important players
in its delivery. In fact, their active involvement is very crucial to its success.
z Among the key functions of the training agency in the context of the training
programme are:
Communicating with the funding or the sponsoring agency.
Communicating with nominating organisations.
Getting together the training team for the programme, including outside
specialists.
Providing appropriate environment to participants.
Coordinating professional and administrative inputs.
Following-up with the nominating organisations.
z Organisations nominating participants have the following key responsibilities:
Identification of training needs ( pre-training).
Selection of participants ( pre-training).
Communicating its expectations from the programme ( pre-training).
Monitoring the progress of its participants (during training).
Transfer of training to the field ( post-training).
z Contracting is fundamental to the success of the training programme. In the
absence of working contracts with various stakeholders before the event begins,
the ability of the training agency and the training team to deliver it in accordance
with the expectations of the client groups will be affected.
z Areas for contracting with the organisations nominating participants are:
Selection of the participants and providing necessary details.
Expectations from the organisation and the participants.
Expectations of the participants.
Post-training follow-up.
z Areas for contracting with the participants are:
Participation.
Administrative issues.
Evening assignments and extended sessions.
Ground rules—general ‘do’s and don’ts’.
4
Steps in Preparing a Training Design
After having discussed issues related to training, the learning process and the role and
functions of the stakeholders in a training programme, we are now properly equipped to
examine the process of planning a training programme. This chapter takes you, step by step,
through the entire process of designing a training programme. To facilitate comprehension
of some complex concepts and issues and for assisting you in preparing the design, a number
of examples have been given as part of the text or in separate boxes. While appropriate cross-
references have been indicated where relevant, it is suggested that you go through the earlier
chapters carefully so that you feel competent for the task. Specifically, the chapter deals with
the following key areas:
z Origin of a Training Programme

z Identifying and Analysing Training Needs
z Setting out Programme Objectives
z Steps in Preparing the Action Plan for the Programme
z Key Considerations in Designing a Programme
z Communicating Information on the Programme
Learning Outcomes
z Acquire knowledge on the genesis of a training programme.

z Get familiar with the sources through which training needs of a group of participants
can be identified and learn about their analysis.
z Write programme objectives for a training programme.
z Prepare an action plan for a training programme, discussing the steps that are neces-
sary for its formulation.
z List out and discuss the factors that need to be taken into consideration in developing
a training design.
z Draft a communication to the participants, informing them of their selection and
giving the information they need before they leave for the training venue.
4.1 ORIGIN OF A TRAINING PROGRAMME
Establishing a need for training for a particular group or in a specific area, related either to
professional development or to personal growth, is often the first step in the organisation of
a programme. This need may arise due to the following possibilities:
z The agency may feel that certain areas of training or competencies in which it has
developed considerable expertise and acquired credibility continue to be relevant in
the existing scenario of organisational functioning and there is still a good deal of
demand for such training. It may organise training for a larger coverage of organ-
isations and groups who are likely to benefit from that training.
z The organisations may take up new programmes and activities and enter into new
ventures. These new areas of organisational intervention or agenda for action may
emerge from the changing economic and social scenario, emphasis on certain areas
on the basis of national or international priorities or through the normal process
of organisational growth and expansion. In light of this, they may realise that
in order to effectively meet these new challenges and keep pace with these new
developments, their professional functionaries need to broaden the range of their
knowledge and competencies, consistent with the present requirements. The agency
may undertake the task of identifying these new areas and developing appropriate
training programmes or modules to respond to the training needs.
z In view of technological or professional developments in certain areas, there may be
the need for updating knowledge and competencies in these areas. The agency may
set out to recognise these requirements and develop suitable training modules.
For organising a training programme, the initiative can come from:
a training agency or a group of trainers,
an organisation that is interested in the training of its staff or
a group of organisations, working in similar fields or areas.
Steps in Preparing a Training Design z 101
4.1.1 Initiative by a Training Agency

Broadly, initiative by a training agency can take three forms:
z The agency identifies general training needs of a specific target group such as field-level
workers engaged in planning and delivering community development programmes,
young entrepreneurs, managers or supervisors working in a particular setting, policy
makers or planners or adult education workers. It is assumed that the organisations for
which the training is being proposed have a lot in common in terms of functions/
programmes/services and, therefore, training needs of the specific category of their
professional functionaries are also similar.
z Another possibility is that an agency identifies training needs in a particular area of
organisational functioning or personal growth, such as planning and management of
programmes/projects, marketing and sales, teamwork, preparing and conducting a survey,
interpersonal communication or management of social development organisations. Here
also the premise is that the group of participants, who are likely to be targeted,
belong to organisations that are working in similar fields. This is to ensure a certain
degree of comparability between their training needs.
z The training agency may be in a position to identify broad and generic training
needs of its client organisations or groups, engaged in similar activities or sharing
common goals. These needs, if appropriately addressed, will contribute to enhan-
cing organisational effectiveness and increasing productivity. For example, organ-
isations engaged in community-based programmes, small business enterprises or
public service organisations.
Based on the perceived training needs—existent or future—the agency may prepare a broad
framework of the programme and market it to those organisations, groups and individuals,
who are likely to benefit from it. Obviously, such programmes are not customised for an
organisation but target a specific group of functionaries, a cluster of organisations or cover
a particular training area. As part of the marketing action, the agency explains the rationale
for the programme and indicates the benefits that are likely to accrue to the participants or
to the organisations. Once the response and comments of the organisations are received by
the agency, it is in a position to decide on further action. If the response is favourable and
supportive of the proposed training, the agency has the option of either going ahead with it
right away or organising it at a more opportune time, later. If it decides to proceed with the
programme, it can be planned in accordance with the steps set out later in this chapter. If the
organisations indicate little interest in the proposal, it is a signal for the agency to review it.
In order to organise training that is relevant and useful to the organisations and responds
to their actual training requirements, the agency should be proactive and perceptive of the
developments in the areas that fall within the ambit of its functioning. It should stay a step
ahead and envisage changes that are occurring or are likely to come about in the foreseeable
future in these areas. This will help it to realistically assess the emerging training needs. This
course of action enables it to maintain high operational standards and affirm its credibility
with the organisations it aims to serve. An important ongoing function of a training agency,
therefore, is to explore, gather and put together information and data on potential training
needs or areas. This task is facilitated if the agency maintains regular communication with its
client organisations or the target groups.
4.1.2 Initiative by an Organisation

An organisation may request a customised programme in accordance with its specific train-
ing requirements. Generally, in such cases, the organisation bears the full or the bulk of the
costs. Many business organisations or public sector undertakings opt for this approach. In
view of its investment and higher stakes, the organisation has a major role in the planning
and delivery of the programme, also setting the objectives it seeks to achieve. The initiative
of the organisation may be based on any of the following reasons:
z When an organisation recruits new staff, it needs to prepare them for taking up their
new assignment. The orientation involves informing the staff of the organisational
goals and methods of working, and familiarising them with their responsibilities and
tasks. If there are no in-house facilities or expertise for conducting such a programme,
the organisation may either request an established training agency or commission a
group of trainers for the purpose.
z In order to enhance efficiency and increase productivity, an organisation may intro-
duce substantive changes in its functioning, production methods and working pro-
cedures. Obviously, it would want to acquaint the affected staff with these changes
and their implications to their work. In order to facilitate expeditious adoption of
these changes, the organisation may opt for training.
z In some cases, the management of an organisation may consider training as the best
option to improve its functioning. The focus of such a programme could be one or
more areas, specific to the work of the organisation. This also provides an oppor-
tunity to the management to appraise the functioning of the organisation. Some of
the areas that this training programme could cover are:
Identifying bottlenecks in its functioning.
Finding solutions to the existent management- or production-related problems.
Improving problem-solving and decision-making competencies of the staff.
Developing necessary competencies in the staff for meeting production or pro-
gramme targets.
Promoting organisational communication and staff relations.
Developing appropriate attitude for positive management in the supervisory or
managerial staff.
(For cross-reference see Chapter 1, section on ‘Levels of Training’.)
4.1.3 Initiative by a Group of Organisations

A group of organisations, engaged in similar activities, may identify their existing or future
training needs, either independently or through mutual consultation. They may then com-
municate their requirements to a training agency or a group of trainers and request a suitable
programme. If the agency is not in a position to organise it immediately because of financial

or administrative constraints, it may include it in its future training plan. The agency has
the option of consulting other similar organisations to find out whether they share these
needs. If more organisations show interest in the programme, the case for organising it is
strengthened and it can also be cost-effective.
4.2 IDENTIFYING AND ANALYSING TRAINING NEEDS
4.2.1 Understanding Training Needs
Training needs may be understood as areas (of action and behaviour) pertinent to profes-
sional or personal growth of an individual in which she considers herself to be inappropriately
or inadequately equipped for performing the designated tasks effectively or coping with life
situations in a constructive and healthy way.
In all cases, training needs may not be directly perceived by the organisation where an
individual works or by her. The organisation or the individual may require assistance and
guidance from others, including specialists in the field or the training agency.
In planning a programme, proper assessment of the training needs of the participating
organisations or the target group is crucial. The extent to which it responds to the training
needs of the training group is a key determinant of its success. It defines its nature and scope
and helps in setting out its direction and objectives.
Training needs could be expressed in terms of components such as information, know-
ledge, competencies, and attitudes and values. (These components have been discussed in
detail in Chapter 2.) This categorisation is helpful in converting the training needs into
topics, training areas and modules and provides a sound basis for determining the nature of
inputs required. It also enables you to decide on suitable training activities and the methods
you should use for delivering a particular module or topic.
4.2.2 Identifying Training Needs
Regardless on whose initiative the training programme is being organised, the first step
in designing it is to identify and catalogue the training needs of the proposed target group
or the organisations. This exercise takes into consideration not only the existing situation
in these organisations but, to some extent, the post-training scenario as well. The process of
identifying training needs is, therefore, often complex and extensive. The exercise can be
time-consuming as well. If the programme aims to bring together participants from a num-
ber of organisations, the task becomes even more difficult.
As indicated in an earlier chapter, in any training programme, the organisations, the train-
ing agency and the participants are the key stakeholders. One can, therefore, assume that
each has a role in the process of identifying training needs. Evidently, the task becomes much
easier when these three partners collaborate and work together. However, the contribution
that each of them makes to this task differs, depending on the nature of the programme and
its sponsorship. For instance, in an orientation programme organised at the initiative of a

particular organisation, the organisation itself has a crucial role to play. It is familiar with the
assignment that the new incumbents are likely to undertake after training, and, therefore, it
is in the best position to provide the necessary data on training needs to the training agency.
Similarly, in cases where the training is organised to enhance organisational functioning,
the organisation is expected to take major responsibility for identifying training needs.
In the courses offered by a training agency as pre-service training for specified target groups,
the onus for developing such courses is on the agency. It may draw information and data
from various sources but, ultimately, it has the responsibility to collate this information and
develop appropriate contents or modules. However, in an in-service programme, probably,
all three partners have a lot to contribute to the process of identifying training needs.
(For cross-reference and further details see Chapter 1.)
The extent to which a training programme realistically reflects training needs of the tar-
get group depends on how closely the partners in the proposed programme have worked
together in the pre-training phase. It is, therefore, necessary for the training agency or the
training team to get the client organisations actively engaged in the exercise of identify-
ing training needs, well in advance of the programme.
Identifying Training Needs for Different Programmes
As a trainer, you will be associated with a wide range of pre-service and in-service training
programmes. As part of your responsibilities, you will be actively engaged in the exercise
of identifying training needs. However, for carrying this task, you require considerable
information and data about the target group or the participants. It is also likely that the or-
ganisation may seek your guidance and help in identifying the needs of their nominees.
Depending on the approach you wish to pursue, you may employ job analysis, the use of
which has been explained later in this chapter. To facilitate your work, the procedure that
you should follow in identifying training needs is described in the following paragraphs.
Translating Deficiencies in Performance into Training Needs
When prescribed standards of performance are not met by an individual and her immediate
superiors or the senior management diagnose this problem as lacking the required com-
petencies, they may consider training as an option for developing or updating the necessary
competencies through training. Obviously, this presupposes a sound system of performance
appraisal in the organisation on the basis of which these deficiencies can be recorded. In
such cases, the data that will help you identify specific training needs of the nominees of
the organisation to your programme are expected to be provided by it. Your task will be to
convert these data into tangible training needs. This you can accomplish by undertaking job
analysis (as discussed later) with respect to the nominees and by using a suitable rating scale
to find out the present level of proficiency of the nominee and the point to which the seniors
of the nominee want her to go. This necessitates intensive dialogue with the management.
Training Needs of a Specific Group of Functionaries
If you propose to organise training for a specific category of functionaries or persons holding
positions with similar responsibilities, you should follow the steps indicated in the job analy-
sis for each of the functions, for instance, managers, project officers, financial officers, young
entrepreneurs, youth leaders or community workers. At the end of the exercise, you will get
a list of broad areas of training needs for the particular position. However, usually, you may
be required to supplement these data with some specific training needs of the organisations
participating in this training programme.
If an organisation requests an orientation or an in-service programme, targeting exclu-
sively its own staff carrying out similar responsibilities, the task of identifying training needs
is relatively easier. You can secure necessary data and information on the functions and
responsibilities of new incumbents or existing staff from the organisation itself. However,
the organisation may ask the agency to assist it in the task of converting the designated
functions into specific training needs. You should carry out the exercise in accordance with
the procedure detailed under job analysis.
Diagnosing Training Needs in a Specified Training Area
If the training programme focuses on a particular functional area, for identifying training
needs, you can adopt the procedure mentioned earlier.
Training Needs for Enhancing Organisational Effectiveness
If training is aimed at enhancing overall functioning of an organisation, you should involve

senior management personnel actively in the process of determining training needs and
designing the training programme. It is assumed that the organisation is clear about its
objectives while requesting the programme. It should spell out its agenda and indicate its
expectations right at the outset.
If the reason for training is the decision of the organisation to extend its area of operation
or increase its range of services and programmes, identification of training needs is relatively
easier. On the other hand, if training is considered a response to intra-organisational prob-
lems such as falling standards of performance, lack of team work, low productivity, inter-
departmental conflicts, organisational communication or working procedures, the exercise
can be somewhat complex. It is quite conceivable that the organisation itself may not fully
understand the nature and dimensions of the problem. In such situations, you have to look
for clues and determine how these can lead you to the problems that afflict the organisation
and the staff. You should be prepared to have an intensive dialogue with senior management
to identify training needs.
Sources for Identifying Training Needs
Broadly, three key sources for identifying training needs of a particular training group or
a participant can be suggested. Although they are independent sources for gathering the
necessary data, you must consider them as complementary to one another as the objective of
the exercise is to prepare a consolidated list of training needs. The three sources are:
z Job profile.
z Experience of the training agency.
z Pre-training survey of the participants’ needs.
Job Profile
Job profile is a description of functions and responsibilities that a job holder is expected to
carry out in pursuance of her/his assignment. It is a key source for knowing training needs
of a group of functionaries performing or expected to perform similar functions. It can also
provide useful data on the training needs of a participant whose performance is not up to
the expected mark. In both cases, the exercise of identifying training needs can be carried out
through the method of job analysis (discussed in the following paragraphs). Obviously, the
organisations nominating participants for the training programme will be actively associated
in assisting the training agency in specifying training needs through job profiles.
Job Analysis: An Instrument for Identifying Training Needs

There are many methods and techniques available for identifying training needs from
the job description of a functionary. However, for the purpose of this Handbook, we
will use job analysis as an instrument for identifying training needs. Job analysis, as
described later, can be immensely helpful in determining training needs in cases where
deficiency in performance is the reason for training or the programme is targeted to a
particular category of functionaries, or it aims to cover a specific training area.
A realistic and systematic appraisal of training needs involves the following steps:
z Break up the functions and responsibilities into specific, practical tasks or activities.
z Classify these tasks/activities on the basis of their relative importance to the nature
of the job and the position. For doing this, proceed as follows:
Prepare separate listing of the core tasks that are crucial to the job, those
which could be deemed as secondary or supportive tasks and those which are
peripheral in nature and do not require special skills.
Find out the frequency of a task—daily, weekly or monthly. This could provide
a clue to the relative importance of a particular task to the overall functions.
You could analyse the tasks/activities from another angle. Tasks that are
performed directly by the nominated participant, those which are carried out
by other colleagues (or subordinates) but the incumbent has the supervisory
responsibility and those which are performed as a team and she does not have
a direct responsibility need to be listed separately.
z After the aforesaid process is completed, it is possible for you to compute a priority
listing of the tasks/activities that the nominee is expected to carry out in discharge
of her function. These tasks/activities now need to be matched to requirements
in terms of knowledge, skills/competencies and attitudes or values. This exercise
should be carried out for all priority tasks/activities. At the end of this, we will
have a catalogue of knowledge, skills and attitudes required for effective perform-
ance of the job. (For details see Chapter 2, section on ‘Components of learning’.)
These are, in substance, the training needs for that particular job. Other supple-
mentary requirements could be added.
Example
The following example, taken from a non-governmental organisation working in India

in the area of community health, will further explain the process involved in the job analysis
exercise.
Job Title: Community Health Worker
Functions:
z Conduct a baseline survey.
z Mobilise the community.
z Provide services to young couples, pregnant women and infants.
z Referrals to other Public Health Centres/sub-centres for clinical services.
z Keep proper records of all services and submit monthly reports to Health Supervisor.
Functions Tasks/job activities Requirements

Mobilise the Mobilise support of community Information on community health
community leaders, decision makers and programmes of other agencies
for community influential persons in the community functioning in the area.
health for advocacy on family planning and Information on Public Health
programmes reproductive health. Centres/sub-centres existing in
Sensitise the community on gender nearby areas.
issues. Information on demographic
Organise and/or strengthen local situation in the community.
groups as fora for disseminating Knowledge of dynamics of local
information on community health community.
and family planning areas and issues.
Knowledge gender issues.
Network with health workers
Skills in organising community.
of community development
programmes. Skills in working with groups.
Mobilise people for setting Skills in establishing networks and
up health committees. making them functional.
It must, however, be pointed out that training needs with regard to attitudes and be-
haviour of the participants will not be explicitly reflected in the information produced by
this instrument. In all cases, you will be required to have a thorough look at the data and
interpret them in a manner that reveals some clues about the attitudes and values that are
crucial to the performance of the job. It is then up to you and your colleagues to decide in
what form these could be included in the programme and determine the approach you
should follow in fostering them in the participants.
Experience of the Training Agency
The training agency and the trainers should also draw from their own experiences of or-
ganising programmes for comparable groups or in similar areas. However, you need to
be somewhat careful here. These experiences cannot become the sole basis for identifying
training needs of a group. At best, earlier experiences of the agency facilitate the task of
needs identification. Even if two target groups have similar functions to perform or the
training is in a specific training area, it will be unwise to assume that the training needs
of the two groups will also be the same. Sometimes, as a measure of expediency or just to
avoid the hassle of going through the time-consuming planning process again, the training
team may decide to repeat the programme they had so successfully carried out earlier in
a similar area or for a similar group. The trainers may feel that they know it all as they
have done it before. This is not a professional approach. It is, therefore, suggested that the
data available to the agency through its earlier experiences should be matched with those
generated by other sources to arrive at a composite list of training needs.
Pre-training Survey of the Participants’ Needs
In order to get inputs from the participants during the planning process, it is suggested that
the training agency should carry out a pre-training survey of their needs and expectations,
well in advance of the programme. And in this exercise, you should aim to involve the or-
ganisations as well. Perhaps, they are in a good position to provide necessary data on the
training needs of their nominees, especially in the context of their performance. This could
be done through a structured questionnaire or organised discussion. The exercise should not
be a superficial one but it should reflect a genuine desire on the part of the agency and the
training team to involve the participants and the client organisations in the planning pro-
cess. This initial contact also helps in establishing a functional bond with the participants.
By engaging them in the process, you also prepare them for the programme by stimulating
their interest and curiosity.
If for some reasons you are not able to actively involve the organisations in this exercise,
you must ensure that they are kept fully informed of it. It has been observed that some
organisations are not comfortable with pre-training contacts between the training agency
and their nominees. It is, therefore, advisable that communication between the participants
and the agency should be open and transparent. It is not always possible to get accurate and
complete information from the selected participants. Some of them, for their own reasons,
may choose to either avoid responding to your questionnaire or complete it in a sketchy
manner. Under the circumstances, it is often not easy for you to get proper data on actual
training needs. You should keep this factor in view while analysing the data generated by
the survey.
One of the key methods for getting data on the participants’ training needs is a structured
questionnaire. However, you should give special attention to the drafting of the question-
naires. The questions in the pre-training survey need to be drafted in an objective and indirect
way. The questionnaire should not expect the participants to evaluate their performance either
in the organisation or in relation to the areas likely to be covered by the training programme.
Instead, you should encourage them to examine how adequately equipped they are to carry
out their assigned responsibilities in an efficient manner and what further inputs they would
require to improve their performance. Questions should be framed in a way that they facili-
tate clear and explicit responses, providing you with relevant and reliable data. No more and
no less. My experience is that if the questions are posed in a non-threatening and straight-
forward form, you get honest responses. This makes the analysis more meaningful, easier
and less time-consuming.
4.2.3 Analysing Training Needs
Once training needs have been identified, it is not just a matter of going ahead and in-
corporating them in the programme. Your next task is to analyse and translate them into
specific topics and modules that constitute the contents. This exercise may be carried out in
the following manner:
z The first step for you is to consolidate the data and information gathered from
different sources and through various methods. This will help you prepare a list
of common training needs. Based on how strongly a particular need is put across
in different sources, this exercise will also enable you to pick out those needs that
would require greater emphasis during the training. On the other hand, it is not un-
usual to come across considerable dissimilarities in the training needs. There could
also be mutually conflicting demands from other stakeholders of the programme—
participating organisations and the participants. Often, you will have to rely on your
experience and professional judgement to decide which of these needs are irrelevant
or superfluous and do not merit consideration.
The next step is to prioritise these needs. The objective is to ensure optimum use
of the time spent by the participants and to get maximum value for financial and
human resources invested in the programme. The priority listing of the training
needs provides the basis for deciding on the objectives and training contents. It
involves examining whether these needs are within the scope of the programme.
You must also match the training needs with the expertise available with the training
agency or what may be mobilised from external sources. The duration is another
factor in deciding on the needs that could be included.
z As you are engaged in the process of preparing the priority list on the basis of pre-
training survey of the participants’ expectations, you may find that there are train-
ing needs that are mentioned by a large number of participants, in one form or
the other. You can consolidate them as they form the core of the group needs and
should be fully reflected in the contents, if you find them within the scope of the
programme objectives. There will also be needs that are not shared across but are sig-
nificant enough to be considered for inclusion in the contents. Evidently, these two
lists have immense significance for you and provide you the basis on which the con-
tents are developed or modified.
z It is useful for you to prepare a separate list of the needs that find mention in the
data gathered by you (especially from participants’ expectations) but do not fall
within the purview of the programme. You and other colleagues in the planning
team may re-examine the framework and consider the possibility of including at
least some of these needs in the training. The objective is to make it as inclusive as
possible, of course, keeping in mind the organisational and operational constraints.
z Analysing training needs also implies striking a balance between the macro needs,
common to an organisation or an occupational group, and the micro needs, specific
to an individual or a significant group of participants. In some cases, these needs
have a lot of training value and they cannot be completely ignored. Even though
they may not fall within the purview of the programme, they ought to be reflected
in it, in one form or the other. You have the option of organising special sessions
for subgroups or individuals, focusing on these unmet needs. This strategy is helpful
in motivating the participants, as it sends a message to them that the training team
values their needs and suggestions.
z As you peruse the expectations of the participants, you may come across needs that
are tangible—specific and concrete, expressible in the form of topics or modules—
while some others are not explicitly stated. They may even be vague. It is necessary
to examine them closely to find out whether they refer to other training elements
such as motivation, interpersonal relations at the workplace, attitude towards work,
teamwork and job values. These elements may not be expressed concretely but, in
most cases, underpin the training process and carry considerable significance in the
context of the objectives and the contents.
4.3 SETTING OUT PROGRAMME OBJECTIVES
4.3.1 Understanding Programme Objectives
The process of setting out the objectives constitutes the foundation of a good and effective
training programme. However, before we proceed further in our discussion, it is important to
make a distinction between objectives for the training programme, as a whole, and learning
outcomes or objectives for a topic, module or block of sessions. Programme objectives are
broad statements of intent, action and outcomes. They articulate final outcomes or end
results of the training. They describe what the participants will be able to do or perform at
the end of the schedule—by way of changes, new developments or improvements in their
job or personal behaviour—as direct outcomes. On the other hand, learning objectives ex-
press learning expected from a specific training activity, event or module. Sometimes, they
are also referred to as intermediate objectives. Thus, programme objectives can be described
as the aggregate of learning outcomes or intermediate objectives.
These objectives are associated with three broad areas of learning. They reflect the scope
of changes that can come about in an individual from participation in the training. Cognitive
learning focuses on acquisition of information and knowledge, including concepts, theories,
principles, and so on, in relation to topics and issues that constitute the programme. A par-
ticipant also develops skills and competencies in the context of the tasks that she is expected to
carry out as part of her job responsibilities and other life situations. This results in substantive
behavioural changes that will help her bring about improvement in her performance. The third
area relates to fostering of appropriate values and attitudes, and extending guidance in better
management of emotions and feelings in response to people and situations, contributing to
personal development. Training also enhances the adaptability of an individual to various
social and organisational processes and conditions and assists in positive reinforcement of
societal values. These can be referred to as affective changes. These three areas of changes,
however, should not be treated in isolation to one another. They are interrelated. What is
attempted in the training is their integration, resulting in a multi-dimensional approach to
the development of the participants.
Programme objectives are not just directed at engendering changes in personal or job
behaviour. They signify a forward movement in an individual’s personal or work life as well.
They are either growth- or development oriented, although they may appear to be merely
addressing inadequacies or shortcomings of the participants. Even when the changes are
in the area of attitudes and values, they aim to enhance the adaptability of an individual to
various social and organisational processes and conditions. They represent a positive re-
inforcement of societal values.
4.3.2 Need for Setting Programme Objectives
Provide Direction to the Programme
The objectives define the direction and course of action for the programme. They indicate
areas of emphasis. This helps the training team in planning its strategy, in informing the
participants what route they would take during the training and in appraising the organ-
isations of the changes they should expect on the return of their nominees. This is a basic
requirement of any training programme and a right of the participants and the organisations
that nominate participants.
Serve as a Basis for Evaluation
The objectives provide a useful and sound basis for determining the criteria for evaluating
the programme and appraising the performance of the participants. They enable you to as-
sess whether you have been able to achieve what you had set out to do at the beginning.
This also facilitates the process of setting standards of performance for the training team and
participants.
Tool for Meeting Participants’ Training Needs
The participants are able to examine whether their training needs and expectations are ad-
equately reflected in the contents through the objectives. The extent to which their individual
training needs are being met is a key factor in motivating them for active participation and
involvement. Programme objectives also assist the participants in establishing their personal
learning objectives.
Define Limits for the Programme
Programme objectives also set out parameters for the programme. They make the trainers
aware of what they can do and what they cannot. As the participants are also informed of the
framework of the objectives, it will prevent at least some of them from making extravagant
and unusual demands on the training team.
4.3.3 Establishing Programme Objectives—

Considerations and Guidelines
Programme objectives are established on the basis of training needs. It is, therefore, important
that the planning team should give its utmost attention to the process of identifying training
needs, the process for which has been described earlier in this section. You need to ensure that
an appropriate methodology is adopted for the exercise and it is based on sound procedures
and principles. Otherwise, the process of establishing programme objectives can get vitiated.
Some of the points that you should keep in mind while setting out programme objectives
are discussed as follows.
Programme Objectives Are Set Out from the Learners’ Perspective
A participant is the direct and immediate beneficiary of the training process and, therefore, it
is only logical that the programme objectives should clearly state the benefits that are likely
to accrue to her. The language of the objectives should reflect this. For example, in writing
the objectives, the use of the words, ‘to provide’, ‘to give’ or ‘to impart’, implies that the
objectives will be met once the trainers have carried out the training activity or completed
their assignment of ‘providing’ inputs or ‘imparting’ knowledge. This, however, does not
meet the requirement indicated earlier. It spells out the task of the trainers but does not
specify the benefits that will flow to a participant at the end of the training. It does not tell
us what happens to the participant as a result of the training or what changes occur in her as a
consequence of the learning process activated by the training activities. It is, therefore, im-
portant that while the programme objectives may also suggest the nature of efforts (on the
part of the trainers) to get the results, the primary aim is to inform the participants (and the
nominating organisations) of the learning they should expect to receive at the conclusion of
the schedule. The statement is about the ‘final product’ and not necessary about what goes
into putting it together.
Objectives Should Be Specific
Programme objectives should be specific and explicitly stated. Specificity is the key to a well-
written one. Be sure that what you intend to convey is communicated clearly and understood
by all, especially the participants and those associated with the delivery of the programme. If
an objective is stated in general or vague terms, it can be open to different and unintended
interpretations and this can create a lot of confusion and possible misgivings. Try to avoid
such a situation. Write the objectives in simple, clear language. Do not use rhetoric or orna-
mental language. It is not a test of your language skills.
Be Realistic and Practical
Do not attempt to promise a lot of things in the training objectives. You may be tempted to
put down a long list of objectives just to make the programme appear more comprehensive
or marketable, but, in the process, you would be committing yourself to things that you
are not in a position to deliver. These objectives should be achievable. You need to keep in
mind the scope of the contents, recognise the ground realities and your and the agency’s
limitations. Do not be too ambitious. Adopt a practical approach and you will have no
reason to rue later.
Do Not Promise Results which Are Beyond Your Control
In framing the objectives, it is not prudent to articulate benefits that might accrue to an
organisation in the post-training scenario. Although the ultimate objective of the training is to
improve job performance of the participant leading to increased organisational productivity,
it is important to remember that neither can be guaranteed by you or the training agency.
Transfer of training to the field situation and translating the acquired learning into action
and job behaviour depend on a number of organisational and personal factors, most of which
are often not within your or the training agency’s control. This, however, does not mean that
your responsibility ends with the conclusion of the programme. The training agency should
take steps to ensure that the learning resulting from the training is duly transferred to the
field situation and the trained participant contributes to increasing the productivity of the
sponsoring organisation and improves its work and functioning. The organisation may even
request your assistance in realising these objectives.
Box 4.1
Sample Programme Objectives
Training Programme: Training for Entrepreneurship
At the end of the training programme, the participants will be able to:
z Discuss and analyse the concept and dynamics of leadership and examine its application
to the situation in their respective organisations.
z Illustrate various theories and models of leadership and appraise their relevance and
validity to their job.
z Become aware of their leadership style and recognise the need for bringing about
changes in accordance with the requirements of the job and the organisation.
Training Programme: Training for Entrepreneurship
At the end of the training programme, the participants will be able to:
z Analyse the concept and scope of entrepreneurship in the context of their background
and situation.
z Fully understand and appreciate the values, attitudes and behavioural patterns that
are consistent with the requirements and profile of an entrepreneur; and decide on
measures to imbibe them.
z Formulate a business plan or a project report for a particular business venture.
z Develop competencies necessary for the launching, resourcing and managing of a
business enterprise.
Training Programme: Developing Skills for Performance Appraisal
At the end of the programme, the participants will be able to:
z Illustrate the meaning, purpose and scope of performance appraisal in the context of
the functioning of an organisation.
z Devise and establish a performance appraisal system, appropriate to the philosophy,
objectives and needs of the organisation; and prepare suitable instruments and tools.
z Acquire competencies in operating a performance appraisal system in an effective
manner.
Objectives Should Be Measurable
As mentioned earlier, the objectives provide a sound basis for measuring the progress of the
programme and its ultimate outcomes. However, if the objective is not specific and con-
crete, it will be difficult to carry out this task. If the changes emanating from participation
are tangible, it is not difficult to construct tools and instruments for an evaluation of the results.
On the other hand, if changes are intangible and not amenable to easy appraisal, you will
require special instruments for evaluating the outcomes and results of the training. This can
be the case with regard to the behavioural or affective changes that may occur in a participant
as a result of the training inputs.
(For cross-reference and more details refer to Chapter 9.)
Flexibility
It is presumptuous on the part of the training team to expect that the plan would be im-
plemented strictly in accordance with the established objectives. Trainers should be open to
making suitable modifications in the objectives in light of an assessment of the programme

and reasonable suggestions from the participants. Therefore, there should be an in-built
flexibility in framing these objectives.
4.4 STEPS IN PREPARING THE ACTION PLAN FOR THE PROGRAMME
4.4.1 Identify Programme Contents
After you have established programme objectives on the basis of the training needs, deriving
the contents from them is relatively easy. Your task is to closely analyse the objectives,
interpret them and translate them into training areas and topics. The suggestions and clues
are all there. In fact, as you go through the process of putting down the objectives, a structure
of the programme begins to emerge before you. In as much as the contents should reflect
the objectives, the latter should also provide enough indication and suggestions about the
modules and topics that constitute the contents of the training.
Once you have a provisional list of training areas and topics, prepare a priority list by
examining their value and relevance to the theme and scope of the programme—what must be
included, what should be included and what could be included. The draft contents should
be re-examined to ensure their compatibility with the objectives. Are they in harmony with
each other? If necessary, carry out modifications and then finalise them.
4.4.2 Break up Programme Contents into Sub-topics or Modules
This step involves elaborating upon and expressing the contents in distinctly identifiable
sub-topics or modules, all set for delivery. It entails breaking up the whole into smaller,
recognisable, distinguishable parts. Sometimes, it is difficult to comprehend or understand
a training area or topic but when it is broken into smaller constituents it acquires meaning
and relevance. It is also possible that big topics may not provide adequate clues with regard
to the strategy and method to be adopted for their delivery. However, once a topic is broken
into smaller elements, the task becomes relatively easier. This exercise also assists you in
sequencing and organising programme content.
Examples: The topic ‘Conflict and Its Management’ can be broken into sub-topics
or modules such as conflict—genesis and meaning, functional and dysfunctional
conflict, factors affecting conflict, the process of conflict, intra-group and inter-group
conflicts, strategies and approaches in conflict management.
‘Organisational Communication’ can be elaborated into sub-topics or modules
such as meaning and purpose, the process, decision-making and organisational com-
munication, factors influencing organisational communication, strategies for promot-
ing organisational communication.
4.4.3 Categorise Contents into Information, Knowledge,

Competencies and Attitudes
The next task for you is to categorise the programme contents into components like infor-
mation, knowledge, competencies, and attitudes and values.
4.4.4 Organise and Sequence Programme Contents
Organising and sequencing the topics and other training activities is a critical element in
preparing the schedule. These are not put together in an ad hoc or random manner. You
should establish a clear linkage, a relationship between various topics and training activ-
ities. Each training activity should be built on the previous one and lead the group to the
next one.
Sequencing has to be logical, indicating forward movement of the programme. It should
move in a coherent and consistent manner, enabling the participants to perceive and experi-
ence its progress and ensure that they move with it. They should be able to find new meaning,
value and relevance in each training activity as the programme gathers momentum and pace.
This is important as it assists in stimulating the participants and maintaining vigour of the
programme. This also facilitates the learning process. The following guidelines will help you
in this exercise.
Balance Training Activities in Terms of Intensity of Participation
Sometimes, a training activity demands concentrated and intense participation from mem-
bers of the group. It can extract a lot in terms of their physical as well as mental energy. It
is, therefore, recommended that you should sequence the programme in such a way that
each intensive activity is followed by one that is less intensive and allows the participants to
recoup and regain their vigour and enthusiasm. Give them time to recover from fatigue or
after effects of their participation. However, in doing this, you must ensure that the rhythm
and momentum are not lost.
Move from Simple to Complex
Undeniably, people find it easier to understand and comprehend simple concepts, princi-
ples and situations than the more complex and difficult ones. You should, therefore, start
the programme with uncomplicated topics and issues that the participants can easily grasp
and then, gradually, take them to more complex ones. This is both logical and conducive
to learning. By beginning with simple and more learner-friendly topics, you may even re-
inforce their existing knowledge. This approach also elicits their active participation, raises
the level of their confidence, creates interest and raises their curiosity about the following
training events. Thus, it prepares them for moving on to more difficult concepts and the-
ories. When you are dealing with more intricate and complex concepts, you should, where
appropriate, refer back to earlier discussion and explain how these concepts are linked with
simple ones. This assists the participants in assimilating and internalising the learning.
Move from the Known to the Unknown
The process of learning moves faster and the participants learn with minimum effort if you
are in a position to consciously relate new learning to what they already know or can do. This
movement from the known to the unknown is both natural and rational. It is only through
purposeful interaction with participants in the initial stage of the programme that you can
get information on the general level of competence and knowledge that the participants
possess about different topics and issues that are likely to come up for discussion. You must
also examine to what extent the existing knowledge provides a foundation for building new
knowledge and ideas. Where possible, relate new concepts, theories and principles to the
known ones. If the programme moves straightaway into new, unfamiliar territory, many in
the group may not be in a position to cope with the situation. They could be left bewildered
and this could reduce their interest in the training.
Move from Generics to Specifics
The schedule should be so organised that it moves from fundamental or generalised con-
cepts to specifics. Generic consideration of the concepts helps in establishing the basis and
framework for discussion of the specifics. This should be an understandable course as speci-
fics are derived from generics. This is also a learner-friendly approach. When the fundamentals
are clear it is relatively easy for the participants to understand the details. Even when you
start a new topic or a module you should follow this basic principle.
Maintain Momentum of the Programme
The need to maintain momentum cannot be overemphasised. It is necessary to sustain the

interest of the participants through the programme. Its pace should not be allowed to slacken.
A lot depends on the manner in which training activities are organised and sequenced. You
should also give proper attention to the schedule for the day. It is important that in the post-
lunch session, participants are kept actively engaged, preferably where physical activity is
involved. A lecture or presentation may not be an appropriate choice of activity for that
period. Group discussion or activities that have considerable scope for sharing or interaction
are recommended. Otherwise, chances are that at least some of them may switch off and use
the time for relaxing.
Maintain Balance between Group Activities and Individual Assignments
The group acts as an important source of learning in any training situation. It provides op-
portunities to the participants to share their experiences relevant to the topic under its
consideration. This interchange also enables a participant to reflect on her ideas, viewpoints
and actions and examine their validity. There is cross-fertilisation of ideas. Participating in
group activities can be a very stimulating and enriching experience for many. However, there
are some participants who feel more comfortable in working on individual assignments or
projects. It is, therefore, important that you should provide a balanced mix of group and
individual activities. By doing so, you will also be responding to the diverse learning styles
of the participants. Even in terms of promoting the learning process, this is a good strategy
as it provides a change in the nature of learning activity.
(For cross-reference see Chapter 2, section on ‘Learning styles of the participants’.)
Provide Opportunities for Recap and Reflection
When the participants are engaged in training activities, the entire focus is on the tasks
before them. They can be so involved in the activity that they become oblivious to its learn-
ing outcomes. And if there is a series of such activities, they have little time to reflect upon
and appraise the benefits that have flowed to them from these activities. They are not able to
comprehend and appreciate their real value in the context of their learning and growth. You
should, therefore, prepare the schedule in a way that the participants get an opportunity for
a recap of the preceding event or activity. Some of the questions to which the participants
should find answers through this process of reflection and contemplation could be as
follows:
What was happening to me during the activity?
How did others react to my participation and contribution?
Have I given my best to the activity?
What have I got out of it?
What changes can I bring in my professional and personal behaviour through this learning?
You could assist the process by highlighting the learning outcomes. Of course, some train-
ing methods, such as case studies, role plays and field projects, provide for a discussion in
which the participants have an opportunity to find answers to some of these questions and
become aware of the learning that accrued from the exercise. A similar strategy could be
used for activities that aim to develop competencies through practice. You can even consider
including such opportunities for reflection and appraisal as part of the schedule itself.
Establish Common Terminology, Language
It is important to develop a uniform understanding of concepts, terminology, definitions

and nomenclature that are likely to be used more frequently during the programme.
This should be done in the initial stage of the programme. Adopting the language and
phrases that are understood by all is important to get full participation of the group. As far
as possible, use of jargon and slang should be avoided. An acceptable and shared frame of
reference or contextual understanding should also be established. This is necessary when you
are dealing with international groups or with those in which participants come from widely
diverse background.
4.4.5 Determine Learning Outcomes for Each Sub-topic or Module
As indicated earlier, for each separately identifiable topic, sub-topic, module or block of
sessions, it is necessary to set out learning outcomes or indicate changes that are likely to
materialise in the participants. Generally, for training activities directed at developing com-
petencies, learning outcomes become apparent only after the activity has been completed.
And it is possible that some training activities even extend for a few days. On the other hand,
in cases where emphasis is on cognitive understanding, learning can get manifested even
after the end of a session. For instance, it is expected that after a session on ‘identifying youth
problems in the region’ the participants will be able to list key problems faced by the young
people soon after the conclusion of the session.
Learning outcomes are stated as behaviour, action or an act. They are formulated in specific
terms. The meaning and implication have to be clear to the participants and the trainers. The
outcomes should be compatible with the nature and scope of inputs. Like the programme
objectives, the learning outcomes should also be realistic, attainable and measurable. They
should, however, be far more specific and concrete than the objectives. Where possible, learn-
ing outcomes should prescribe minimum standards to be attained by the participants at the
end of the training activity. There should be clear evidence of the change or development
that has taken place as a result of the training activity. Learning outcomes can vary from
simple recall of information to complex mental processes. The choice of words or sentences,
for setting out the learning outcomes for different components of the programme, viz.,
information, knowledge, skills and attitudes, is important. The examples given in Box 4.2
will clarify this point.
(For cross-reference see Chapter 2, section on ‘Components of learning’.)
Box 4.2
Examples of Learning Outcomes
For Information
z On going through the documents and other materials provided by the trainer, the
participant will be in a position to recall and list at least five key elements of the
national youth policy.
z Following the presentation by a senior executive of the organisation, the participant
will be expected to explain, with the help of a diagram or a flowchart, the line of au-
thority and accountability in the organisation.
z After a perusal of the annual report of the organisation, the participant will be able
to list its key points in a summary of about 500 words.
z Upon completion of a presentation by a bank official, the participant will be able to
specify all major conditions for the grant of bank loans to young entrepreneurs to
enable them to set up small business ventures.
For Knowledge
z After inputs by the training team and discussion in the group, the participant will
be able to identify and explicate at least five key areas of concern for the youth of the
region for action by the government and voluntary agencies.
z After discussion in the group, the participant will be able to list and explain at least
three key factors that influence the performance of an individual working in a busi-
ness concern.
z Following the presentation of the case study and discussion in the group, the par-
ticipant will be able to diagnose and discuss problems related to interdepartmental
coordination.
z After presentation by a trainer, the participants will be able to list at least five key leader-
ship functions and discuss them in relation to the working of their organisation.
For Competencies/Skills
z On completing the assignment in a small working group and its presentation in the
plenary, a participant will be able to construct a questionnaire for carrying out a sur-
vey on a given subject/theme for a designated group of respondents.
z After participating in individual practical exercises under the guidance of an expert,
a participant will be in a position to prepare a set of at least five advertising cards for
a specific product.
z After completing the group exercises, a participant will be able to prepare a compre-
hensive project proposal for a specific community programme for external funding
from a donor agency.
z Upon practice and discussion sessions, a participant will be in a position to demon-
strate the conduct of a recruitment interview.
For Attitudes and Values
z After going through exercises on self-awareness, each participant will agree to change
at least two personality traits in the next six months to make her/him more consistent
with the requirements of her/his job.
z On completing the exercises on personal development, the participants will be in a
position to analyse and discuss the nature of their relationships with their colleagues
in the agency and agree to modify it to make it more congenial and productive for the
work at hand.
z After participating in the exercises, the participants will be able to undertake a realistic
analysis of the factors that have contributed to their self-image and agree to make
modifications, where necessary.
z On completion of the exercises, the participants will be able to list at least five key at-
tributes that contribute to effective teamwork in an agency and agree to assimilate
them in their functioning.
4.4.6 Decide on Training Methods and Techniques
The use of a variety of training methods and techniques not only increases the interest of
the participants but also helps in the effective delivery of the programme. It stimulates and
encourages active participation by the members of the group. A training method is a strat-
egy or a tactic that you employ to deliver a particular topic or module. In using a training
method, you may apply a variety of techniques to enhance the effectiveness of the learning
process. The selection of a method depends on a number of factors that have been described
in another section of this Handbook.
(For cross-reference and details on ‘Training Methods’ see Chapter 6.)
4.4.7 Allocate Time
Time allocation for the topics or modules is not a simple matter of calculation and addition.
This is a serious academic exercise to be undertaken by the training team, well in advance
of the programme. To a large extent, allocation of time depends on the nature of activity,
the learning outcomes expected from it and the method used for achieving these objectives.
In cases where it is not possible to allocate the required time for a particular training method
because of constraints, an alternative method assuring similar results could be used.
Time allocation for a particular module or a sub-topic has several functions. It informs
the participants of the period during which they may be called upon to give their undivided
attention to the specified activity or the topic and plan in which manner they would par-
ticipate and contribute to the training activity. It also helps you to develop appropriate strat-
egy for your presentation. Time allocation also infuses discipline and establishes a control
mechanism for the trainers and the participants alike. Some trainers, however, do believe
that allocation of time is only a programme requirement and it is not necessary for them to
adhere to it. Of course, there needs to be some flexibility in time schedule to accommodate
unforeseen problems and situations. Some sessions may take more than the allocated time
because of wider participation or emergence of new issues that need to be discussed. This is
an acceptable condition in any training programme. Also, sometimes, there is a justification
to go by rhythm of the group rather than by the schedule.
4.4.8 Decide on Support Materials, Facilities and Equipment
As part of the action plan, you need to decide on the support materials and other resources
required for conducting various training activities. Essentially, training support materials are
resources that, if used properly, assist you in accomplishing specific training objectives and
in carrying out your training assignments in a more effective manner.
Support materials vary considerably from simple aids that you can prepare on your own
at a short notice to those that require special expertise, considerable time and resources.
The type of materials you would require depends on the nature of the programme and the
level of the participants. You should be familiar with the preparation and use of all types of
materials, using what best meets your training requirements. It is, however, possible that
appropriate materials may not be available. Therefore, it is important that well before the
programme commences, you should take an inventory of materials available with you or
the agency and examine whether they meet your requirements. You should also identify
additional materials required and attempt to either procure or produce them. The quality
of the materials is important. You should, therefore, go through them carefully to ensure
that they meet the necessary criteria.
Training support materials can be classified into two categories: printed and audio-visual.
Both these categories of materials are discussed in detail in Chapter 6.
Training equipment required for the programme may vary from the usual classroom
requirements, like a whiteboard and markers to special equipment, gadgets and other
training aids. Electronic equipment and gadgets should be tested and kept in readiness, well
before their expected use.
(For cross-reference and more details, see Chapter 6, section on ‘Support Materials’.)
4.4.9 Determine Assignments for Members of the Training Team
The training agency or the team responsible for conducting the training should ensure
that the required expertise and skills in the training areas either are available within the
in-house team or can be procured from external sources. Matching the requirements of
the programme with the available expertise and proficiency is a crucial decision. Successful
delivery depends a lot on the capability of the trainers to deliver it in an efficient manner.
Specific assignments should be given to the members of the team on the basis of expertise
and experience and not because of personal preferences. For instance, if it is a personal devel-
opment programme, the trainer should have the ability to deal with an array of feelings,
emotions and sensitivities, likely to be generated through the exercises. The style of the train-
ers and ability to use appropriate training methods are other key considerations.
The level of the training group should be kept in view in assigning specific tasks. For
instance, in a programme for senior officials or business executives, the trainer should have
high credentials in the areas of work of the participants and a considerable amount of
confidence to be able to handle high-profile groups. There should be no role conflict within
the team, and the members should be supportive of one another in realising programme
objectives. The level of preparedness of the training team is another key factor for allocation
of assignments.
(For cross-reference and more details, see Chapter 8.)
4.4.10 Delegate Responsibilities for Management and Administration
The training team or the trainers are not in a position to deliver the programme all by them-
selves. The support staff play a crucial role in the implementation of the training programme.
In some training agencies, the support staff do not have an important role in either planning
the programme or running it. This is not a desirable situation. It is necessary that their role
and contribution should be recognised and defined right at the time of preparing the action
plan. If they are not formally associated with the programme, they may feel alienated and
unimportant. As a result, they may become indifferent to it or even create situations that may
not be supportive of your efforts.
Some of the administrative and management responsibilities that need to be handled by
competent and experienced staff are as follows:
z Reception of the participants on arrival at the venue.

z Living arrangements for the participants if it is a residential programme.
z Assisting the training team in the conduct of training activities or sessions (arranging
for facilities and equipment, distribution of support materials, and so on).
z Arranging extracurricular activities and social events.
z Liaison with agencies/individuals associated with the delivery of the programme
(field projects, agency placements, field trips, and so on).
z Reimbursement of expenses, arranging for return journey, and so on.
Those who are familiar with special requirements of such programmes and have a high
degree of commitment should be given key responsibilities.
4.4.11 Establish Mechanism for Monitoring and Evaluation
At the planning stage itself, you should consider the mechanism for monitoring the progress
of the programme and evaluating its outcomes. The process has been described in detail in
Chapter 9.
4.5 KEY CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGNING A PROGRAMME
In preparing the training design, you need to keep those factors in view that have the
potential of influencing its implementation. This makes it functional and practical, perhaps
the difference between a successful and a disappointing experience. All the factors described
in the following paragraphs may not be applicable to a particular event. The relevance and
relative importance of these factors for a specific programme depends on its genesis, nature,
objectives and duration.
It is important that at the time of preparing the plan, you need to envisage the scenario
even beyond the implementation stage. You should contemplate the transfer of training to
the organisational work. The objective of the planning exercise is to ensure optimum results
from your efforts and those of the participants. Planning a programme is about considering
various options and coming up with the best course of action under the given circumstances.
It is anticipating likely impediments or problems in its delivery and developing appropriate
responses to confront them. If this is duly attended, you can be reasonably sure of delivering
a good training.
The key factors that deserve your consideration at the planning stage are discussed
below.
4.5.1 Nominating Organisations, Their Objectives and Activities
Although the nominating organisations are not present at the training scene, they are
active partners (and stakeholders) in the training process. The participants bring with them
experiences that are the product of their interaction with the organisational culture, its work
environment, methods of functioning, and so on. These experiences become the basis of
their participation in training activities and sharing in the group.
You must remember that throughout the programme, the participants remain mentally
connected to the organisation they represent. They appraise the experiences and views of
others in the group with respect to the functioning of their organisations. They are constantly
examining the usefulness and relevance of the training to the work of the organisations or
their own specific job. This assessment determines the meaning the training has for them
and gives direction and purpose to their participation in training activities. It influences their
motivation. Therefore, the work of the participating organisations and the way they function
is a fundamental consideration in preparing the training design and deciding on the strategy
for its delivery. You should make an extra effort to gather relevant information and data on
their functioning. If the training is for participants from one organisation, this becomes a
crucial consideration. Remember that an organisation is generally wary of the training that
is at variance with its established methods of functioning and work norms. They may not
convey this to you explicitly but they are watchful of what and how you communicate with
their nominees.
4.5.2 Promoting the Learning Process
Enhancement of the learning process is at the heart of any training design, regardless of the
target group or nature of the training. You can begin by identifying the factors that are likely
to act either as stimulants or as impediments to the learning process, in the context of your
specific situation. Your strategy to deliver the programme should be based on the learning
styles of the participants and the principles of adult learning. It is also important to ensure
that the group is in a position to cope with the pace of the learning process and keep abreast
of it. Your task is to assess the likely influence of these factors and take appropriate steps to
ensure that the learning process moves forward uninhibitedly. The training design should
deal with these elements.
4.5.3 Training Group
The fact that the programme is targeted at the training group cannot be overemphasised.
The participants are the subject as well as the object of the training, its direct and immediate
beneficiaries. They are the key stakeholders as they invest a lot of time and effort in it. To a
considerable extent, its success depends on them, as individuals and as a group. However, as
the participants come from diverse backgrounds and with different traits and attributes, every
training group has a distinct character and identity. The size of the group, its composition
and the background of the participants are among the key features of a training group.
If training has to be effective, the training design should be consistent with these special
characteristics of the group. For instance, if the group is small, it may be possible to adopt
a more personalised approach in training, with more individual assignments and projects. If
the participants bring with them rich and varied experiences, you could rely more on par-
ticipatory methodology, providing for sharing and exchange sessions. You can use the group
as a key source of learning. If the participants are senior executives or officials, the training
methodology should be less directive, giving considerable control over the learning process
to the participants.
Once the list of the participants is finalised, you have basic information on the size of the
group, its composition and broad features. However, detailed information about the par-
ticipants, necessary to compile a meaningful profile of the group, can be obtained through a
pro forma. (A sample of a pro forma is given in Box 4.3) It should be sent to the nominated
participants, under information to their respective organisations. They should be advised
to send back the completed pro forma to the training agency, well in advance of the
commencement of the programme. The information can provide a useful basis for deciding
on a number of issues related to the delivery of the programme.
(For cross-reference see Chapters 3, 5 and 7.)
Box 4.3
Suggested Pro Forma for Gathering Information for Preparing Group Profile
The following are suggested items, which you may consider including in the questionnaire,
to be completed by the selected participants. You may pick up only those items that meet
your requirements. The format of the pro forma may also be changed to suit the needs
of the programme, depending on the nature of the training group. Preferably, a lot of
information should be available with you before the programme begins. However, if there
are difficulties, then do it as soon as the group arrives for the programme. It is, however,
important that the information should be collected only if you wish to use it. There is no
point in putting the participants through this exercise without really meaning to use the
data. The pro forma should not be too long and, ideally, it should not take more than
30 minutes of the participant’s time to complete it. It is important that the participant
should be asked to sign the pro forma as this is part of her moral commitment to the infor-
mation given in it.
Personal data
Sex and age
Educational level
Marital status
Job data
Length of experience in the present job.
Three key functions which you presently perform.
Earlier training experience
Previous training experience, if any
Usefulness of the training: very useful/useful/not useful
Reasons for the aforesaid response as related to:
Contents of the programme
Training methods
Training group
Trainers
Any other
Indicate three key training methods with which you are familiar.
Expectations
Expectations from other participants.
Expectations from the trainers.
In your view what could be the expectations of other participants from you?
In your view what could be the expectations of the trainers from you?
Do you think you will be in a position to fulfil these expectations? Yes/No
If yes, what special efforts will you make?
Your preferences
List three areas, out of the programme content, which you consider most relevant and
useful to your present work.
List three training methods which you would like to be used during the programme.
Do you prefer to work in groups or on individual assignments?
Do you approve of interaction with participants of opposite sex?
Style of the trainer (contents oriented, participant oriented, any other)
In your view, what should be the nature and degree of control given to the participants for
their learning and running of the programme?
Contribution and commitment to the programme
List three training areas, topics or modules, out of the programme content, in which you
will be able to make substantive contribution.
What will be the form/s of this contribution?
In what general ways will you contribute to the success of the programme?
( Box 4.3 contd.)

(Box 4.3 contd.)
In your view, who is more responsible for the success of the programme? Participants or
the training team?
What is the level of your commitment to the programme? (On a 10-point scale)
Self-assessment (all on a 10-point scale)
Your comprehension level
Social or interpersonal skills
Communication facility in the language of the programme
General communication skills
Last word
Are you happy to be nominated for the programme? Yes/No
Are you curious/anxious/indifferent about the programme?
Any special things you would like the training team to know about you
Signature
4.5.4 Maintaining Momentum and Pace of the Programme
The training design should also ensure that the tempo and momentum of the programme
are maintained throughout its duration. It has been observed that, in some cases, the pro-
gramme starts with a lot of vigorous activities, but as it progresses, the training team appears
to be running out of ideas for maintaining the intensity of action. The result is that the pro-
gramme appears to be slowing down. This weakens the interest and motivation of the par-
ticipants. And you head for a difficult time with the group. These issues, therefore, should
be addressed at the time of designing the programme and evolving a strategy for its imple-
mentation. The build-up could be slow but the training programme should pick up in pace
and intensity as it progresses, involving the participants in all programme-related activities. If
the programme terminates when the participants are at a reasonably high level of enthusiasm
and interest, you can be sure that they would work that much harder for the transfer of train-
ing. If, on the other hand, the graph of participation and motivation comes down during
the concluding phase of the programme, the learning acquired in the earlier phase of the
programme can get diluted.
4.5.5 Building Flexibility
On the basis of available data and information, some parts of the programme can be planned
with a fair degree of accuracy, but this may not be the case with some others. As the training
design is prepared well in advance of the programme, the training team makes certain as-
sumptions. It envisages how things would move during the programme. This is not an
easy task as it is not possible to foresee or anticipate every situation or event during the
implementation stage at the time of preparing the design. Situations start unfolding only
after the programme gets under way. Some significant new training needs may emerge or
new issues may surface requiring consideration by the group. The training team may confront
additional information and data about the group necessitating changes in training strategy
or approach. Some unexpected events may demand immediate attention. It is possible that
some of these developments do not affect the basic framework of the action plan, but they
can impact the training process and programme contents. Therefore, the training design
should have an in-built system to accommodate these changes, both in contents and in
methodology. If the training team is seen to be flexible, open and persuasive, the participants
develop a healthy respect for it. This stimulates greater interest in the programme.
4.5.6 Effective Monitoring
In preparing the training design, you must bear in mind the need for effective monitoring
of the progress of the programme and performance of the participants. Changes in the pro-
gramme, as indicated earlier, should be effected only on the basis of the data and information
generated through this exercise. The objective of this ongoing appraisal and review, during
the training programme, is somewhat limited. It is to ensure that nothing gets in the way
of achieving the programme objectives. It signifies the desire and willingness of the training
team to be continuously responsive to the new and emerging requirements of the programme.
It is helpful if the participants are also associated with this exercise. This reaffirms the intent
of the training team to run the programme as a collaborative venture with the participants.
4.5.7 Training Team
The training team, constituted of in-house trainers and outside resource persons, is a crucial
factor in the implementation of the programme. It is, therefore, important that in preparing
the training design, the planning team should gather data on the expertise and experience
available within the training team. The ability of the team to deliver the programme in
an efficient manner and the level of its commitment to the training are key elements that
contribute to building a good team. It is unwise to plan a programme that cannot be effectively
delivered by the designated team. This does not, however, mean that the capabilities of
the training team should be the limiting factor in preparing the training design. Where
necessary, the training design can go beyond the available expertise and competence and set
out additional requirements. It is then left to the organisers of the training programme to
ensure that these needs are met.
4.5.8 Management and Administration
A training activity is not organised on its own. Besides the training team, some others have to
provide the necessary support and service the programme, in different capacities. The train-
ing design, therefore, should take into consideration administrative and management as-
pects of the programme as well. It needs to specify the support the training team would
require in delivering it. The support staff play a major role in running it.
4.5.9 Facilitating Transfer of Training to the Organisation
A training programme does not end with the accomplishment of its objectives. The training
agency needs to look beyond and prepare the participants for the important task of trans-
ferring training to the organisation’s work and functioning. As part of this preparation, the
trainers should identify the factors, personal or organisational, that are likely to facilitate
this process and strengthen them during the programme. They need to be convinced that,
notwithstanding the problems and resistance they may encounter, the acquired learning is
transferable. Their confidence in themselves has to be reinforced. The training design should
address these issues and concerns.
4.6 COMMUNICATING INFORMATION ON THE PROGRAMME
Once the design has been prepared, the next step is to send information to the participants
and the nominating organisations well in advance of the programme.
This communication should be in the form of a document. Remember that the document
is not just printed words. It is crucial for the participants as well as the training team. Through
perusal of the document, a participant can perceive a number of things about the programme.
Some of them are:
z Level of preparedness of the training agency and the training team.

z Extent to which the training team is able to visualise and understand the participant’s
initial queries and concerns.
z Attitude of the training team towards the participants.
In some ways, the communication also mirrors the proficiency and competence of the
training team. A well-prepared document transmits a positive image of the training team,
but if it is written in an inept and slipshod manner, the participants get a contradictory
message and you begin with a handicap. The document also helps in establishing a bond
between the training team and the participants. A copy of this document should be sent to
the sponsoring organisation as well, as this keeps them abreast with the latest situation. A
sample of this document is given as Box 4.4.
Box 4.4
Communicating Programme Information to the Participants
The following are the suggested areas on which information could be included in the
document:
Programme objectives and content
The communication should intimate the participants about what to expect from the pro-
gramme. It should include enough information to set their questions, anxieties and con-
cerns at rest. The training team may consider providing only such information which is
necessary at this stage and hold back some for the arrival of the participants.
Administrative and physical arrangements
The participants, especially the outstation ones, would expect some information on the venue
of the programme, living arrangements and arrival reception, if planned. In international
programmes, these are matters of considerable concern for participants from developed
countries if the programme is being organised in a developing country.
Basic information on the training agency
Some basic information should also be provided on the training agency (or the organ-
isers of training), its objectives and work. This information should be enough to establish
its credentials for organising the programme. This can be very reassuring to the participants.
Some details on the training team may also be included if this helps to reinforce the par-
ticipants’ confidence and interest in the programme.
Instructions on home assignments
The training team may also decide to give some home assignments to the participants,
for submission on their arrival, as part of the preparatory work for the programme. These
should be relevant to the programme and consistent with its nature and duration. How-
ever, the task should not involve excessive work; otherwise, the participants may not com-
plete it at all or do it grudgingly. They may consider it a ‘punishment’ for attending the
programme. At the same time, the training team must ensure that all participants complete
the assignments; otherwise, it will appear as if the training team is not serious about this
exercise. The credibility and authority of the training team will get eroded and this may not
be good for the programme.
Conveying expectations to the participants
The communication should explicitly state the expectations—by way of their commitment
to the programme and participation in it—the training team has from the participants.
Sometimes, participants come to a programme with all kinds of assumptions and notions in
relation to their position and role and if they find the situation inconsistent with these, they
may develop a negative attitude towards the programme and the trainers. It is suggested
that some form of a learning contract should be included to ensure their commitment to
the programme. This will be a moral obligation.
(Box 4.4 contd.)

(Box 4.4 contd.)
Securing information for preparing a training group profile

The communication may also include a pro forma for soliciting information the training
team requires for preparing a profile of the training group. Please see Box 4.3 for a sample
pro forma.
z When an organisation or a group of organisations sponsors a training programme,

it is customised to their specific training requirements and targeted at their own
staff, either already serving with them or newly recruited.
z The initiative for training can come from a training agency as well. On the basis of
perceived needs, it develops an idea or a broad framework of a programme target-
ing a functional group or a specific training area. The proposal is then marketed
to client organisations and if the response is positive, a programme is born.
z Identification of training needs is a crucial exercise that should be carried out
with utmost circumspection, objectivity and commitment. Key sources for
identification of training needs are job profile, previous experience of the training
agency and pretraining survey of participants’ needs. The training agency should
actively involve the organisations that nominate participants, as they provide
useful data on their nominees’ training needs.
z Identified training needs are prioritised on the basis of their relevance and importance
to the targeted group and the extent they are shared by the participants.
z Programme objectives represent the final product that comes out of the
programme, a direct result of the training. On the other hand, learning outcomes
are the behavioural changes or development expected from a particular training
activity or event.
z We need to establish programme objectives as they provide direction to the
programme, serve as the basis for programme evaluation, define the scope of the
programme and carry an assurance for the participants that their training needs
are reflected in the programme.
z Programme objectives reflect the intent and action of the agency in the context of
the programme. They should be stated in explicit, concrete terms. They should
also be realistic, capable of being realised and amenable to evaluation. Programme
objectives should not promise anything the agency or the trainers are not in a
position to deliver.
z The following are the major steps in preparing an action plan for a training
programme:
Identify programme content on the basis of programme objectives.

Break programme content into distinguishable sub-topics or modules.
Organise and sequence programme content in a way that there is natural

and logical forward movement of the programme; participants’ interest is
sustained throughout the period of the programme and a linkage is established
between different parts of the programme. Determine learning outcomes for
each subtopic and module.
Select an appropriate training method for each training activity and allocate
time.
Decide on support materials and equipment for training activities and the
conduct of the sessions.
Determine assignments for trainers and delegate responsibilities to support
staff.
Establish a viable and suitable mechanism for monitoring and evaluation of
the programme.
z The following are important considerations for a trainer to keep in mind while
preparing a training design:
Objectives, functions and work environment of the organisations that have

nominated the participants.
Composition and special features and attributes of the training group.
Maintaining momentum and impetus of the programme.
Promoting the learning process.
Building flexibility.
Effective monitoring of the programme.
The training team—level of expertise and training style.
Management and administration of the programme.
Facilitating transfer of training to the field.
5
Delivering an Active and
Participatory Training Programme
You can prepare a perfect training design and a plan of action for your programme, but its
delivery constitutes the real challenge for you. It is the culmination of all the efforts that have
gone into formulating the action plan, communicating with other stakeholders in the pro-
gramme and putting in place the necessary infrastructural arrangements. This is the phase
where all your knowledge and competencies as a trainer and traits and values as an individual
are put to test.
This chapter discusses in considerable details all the aspects and related issues that are
central to the delivery of a training programme. The aim is to prepare you fully for this enor-
mous task. Specifically, it deals with the following:
Preparing for the Delivery of the Training

Beginning an Active and Participatory Programme
Delivering the Programme
Evaluating the Programme
Concluding the Programme
Delivering an Active and Participatory Training Programme 135
Learning Outcomes
List out the steps that a trainer must take to prepare for a training programme.
Illustrate the tasks for blending the group into a cohesive unit and for empowering
it for effective participation and contribution.
List and discuss key tasks for successful delivery of a training programme.
Explain different aspects of establishing and maintaining conducive learning
environment.
Prepare a set of guidelines for optimising the use of question–response approach
for enhancing participation.
Draw up a plan for the concluding phase of a programme.
Perhaps, the most important part of a training programme is its delivery. This is the first
time that its main stakeholders—the training agency, the training group and the training
team—are face to face with one another, on a mission where each one of them has to put
in its best for the success of the programme. The delivery phase actually begins with the
arrival of the participants. And it is a period of persistent assessing, adjusting and refining.
The training team, therefore, needs to give a lot of attention to details and not just focus on
the broad features of the programme.
During the delivery of the programme, tasks and challenges differ from one phase to
another. In the initial stage, your key task is to make the participants comfortable in the new
surroundings of the venue, arouse their curiosity about its contents and stimulate them.
The participants are to be coalesced into a group and the learning process has to be set in
motion. You also need to establish a bond with the participants. As the programme begins,
a number of group processes are activated. Interactions begin, relationships are established
and sub-groups are formed. At a later stage, especially in a long-term programme, there is
a possibility of disagreements and conflicts surfacing. They threaten to disrupt the group
harmony and undermine the training process. As a trainer, you are often called upon to
confront difficult situations and expected to handle them competently.
As the programme gets under way, it is all serious business. Your efforts are directed at
giving the process of learning a big initial impetus and sustain its pace and momentum.
The organisation of training activities receives primacy. But you must also ensure that the
group stays with you and assists you in your effort to realise the programme objectives. The
motivation, interest and morale of the participants should remain high. And your strategy
is directed at making optimum use of the potential and energy of the group in promoting
the process of learning.
During this phase of the programme, your role as a facilitator or a subject specialist
also comes to the fore. A lot of your efforts go in preparing for your presentations and
training activities for which you have the direct responsibility. The participants assess you
as a person and as a trainer. If this appraisal is favourable, your task is relatively easier; but
if you are not well received by the participants, it becomes that much more difficult. The
concluding phase of the programme is as important, if not more, as the initial phase of the
programme. You should give considerable attention to consolidating the learning accru-
ing from various training activities and not let it dissipate. You must also ensure that the
level of interest and morale of the participants remain high till the end of the programme and
that they leave with a high degree of motivation and enthusiasm.
5.1 PREPARING FOR THE DELIVERY OF THE TRAINING PROGRAMME
5.1.1 Establishing Contacts with the Participants

Pre-training Communication
Before the participants arrive for the programme, you would have established contact with
them—either directly or through the organisation. Your first communication to them is
generally about their selection and for seeking detailed information on their training needs
and expectations. Hopefully you have been able to address their initial queries and con-
cerns about the programme, the training agency and the training team. Some participants
are also somewhat inquisitive about the city/town and the venue, especially if this is their first
visit to that place. Once they are comfortable about these matters, they look forward to their
participation in the training. This introductory communication helps you in establishing
a bond with them. Some programmes require considerable preparatory work for the par-
ticipants. Therefore, as part of this contact, you may also send relevant programme-related
materials that will help them prepare well for the sessions and the training activities. For
instance, writing assignments, information on the activities of their organisation and key
experiences that are appropriate to the topics/modules of the programme. The aim is to get
them in readiness and action mode.
Getting Contractual Agreement
As mentioned in Chapter 3, it is important that you get formal contractual agreement with
the participants before they arrive for the programme. This understanding between the train-
ing agency and the training team on the one hand, and the participants on the other, will be
further reinforced through sharing information and agreement on the norms and ground
rules for participation and general conduct during the programme.
(For details on contracting see the relevant section in Chapter 3.)
5.1.2 Getting Yourself Ready for the Programme

You are a key element in the delivery of the programme. It is, therefore, important that you
are fully prepared for the tasks and challenges that lie ahead of you as part of your assign-
ment. If you are professionally and mentally properly organised and prepared, this gives
you a lot of confidence and you look forward to your involvement in the programme. There
are some aspects that deserve your priority attention as part of this preparation.
Preparing for Subject Matter
Professional as well as mental preparations goes hand in hand. It is, therefore, necessary
that you should first focus on your training assignment. In this context, you may wish to
address the following questions:
Am I comfortable with my assignment?

Have I accepted the assignment under some pressure and I am not sure of my ability
to carry out the responsibility?
Am I well-versed with the issues that are central to the topics of my presentations
and inputs?
Am I adequately prepared for my presentations?
Do I possess the necessary communication competencies for effective delivery of my
presentations?
It is, therefore, necessary that your prime concern should be to get fully knowledge-
able and informed about various dimensions and elements of the topics that form part of
your assignment. You should prepare detailed notes through extensive reading and dis-
cussions with specialists on the topics. Your profound understanding of the subject matter
will make you more confident about your upcoming performance and your ability to handle
the discussions and interaction within the group on relevant issues. As part of this prep-
aration, you should also develop your ability to respond to queries from the participants.
Your self-assurance will help you bond with the group in a far more convincing manner.
Even if you are well-informed on the subject matter, do not relax. Remember that al-
though the information is not new to you, it may be new to the group. Every training
group is different and may require a different treatment of the same topic or module. You
must also try to innovate. Use a different method. Renew your notes, update them and add
a few examples. Make your presentations more exciting. This is your challenge. This is also a
good route to professional enrichment and growth.
Mental and Emotional Preparedness
If you are an experienced trainer and training is second nature to you, be sure that your
overconfidence does not become a cause of your embarrassment or discomfiture, later. It
is not unusual for a trainer to be somewhat nervous at the time of the commencement of
the programme. If the initial assessment suggests that the group could be difficult, this ner-
vousness might increase. It is not the programme itself but your part and the tasks assigned
to you that can make you feel uneasy and even anxious. Try to convert this nervous energy
into a motive force, a drive to perform well. Preparation of materials and advance planning
of activities connected with your assignment will give you a lot of confidence. On the other
hand, if you have left the details to the last minute, you run the risk of losing confidence
and feeling a bit fidgety.
You also have to be mentally prepared for the event. Your curiosity and interest are im-
portant ingredients for success. You should look forward to the group and the programme
with enthusiasm. If you feel that it is just another experience, if you are casual about it
or consider it a fait accompli, your performance is likely to be adversely affected.
Getting in Contact with Your Values and Attitudes
This is a key aspect of your preparation for your assignment. Your values and attitudes—
especially those that are pertinent to your role in delivering the programme, bonding with
the participants and relationship with co-trainers—play a very significant role in helping
you carry out your responsibilities more effectively. You should have faith in participa-
tory training and the importance of active participation of the members of the group. It
is, therefore, necessary that you reflect on your values and attitudes, and examine which of
these will be supportive of your task and which are likely to act as mental blocks for you,
affecting your style of functioning, your interaction with the participants and your work.
For instance, your attitude towards people and the basis on which you are predisposed to
establishing and nurturing contacts with them will guide you in your relationship with the
participants. You need to reinforce those values that help you carry out your assignment
in a competent manner and be conscious of those that may either inhibit your style or
adversely influence your actions and behaviour during the programme. You may not be in
a position to bring about necessary changes immediately but you will probably be able to
exercise greater restraint and caution in handling different situations in formal or informal
settings. You will be more judicious. Otherwise, you may land up in situations that you may
regret later. Where possible, fine-tune them to make them more consistent with your role
and responsibilities. Once you go through this exercise, you will be better prepared to take
on your task and deliver the programme to the best of your abilities.
Contracting with Yourself—Setting Standards and Personal Objectives
You have contracted with a number of stakeholders of the programme but you also need
to include yourself in that exercise. It will be useful to sit down and examine what you are
trying to achieve through the programme, at the professional as well as personal levels. In
other words, you also have to set out your personal objectives and how you wish to achieve
them. Both aspects are important. Contracting with your own self strengthens your com-
mitment to the programme and sets out a course of action for you. By establishing personal
standards for your performance, actions and behaviour, you provide yourself the basis for
preparing your presentations and inputs during the sessions. You will be impelled to work
hard to ensure that you do not fall short of the standards you have set for yourself. This will
also reinforce your motivation for realising your objectives. You also have the option of
putting this ‘contract’ in writing. By doing this, you will get a reference point for appraising
your performance, thus enhancing your accountability to yourself.
Getting Together as a Training Team
A key task for the team is to get together and decide on sharing of programme-related
responsibilities—professional as well as administrative. The apportionment of training
assignments should be based on interest and level of expertise in particular topics or training
areas. There are occasions when senior or experienced trainers may wish to take up the topics
that are considered high profile or important ones. This is not a helpful attitude as the rela-
tively less experienced trainers will feel discouraged and lose confidence. The prime con-
sideration, therefore, should be the trainer’s ability to deliver the module effectively. Once
a decision has been taken on specific assignments, the team should work out a common, broad
strategy for the delivery of various topics. It is necessary that there should be general agreement
on this among all members of the team. However, the details should be left to the indivi-
dual trainer. Remember that while each trainer may have a distinct role and assignment,
the programme is to be seen as a unified entity or system. This is extremely essential for its
success.
Another task for the team is to evolve a set of norms that will guide the functioning of
the team. This is crucial not only for the success of the programme but also for individual
growth and development of the members of the team. This will raise the credibility level
of the training agency as well. You should remember that the group will be watching with
interest and curiosity how the trainers work together professionally and on a personal level.
You will be under constant scrutiny of the participants and it is necessary that you function
as a harmonious active outfit, supporting one another inside the session and also outside it.
5.1.3 Infrastructural Arrangements
Physical Set-up
The participants get the first impression about the programme from the physical set-up.
As soon as they arrive, there are two aspects of the programme about which they are con-
cerned and, to some extent, even anxious—living arrangements (if it is a residential pro-
gramme) and facilities for training. As soon as they are shown to their rooms, the next question
they ask is about the training rooms and facilities available. They are keen to find out about
the arrangements in the room, For example, Is the room comfortable—air conditioning, etc.? Is
the ambience of the room appropriate to training? Is the physical setting conducive for interaction
with other participants? Whether there is special arrangement for the trainer, a separate podium,
speaker’s desk or something to distinguish her status and position? All this has a message for the
participants as it reflects the styles of the trainers, the training methodology and preparation
level of the training team. The participants draw their own conclusions on the basis of what
they see, hear and experience with regard to these facilities.
Materials and Equipment
The team must decide on the training materials that need to be prepared in advance of the
programme. This task should not be left to the last moment as there could be some unfore-
seen problems in the production of materials—breakdown of equipment, non-availability of
the technical staff, and so on—causing you avoidable embarrassment. Similarly, the equip-
ment and gadgets required for various training activities should be tested and kept in a state
of readiness. If the trainers are capable of operating the equipment, they should carry out a
dry run. Otherwise, the support technical staff should be provided with the schedule so that
they are available.
Support Staff
The support staff that will provide the administrative back-up should be properly briefed
about the programme and their responsibilities. They should be made a partner in its deliv-
ery. This will enhance their self-esteem and give them a purpose for their work.
5.1.4 Arrival of the Participants
Getting Together the Materials They Should Receive on Arrival
Although you would have sent programme-related materials to the participants before they
left for the programme, you need to decide what material and documents they should receive
on arrival. Box 5.1 gives some suggestions.
Box 5.1
Suggested Materials for the Participants
It is recommended that well before the date of the commencement of the programme
you should prepare an arrival kit for the participants. The kit may include the following
documents and material. It is possible that you have already provided them with advance
copies of some of these documents but it has been my experience that, at least, some might
not have received the papers or forgotten to bring them. And you can be sure that they
would request copies. So why not prepare for it.
A copy of the programme.

List of participants, indicating the organisations they represent and the city/country they
come from.
Information on accommodation, meal timings, and so on. Room allocation of all
participants can be provided. This enables them to contact one another during their
free time.
A brochure or other information materials on the training agency, giving details on

its programmes and activities.
If a training team is responsible for the programme, some details on the background
and experience of the trainers could be useful.
A sketch showing the location of the offices of members of the training team and of the
support staff who will be actively associated with the delivery of the programme.
Information on the city, especially if the participants are from outstation or from
different organisations.
Do’s and don’ts for the participants. If it is a residential programme, the participants
should be informed when they are expected to be back to the premises in the evening.
Writing materials.
Meeting Them on Arrival
It is expected that the training agency would have informed the participants of the arrival
details in the communication sent to them prior to their departure from their places of
residence/work. Outstation participants should know whether somebody would meet them
on arrival in the city. Regardless of whether it is a residential or a day programme, it is im-
portant that on arrival at the venue, someone connected with the training agency or the
programme should meet the participants. The first contact is very important for them. Very
often this aspect is not given the attention it deserves, sometimes, resulting in avoidable
problems. Some participants cannot easily forget their first encounter at the training venue,
especially if it was unpleasant. Remember that you should be among the first to meet
the participants. They are generally more curious about meeting the training team. Therefore,
your attending skills are important. Make the participants feel important, wanted and
comfortable. Aim to convey a message of warmth and assurance to them.
You must also ensure that the arrangements at the venue are completed before the first
participant arrives. It does not speak well of the organisers of training if last-minute work
is still being attended to when the participants arrive.
Special Arrangements for Early Arrivals
Due to compulsions of travel schedule, some participants might arrive early for the pro-
gramme. It is important to make them feel welcomed. You should plan for them well in
advance, ensuring that they are not left fending for themselves. Acknowledge their arrival
by providing them an opportunity to spend the waiting time productively. Keep them
engaged in tasks and activities that they find meaningful and are able to contribute. This
could be on the basis of their interest and suggestions. Remember that the climate for
the programme and expectations from it are built and influenced by every interaction and
experience of the participants, before and during the programme.
5.2 BEGINNING AN ACTIVE AND PARTICIPATORY PROGRAMME
5.2.1 Opening the Programme
In keeping with the level and status of the programme, the training agency may organise a
formal opening. However, it is deemed to begin when the participants assemble in the room
where most of the training activities will be conducted and the training team opens the
proceedings in accordance with the proposed schedule.
Besides the usual propriety of welcoming the participants, the head of the agency or the
training team should provide some information on the work ahead, notwithstanding, the
participants already have necessary printed material with them. The following points could
be covered in this opening session.
A brief exposition on the goals and objectives of the programme (details can be
given when the programme is finalised in consultation with the group).
Formal introduction of the participants, the training team and the support staff
who are likely to be associated with the implementation. If you are planning more
informal introduction through appropriate exercises in a separate session, keep this
introduction very brief. At this stage, it helps to satisfy the curiosity of those who
are keen to know who is who in the group, including the trainers.
While introducing the support staff, it is helpful if you indicate their areas of re-
sponsibility for the programme. This facilitates its administration, as the participants
know whom to contact in case of a specified need or problem. This introduction
also conveys a message to the group that the training and administrative staff of the
agency are working as a team. In sharing the platform with the trainers and get-
ting introduced to the training group, the support staff consider themselves to be
a part of the larger training team. This infuses in them a sense of responsibility and
commitment to the programme.
This opportunity could also be used to clarify concerns about living and other ar-
rangements. It is desirable to address these issues before the participants raise them.
This gives you the control of the situation and the programme.
This briefing should also inform the participants about leisure-time activities and
other social engagements, if any. This enables the participants to plan their spare time.
You may also give some basic information about the city/town. This would be
helpful to the outstation participants.
5.2.2 Icebreakers and Openers—Role and Scope
Before the programme gets under way, it is necessary that the participants be acquainted
with one another in a non-threatening and risk-free environment. This exercise should be
carried out even if there are some who have met earlier. Try not to follow the usual pattern
of going around asking each participant to introduce her or him. Often, the participants
complete this formality in a casual and indifferent manner, half-rising and mumbling their
names that might even be inaudible to some in the group. It is also possible that some of the
participants may not even pay attention to what others say. This situation can be avoided.
With a little effort from other trainers, you can make this exercise interesting and this could
set a fitting tone for the programme. The participants would also get the message that the
training team has prepared well and is making an extra effort to make every training activity
interesting and productive.
In preparing this exercise, an important consideration could be that the exchange of in-
formation does not take place in a perfunctory or superficial manner. It should not be limited
to the name of a participant or the organisation she represents. It should go beyond these
basic data. Make sure that it does not end up as an intellectual exchange as there would be
a lot of opportunities for this later in the programme. Some suggestions for developing ap-
propriate exercises to achieve this objective are:
Giving details on the family or the job.

Narrating an interesting experience or encounter.
Talking about the most fascinating person a participant has met in the recent past.
Narrating an interesting anecdote.
Expressing likes and dislikes.
Talking of areas of interest.
Try to innovate in developing exercises for the purpose. Every exercise can have several
variations in accordance with your requirements. Select those that have the potential of
promoting interaction among the participants, of course, keeping in view the nature of the
programme and composition and level of the group. Some exercises, especially those re-
quiring physical movement, are suitable for a group of young participants, but may not go
well with a group of senior officials or executives. There may be murmurs of protest, even
resentment from some in the group. These should also be culture-sensitive, especially if it
is a mixed group. In such groups, exercises involving physical contact between male and
female participants may not be considered appropriate. One must naturally remember that
in any training group there are always some participants who are not comfortable with such
activities, simply because of lack of earlier exposure to similar situations. You may have to
make a special effort to bring them on board.
Your choice also depends on what you wish to achieve through them and the relative
emphasis on one or more of the following objectives.
Promote self-awareness and self-assessment.

Increase self-effectiveness.
Initiate the process to bring down barriers between the participants and remove
inhibitions.
Facilitate the process of exploring, knowing the participants and developing healthy
relationships.
Enhance commitment to the group and the programme.
Motivate the participants for meaningful and productive participation in training

activities.
Underscore the need for a free and open exchange of experiences and ideas.
Enhance interpersonal communication among the participants.
Foster a sense of trust and mutual support.
Enhance respect and consideration for co-participants and trainers.
Acquaint them with the dynamics of a training group, various group processes and
life in the programme.
Develop respect for group procedures and norms.
Develop confidence and make them more assertive.
5.2.3 Bonding with the Participants
Connecting with the Participants
Meeting participants, establishing early rapport through informal interaction with them
and making yourself accessible to them will help in your efforts to connect with them. This
will be a good beginning for the programme though the formal opening may still be a few
hours away.
When the participants arrive, there may be some initial mental blocks in establishing
communication. Based on their earlier experiences, the participants and the trainers might
have conjured up a mental picture of the other. If their earlier encounters were constructive
and helpful and they left pleasant memories, establishing an affirmative bond may be
relatively easier. However, if the earlier assays have left a negative imprint, this task becomes
that much difficult. The participants or the trainers may start with some biases and this
can create distances. It is, therefore, important that you make a special effort to ensure that
psychological barriers, if any, are brought down, and you are able to establish a warm and
functional relationship with the participants. Your gesture of reaching out to them may also
impel them to come out of their preconceived notions or inhibitions, if any.
Conscious of their position, some senior trainers may be inclined to hold themselves
back from the participants until the formal opening. They may wish to have an impressive
formal introduction to the group rather than an informal one. Some others may feel that their
assignment begins only with the commencement of the programme. This is not a helpful
approach. You must take the first opportunity to meet the participants. Acknowledge them
with warm words if you chance on them in any informal settings. A smile or a nod will
not convey the warmth that a trainer should to a new training group.
Establishing a bond with the participants can also be mutually comforting. It reduces
your tension and gives you confidence. You feel more relaxed. It also enhances your ability
to handle participants’ initial concerns and problems. These early contacts may also help you
win over wary participants. By relating to you the participants also feel reassured. You are
no longer an enigma to them. They feel that you are one of them. You are accessible and not
distant. Mental blocks are removed and communication barriers come down.
Establishing Your Credibility
One of the key concerns of the participants, even before they arrive, relates to the com-
petence of the training team to effectively deliver the training. Their appraisal begins right
from the time of their arrival and continues as the process of interaction progresses, in formal
or informal settings. Some are keen to know about the background of the trainers, their
qualifications and nature and extent of their experience. The participants evaluate the trainers
individually, and as a team—their level of expertise, social skills and attitude towards the
group. As they are informed about individual assignments of the training team, they size
up each trainer separately. Their interest in the training activities can be adversely affected if
their assessment is not complimentary to the trainers and does not give them (participants)
enough confidence. Therefore, establishing credibility with the participants is a prime task
for the trainers and the training agency. It involves developing participants’ faith in the train-
ing team and conveying an assurance to them that the team is eminently qualified, competent
and fully prepared to effectively deliver the programme. They should be convinced that the
trainers are fully capable of handling any situations that may arise during the period. This
promise stimulates and motivates the group.
Establishing your personal credibility with the participants does not mean promoting
yourself at the expense of your colleagues. If you attempt to do it, you run the risk of losing
participants’ respect as your commitment to the team becomes suspect. Your professional
integrity comes into question. At the end, this approach will work against you.
This does not also mean that you should seize on every opportunity to talk big about
your earlier position, experience or achievements. You should be able to communicate your
professional proficiency in a non-effusive, dignified and matured manner. Undoubtedly, you
will win their respect and admiration.
5.2.4 Establishing Participants’ Ownership of the Programme
In order to make the training active and participatory, it is necessary that the ownership of
the programme should be devolved to the participants. They should recognise that they are
also key stakeholders and active partners in the training. They should realise that positive
outcomes of the programme and its smooth running are as much important to them as to
the training team or the training agency. Although the contracting that you have entered
into with the participants conveys a clear message to them, but it is necessary to reiterate it
lest its significance and meaning are lost.
Explaining Its Objectives and Scope and Getting Participants’ Agreement
The purpose behind explaining the rationale, objectives and scope of the programme is not
just to provide relevant information to the participants but also to secure their agreement
on the contents, methodology and its other organisational aspects. In order to achieve this
objective, you must engage them in a process of explanation, consultation and discussion.
They may have some queries and concerns and these must be addressed. They should under-
stand that the programme is being organised in response to their training needs and they are
its immediate beneficiaries. This will enhance their commitment to it and make them aware of
their responsibilities and obligations towards it and the training team. By taking the group
through this process, you establish their ownership of the programme and they become
your associates in the training process. It also sets the course and direction for it and helps in
creating an environment that will influence its delivery. You must generate interest in them
and arouse their curiosity. They should look forward to the plan of action as it unfolds. In
this context, the following suggestions could be considered by the training team.
Take the participants through the contents, step by step, briefly indicating issues
that are likely to be taken up during the discussion. Inform the group of the overall
methodology you wish to adopt for its delivery and, where possible, specify training
methods for various topics and modules. This explanation enables the participants
to fully understand the formulation of the programme and its meaning and rele-
vance to them.
Generally, the participants have a number of queries and concerns at this stage and
you should demonstrate a lot of patience and tact in responding to them. Some
of the questions and comments may be irrelevant and even impertinent, but any
impetuosity on your part at this point may evoke an uncomfortable response from
the group and vitiate the environment. Here is an opportunity for the training team
to win the participants’ confidence and foster a good, functional relationship and set
up a process of collaboration and cooperation. Do not miss it.
You should inform the group of the strategy and the process of finalising the
programme, referring to the consultation with the organisations and inputs by the
participants through the pre-training survey of their needs. Every participant is
interested to know whether her training needs and expectations—expressed either
through a pre-training survey or through an exercise at the time of commence-
ment of the programme—have been adequately reflected in the contents. It is,
therefore, necessary for you to indicate what has been included and what has been
excluded and the reasons for this. You need to reassure them that their training
needs will indeed be satisfied.
Establishing Mechanism for Their Involvement in the Programme
To further reinforce the devolution approach, you should initiate specific steps to get the
participants actively associated with the running of the programme and its management
as well. However, the training agency and the team should be sincere in its intentions. If
this participation remains at the peripheral level or in non-essential aspects, the participants
may see through this ploy and lose interest in making meaningful contribution to its dif-
ferent organisational aspects.
You can facilitate participation of the group in running the programme by establishing a
formal structure or mechanism and by setting out procedures for its functioning. The form
this structure takes and its objectives, however, depend on the nature of the programme, its
duration, level of the training group and the venue. It is also suggested that you set up function-
specific committees. The role of these committees should not be confined to providing
feedback on specific aspects or carrying out the assigned tasks. You must associate them
with the decision-making process as well. They could also act as an effective channel of com-
munication between the training group and the training team. This will give real meaning
to the participants’ involvement in the running of the programme. You may consider the
following suggestions for setting up these committees.
Regardless of the nature of the training, one area in which participants’ involvement
is generally found to be very useful is the ongoing monitoring and evaluation of the
programme. The forum or committee set up for the purpose can provide you with
objective and concrete feedback on how the participants regard the training activities
and to what extent these are assisting them in realising their learning objectives.
They should feel free to offer suggestions on how learning can be further promoted.
Other aspects may include work schedule, evening assignments, group interaction
and general behaviour of the group.
The training team may also consider setting up a committee for reporting on the
previous day’s events. This recapitulation helps in maintaining continuity in training.
Reporting can be process-oriented or may focus only on the contents or training
activities.
Similar committees could be set up for overseeing the living arrangements (for
residential programmes) and for other programme-related activities. However, as
indicated earlier, this depends on specific requirements of the programme.
5.2.5 Blending the Group into a Cohesive Entity
Before you commence the delivery of the programme, your efforts should be directed
towards readying the group for the learning process. One of the key prerequisites for
this task is to blend the participants into a functional, cohesive group. The degree of em-
phasis this facet should receive from you depends on the nature and duration of the train-
ing. This can be crucial for a programme that goes beyond one week.
Remember that for creating an appropriate learning environment, it is important to
build mutually supportive and healthy relationships in the group. This can be achieved
through activities that promote interaction among the participants and initiate the process
of establishing sound interpersonal relations. If the participants are from diverse social and
cultural backgrounds, this process becomes more significant and also, perhaps, more diffi-
cult. In this context, some key areas for action are discussed in the following paragraphs.
Promoting Interaction among the Participants
Once the participants have been formally introduced to one another through activities
carried out at the opening of the programme, you must initiate steps to promote interaction
among them and blend them into a distinct, identifiable entity. If they are drawn from dif-
ferent organisations, your task is somewhat difficult. It is possible that some participants,
on the basis of their previous acquaintance, shared interests or other common factors, may
have already started the process of building relationships. However, most of them could
still be hesitant to take the lead. They may still be waiting for some initiative or action from
the training team to help them in this process and stimulate interaction among them. As a
trainer, you should also be keen that the training process should get under way as soon as
possible. If the participants continue to operate as individuals, it is not helpful in the effect-
ive running of the programme. The process might have been set in motion through the ice-
breakers or openers, but you must make conscious efforts to reinforce and take it forward.
Establishing Norms and Standards of Behaviour
In addition to their learning objectives and personal agenda, the participants bring with
them implicit standards of behaviour and a set of norms, evolved through family orientation,
peer group interaction and cultural background. Work environment also contributes to this
process. When they come face to face with other participants, they find, sometimes to their
surprise, that others do not share the patterns and standards of behaviour that they had
taken for granted. They realise that others have different values and standards of behaviour.
These differences are more conspicuous when the participants come from different social
and cultural backgrounds. This makes the process of evolving commonly shared standards
of behaviour and norms in the group a complex and challenging one. In addition to this,
the training agency may have its own rules and procedures, and a code of conduct for the
participants. To further compound the process, the trainers have their own preferred or
expected criteria of behaviour for the participants, emanating from their style of functioning
and earlier experience.
Some standards and norms become part of the training process even before the group
arrives for the programme. These form part of the contracting that the participants had
signed up with the agency prior to their arrival or as start-up agreement. Some of these norms
would have been set out in the communication sent to the participants informing them of
their selection, well in advance of their arrival.
Although it is easy to specify norms related to participation, attendance, punctuality,
submission of assignments, administrative procedures, and so on (constituting part of the
contracting), there are still many norms and standards that cannot be explicitly stated. For
instance, those related to group cohesiveness, quality of participation, intra-group and
participant–trainer relationships, participants’ personal agenda and their general conduct.
Some of these evolve and grow out of situations and specific circumstances. The ap-
propriateness or acceptability of a certain kind of behaviour is conveyed to the participants,
either verbally—through admonitions, observations or general comments—or through the

body language of the trainers or co-participants. Suitability or otherwise of these norms is
determined on the basis of requirements of the programme and the nature of the group.
For example, in human relations training, the participants should observe the basic rule of
confidentiality and good interpersonal relations. Sometimes, these norms are evolved through
trial and error. In some cases, the trainers may even act as role models. If the group is
encouraged to set its own standards of behaviour, they are likely to be observed more strictly
than when they are set by the trainers or the agency. This also facilitates their enforcement.
It is recommended that those norms that can be expressed in a written form should be
displayed in a convenient place in the main session room. This helps in future reference
and acts as a reminder to the participants and infuses in them a sense of responsibility and
commitment.
Many standards become clear as the programme progresses. They should not be open
to varying interpretations otherwise their implementation becomes difficult. Generalised
statements are not helpful. These have to be specific. For your guidance, some examples are
given below.
The participants should work hard.

Participants should contribute actively to all training activities.
All group and individual assignments should be completed and submitted on time.
The participants should be willing to spend extra hours if the activities and assign-
ments require it.
The participants should be helpful to one another in the group.
Participants should not speak out of turn.
They should give an opportunity to others as well, especially those who are reluctant
to participate or have other difficulties in expressing themselves.
Where possible, encourage others to express their views in the group.
Participants should not dominate discussion.
To the extent possible, every participant should endeavour to assist the group in
completing its tasks and assignments.
The participants should assist in promoting the learning process.
Participate in all training activities and be punctual for the sessions.
They should not hesitate to intervene and raise queries if they are unclear about
the issues that are under discussion.
Assist the trainers in organising training activities.
Desist from raising trivial or irrelevant issues that can hamper the learning
process.
If the trainers include them within the ambit of these standards or norms of behaviour
and action, the participants develop greater respect for the training team.
Process of Setting Norms
The process of setting norms is relatively easier in homogeneous training groups—whether

belonging to social development organisations or the corporate world—as they may share
similar patterns of behaviour and action. It is more so when the participants are drawn
from one organisation. In such cases, the senior management personnel associated with the
programme are keen to extend the organisational norms to the training as well. Therefore,
no extra efforts are required on the part of the agency or the trainers. However, in groups
that have appreciable dissimilarities in age, status and experience, the process of establish-
ing group norms and standards of behaviour can be an intricate process. Perspectives of
life situations, values and attitudes can differ substantially. You may face a similar situation
in training groups that have participants from urban and rural areas or from different eco-
nomic strata.
In the case of international training programmes, you have the responsibility to take
into account the sensitivities and interests of different national or religious subgroups.
Each such group sharing common values wants to ensure that the norms and standards
of behaviour adopted by the group are not inconsistent with its own cultural beliefs and
principles and preferred behavioural patterns. They tend to zealously guard their core values
and norms. During the exercise, the dominant section in the group also tries to assert itself.
On the other hand, some participants remain indifferent to this process. Your task is to assist
the group in arriving at a consensus, notwithstanding these diverse tendencies and thought
processes. Avoid contentious issues and confrontation as this could be damaging for the
group’s unity and cohesion. Do not allow emotions to take over from reason and logic.
Enforcement of Group Norms
Participants conform to these norms only if they are convinced that the agency and the
training team are committed to their compliance. They have a way of finding out how far
any violation will be tolerated. Some of them, especially those with a high self-image and
sense of status, may even test the seriousness and resolve of the trainers or the agency to
implement these norms by deliberately acting contrary to them. A trainer may look the other
way or give in, as she may not want to offend some participants, especially those who wield
influence in the group, for fear of annoying them or losing their support. If the participants
perceive any reluctance on the part of the organisers to enforce these norms, they will be
inclined to disregard them.
It is a sound strategy to entrust the enforcement of the norms to the group. Group
pressure should be used for the purpose. It will be unwise for the trainers to intervene fre-
quently to enforce the norms as this can set the group against them. You need to be subtle
yet firm. Leave some room for inflexibility.
5.2.6 Empowering the Training Group
It should never be assumed that the participants of a training programme are ready to learn
and participate actively in the training and all that is needed is to bring them together, get
a team of trainers and initiate the process of learning. Before the actual training process
begins, it is necessary that the training team creates an environment conducive for initiating
and sustaining the learning process. You need to foster an intense desire and interest in the
participants to learn. You have to convince them of the need to participate actively in the
programme.
Empowerment is not an abstract concept. It is tangible and concrete. In the context of
training and for the purpose of this Handbook, the following four elements could be described
as the overarching constituents of empowerment of the participants. These elements define
the scope of empowerment, as relevant to our discussion, and also help us to identify the
tasks that must be accomplished in order to realise its objectives.
Assisting the participants in a process of self-awareness and self-appraisal in the con-

text of their experience, level of competencies and knowledge. This will help them
relate their learning needs to the objectives and scope of the programme.
Facilitating equitable access to the learning process for all participants, through a
range of training activities and other learning opportunities, keeping in view their
learning styles.
Promoting their meaningful and productive contribution to all training activities.
Enabling them to take control and guide the process of their learning.
Before we proceed to discuss these constituents, it will be useful to check on how dif-
ferent trainers regard this process of empowerment. This will help you assess your own
attitude and perceptions in this regard and, perhaps, impel you to bring about the desired
changes.
Some trainers are highly supportive of the efforts to empower the group. They
believe that a strong and self-assured group can become an important source of
learning and facilitate the work of the trainers. The group can become an ally in
promoting the learning process. For them, a challenge from a participant acts as a
stimulus, drawing the best out of them. They feel that in order to respond effect-
ively to such a challenge they have to delve into the repertoire of their knowledge
and skills. And this contributes to their professional growth while helping the
learning process in the training programme as well.
On the other hand, some trainers have reservations and apprehensions about em-
powerment although they may not express them openly. They consider a confident
and cohesive group a threat to their way of functioning. They believe that if a train-
ing group is assertive and eloquent, the participants may become emboldened to
challenge the trainers. The participants’ actions are viewed with suspicion. These
trainers feel more comfortable dealing with sub-groups or individuals, as this is a
relatively less-threatening and easy-to-handle situation. This attitude can, undoubt-
edly, affect a trainer’s ability to establish a trusting and sound relationship with the
participants. And this can have adverse consequences for the programme.
It has been observed that the attitude of a trainer towards empowerment of the
group is directly related to the degree of her confidence, the level of her expertise in
dealing with the topic or her ability to handle the training group. Her interpersonal
skills will also be an important factor. Generally, it is competent trainers who
like the group to challenge them and query their views.
Group and Individual Expectations
In ascertaining the expectations of the participants at the time of commencement of the

programme, you have a few options.
If the agency had carried out a comprehensive survey of pre-training needs of the
participants (as suggested in the previous chapter) and the contents of training have
been broadly based on those needs, the task to ascertain their expectations from
the programme can be deferred until after you have explained details to them. This
way you assist the participants in putting forward realistic, practical and concrete
suggestions, based on the detailed information you have provided. This can be
a helpful approach. It is possible that some new, interesting training needs may
emerge from this exercise. You can consider the possibility of including these in the
contents.
If, for any reason, the agency has not been able to carry out a pre-training survey,
the task to ascertain their expectations acquires considerably more significance and
meaning. It is, therefore, suggested that you carry out the exercise prior to the session
where you present the programme. This enables you to take their expectations and
suggestions on board and include relevant ones in the schedule. Later, when you
present the contents, you can indicate to what extent these needs have been in-
cluded in it. It is, however, important that this exercise has to be carried out well
in advance of the opening of the event.
This task, in both cases, could be an individual exercise followed by small working
groups. Group reports can then be presented to the full group to arrive at a con-
sensus. This process eliminates frivolous and irrelevant expectations and needs. You
may modify the procedure in accordance with the level of the group, the nature of
the programme and the time available for this task.
You may also have to sort out the common group expectations from those that are
specific to an individual. This process has been explained in the earlier chapter.
Hopes and Concerns
Some of the hopes and concerns would have been expressed in the contracting that you
concluded with the participants before the programme commenced.
When the participants arrive, most of them have some anxieties and concerns. They have
queries and doubts. You may, however, find that while some participants are able to express
their concerns explicitly, others are reluctant to do so. Either they are not in a position to
articulate their concerns in a clear and coherent manner or they feel hesitant to express them
for fear of ridicule or embarrassment. They are not sure of the reactions of the trainers or
the other participants in the group. A participant may feel that these are only her concerns,
and are not shared by others. The fact is that others may be going through a similar dilemma
and hence no one takes the initiative in putting thoughts and feelings into words. Therefore,
your first task is to create an environment in which the participants feel encouraged to
express these concerns. You can, therefore, respond to them in the manner that is satisfying
to the participants. If this is not done in the opening sessions, these anxieties and concerns
will continue to cloud the participants’ minds, influencing their motivation and interest.
They will feel emotionally unsettled. As a result of this situation, the training process itself
could be affected.
In order to facilitate the articulation of these concerns, it is suggested that you prepare a
set of special exercises. This will provide you with useful information on the extent to which
members of the group share these concerns. This also communicates to the participants that
you are sensitive to their views and feelings and willing to address them. Accordingly, you
may then develop a suitable strategy to respond to them. You must, however, ensure that those
participants who are shy and somewhat inhibited are also able to express themselves freely.
You must also remember that these hopes and concerns will be different from group
to group—depending on the level of the participants, the nature of the programme, its
duration and other distinguishing elements. For instance, in a non-residential course, the
participants will not be concerned about accommodation. In a short-term programme, the
nature of concerns differs considerably. Therefore, you have to be careful.
The participants should also be made aware of any preconceived notions and biases they
might have brought with them. If these are allowed to go unchallenged, they might affect
relationships among participants in the group and their attitude towards the programme
and the trainers.
In Box 5.2, a sample representation of participants’ concerns is given. This can serve as a
guide. The purpose of giving the details is to make you aware of the range of concerns that
you are likely to encounter in a training programme. However, it is possible that in a pro-
gramme, the participants may not share all these concerns.
Box 5.2
Some Typical Participants’ Concerns
On the programme
What is in this programme for me? (By way of experience, learning, exercise of
mental faculties, and so on)
How will my expectations match with the expectations of the group?
Does the programme respond to my immediate or short-term needs? (Professional
as well as personal.)
What is the pay-off for my good performance in the programme, as a whole, and
contribution to all training activities?
Will I get opportunities to share my experiences with other members of the
group?
To what extent are my experiences relevant for the programme?
Will they be appreciated and recognised by the trainer and the group members?
About relationships in the group

How will the group members respond to me during the course of the programme?
What will be my position in the group?
To what extent will the participants respect my status and position back home? (This
is particularly true in certain cultures.)
Will I be in a position to develop good, healthy and functional relationship with my
co-participants?
What kind of support will I receive from the members of the group and the
trainers?
Will they be supportive of me or indifferent if I am confronted by some difficulties?
Will I be in a position to dominate the group and assume leadership position?
How should I respond if others attempt to dominate the group and attempt to
manipulate me?
Who could possibly be my rivals in dominating (or controlling) the group or for
good performance in the programme?
Regarding trainers
Do they have the knowledge and skills required for the effective delivery of the pro-
gramme?
Do they possess the necessary credentials to carry out their responsibilities?
Will they measure up to the expectations of the participants?
How will they face up to their challenges?
Will they be in a position to challenge them?
Will they be subdued, submissive or assertive with regard to the group?
Are they friendly?
Will I be in a position to develop a healthy, warm relationship with the trainers?

Will they like to be informal with the participants or maintain a discreet distance
from them?
Will I get due recognition from them?
Regarding living conditions and general environment of the programme

What are the accommodation arrangements for the participants?
Will I be reasonably comfortable and get my privacy?
If I have to share my room with other participants, what kind of behaviour can I expect
from them?
What are the catering arrangements for the programme? (This will be a special concern
if the programme is medium or long term.)
What will be the atmosphere in the classrooms, the work schedule and the working
hours?
Will I get proper rest and time to follow my own interests and do my own things?
How far is the place from the city centre?
What will be the mode of travel for me to reach the city centre?
Are the staff members of the agency friendly?
Will they respond to the needs of the participants?
Clarifying Their Role and Enhancing Their Commitment to the Programme
An important aspect of empowerment is the clarification of the roles of the key partners in
the training. It is always helpful to have a frank and open dialogue with the participants at
the beginning of the programme, outlining their role and responsibilities. They should be
made to realise that, while as participants, they have certain privileges, as key partners in
the training, they have some obligations as well. They must demonstrate their commitment
to the programme and undertake to work for its success. You must convey to them an
unequivocal message that ‘as they are here for the programme, they owe it to themselves, their or-
ganisations and the training agency to use the opportunity to enhance their learning, contribute
to the training activities and perform to the best of their ability’. They must know that while the
trainers’ role is to provide suitable opportunities for learning, consistent with the objectives
of the programme, the ultimate responsibility for learning lies with them. It is also necessary
to clarify the relative degree of authority and control the training team and the group will
exercise in different areas of programme implementation and management. It is the right of
the participants to know what specific responsibilities they are expected to carry out and in
what programme-related tasks they would be associated. Through ground rules and other
pronouncements, you should also inform them about what will be considered functional or
dysfunctional behaviour. They should also be aware of the space available to them for posing
queries and challenging the trainers during the sessions and training activities.
Encouraging Them to Set Personal Learning Objectives
Although ostensibly the programme objectives and its contents should be the basis of
their interest in the training, this is not always the case. Not all participants are clear about
what they want to achieve from the programme. In a few cases, the participants evolve
their expectations on the basis of what their immediate seniors or the management of the
organisation tell them. And this becomes the source for formulating their learning object-
ives. On the other hand, there are some participants who are not in a position to articulate
their training needs in tangible terms. Some participants may still be struggling to face the
reality of their presence in the programme. Thus, you encounter a whole range of positions
and outlooks. It is, therefore, quite likely that you have a sizeable number of participants
who would require your help and guidance in setting their learning objectives. It is, how-
ever, important that every participant is clear in her mind about what she wants to achieve
through her participation and what learning package she wants to carry back home. This
clarity gives meaning and substance to a participant’s efforts and stimulates her towards
making a more productive contribution to training activities. You must, however, ensure
that these objectives are realistic and related to the participant’s current level of competencies,
her training needs, and her ability to comprehend the inputs.
Devolving Responsibility for Learning to the Participants
Notwithstanding the training styles of the trainers, it is in the interest of the programme
that the training team progressively devolves more responsibility to the participants for
their learning. This, however, does not mean that you should hand over the control of the
programme to the participants and retreat to the background. As it progresses, it is expected
that the group will become more capable of undertaking this task. Having once set the
norms and procedures for the functioning of the syndicates or working groups, you should
encourage them to take the initiative, exercise greater control of the contents and the pro-
cess, and give full expression to their capabilities and experience. However, they must realise
that they have to work within certain parameters and are fully accountable for their actions
and behaviour. You need to monitor how they use this opportunity and what level of control
they exercise, as a group. It should not result in a few becoming the dominant voices in
the group. Each participant must feel that she has similar stakes and opportunities for self-
expression, participation and growth as the others in the group. She must be enabled to
arrive at decisions about her role and to determine her own learning needs and style.
Establishing Standards of Performance and Participation
Together with the learning objectives, it is necessary to establish standards of performance

that the participants should aim to attain, especially in long-term training programme. This
will motivate and stimulate them to put in an extra effort in participating in various train-
ing activities. The training team should not set these standards arbitrarily but, instead, fully
involve the group in the process. This ensures the commitment of the participants. In setting
these standards, you should consider the nature of the programme and the general level of
competence and comprehension of the group. While it is advisable to prescribe minimum
standards, you should also set forth attractive incentives for better performance and provide
necessary support to those who want to fly higher than others. This whole exercise can
become meaningless if you do not put in place the necessary mechanism for feedback and
prompt follow-up.
Creating an Environment for Free Expression and Exchange of Views
Free flow of communication between the participants and also between the group and the
trainers is crucial for the success of the programme. It is the responsibility of the trainers
to create an environment in which the participants feel encouraged to express their views
frankly and without inhibition. Of course, it does not mean a licence to criticise with ulterior
motive. Responsible criticism and realistic suggestions aimed at making the programme
learner-friendly and effective should not only be welcomed but also be encouraged. You
should not get fazed or irritated when the participants express unfavourable views or make
uncomplimentary comments.
Establishing Support Mechanisms
The training team should set in motion processes that promote interaction among the
participants. This stimulates interest and enhances participation, which, in turn, further
reinforces the group processes. Interaction in a training group has a wide scope and meaning.
It is not limited to communication but extends to the development and nurturing of rela-
tionships that provide mutual support and encouragement. It helps in the emergence of an
intra-group support system that is reassuring to the participants and allows some degree of
risk taking. It facilitates free and frank expression of ideas and views, personal concerns and
feelings through formal or informal channels of communication. Apprehensions are not
obscured; disagreements and differences are not disguised. The system also provides for easy
accessibility and promotes mutual interdependence with trainers and co-participants. It also
assists in overcoming anxieties, stress and disappointments.
Building Their Confidence
An important facet of empowerment is the level of participants’ confidence. It is reflected in

the way they conduct themselves in the group, take initiative and participate in training ac-
tivities. You should, therefore, be prepared to put on ground some confidence-building
measures, especially for those who are diffident and shy. You should be generous in recognis-
ing participants’ efforts and their contribution to training activities. They need to be assured
that their contribution is valued and appreciated. It is necessary to give them positive strokes.
Your recognition will boost their morale and lift the level of their confidence. Remember
that those who have not been exposed earlier to a similar training experience require your
extra support and helping hand. It is important that these participants should be brought
into the mainstream of the programme.
Helping the Participants Realise Their Potential
All participants have certain areas of competence and experience. Some participants have
excellent communication skills, some are good in practical work and some others have experi-
ences that can become an important source of learning in the group activities. While some
of them may be fully conscious of their potential and capabilities and are also fully aware of
how and when to use them, others may lack this ability. One of the tasks for you, therefore,
is to assist the participants in getting into contact with their abilities and experience, and
identifying training areas/activities in which they can make more productive and meaningful
contribution. You should also provide opportunities to the participants to channel their
knowledge, experience and competencies towards more active participation in the training
activities.
5.3 DELIVERING THE PROGRAMME
5.3.1 Establishing and Maintaining Conducive Learning Climate
Meaning and Scope
The primary responsibility for creating a stimulating and motivating environment that
promotes the learning process rests with you and your colleagues. Even if the programme
begins on a positive note and the participants are energised and are full of enthusiasm,
they can easily get dispirited and dissuaded if the training environment is not maintained at
that level. The challenge for the training team and the agency, therefore, is to establish and
maintain that climate throughout the duration of the programme. It is one thing to start
with a bang and another to sustain that momentum and vigour throughout its duration.
The gains of the initial stage in creating a will to learn should not be frittered away.
Learning environment can be described as the climate in a training programme that
stimulates learning and creates a desire for growth and change in the participants. It is not
an intangible term but has dimensions that need to be properly understood, analysed and
related in a manner that optimises learning.
An effective learning climate is a little paradoxical. You want participants to be comfortable
yet struggle with ideas and perspectives. You want them to be reflective yet also active and
vocal. You want them to feel supported but also challenged. The bottom line on learning
climate is ‘energy, enthusiasm and motivation’. You want energy in all sessions and training
activities. A trainer can work with both negative and positive energy but not with apathy.
There is a close linkage between the learning climate in the programme and the training
and learning styles of the participants.
Elements of Healthy Learning Climate
Learning environment has three key elements—emotional, intellectual and physical—though

they are not exclusive to one another. There is constant interplay of these elements, each one
influencing the other, and the final outcome that emerges is the learning environment. For
instance, an emotionally assuring environment can stimulate the desire for learning. If a
participant enjoys warm and mutually supportive relationship with the trainer and the co-
participants, she will be able to contribute and participate in training activities with greater
zeal and enthusiasm, shedding her fears or inhibitions. Similarly, a physically relaxing en-
vironment can be mentally stimulating. If these elements support one another and play
their part to the desired level, the outcome will be an environment that is conducive to learn-
ing and growth, helping you to realise the training objectives. For ease of our understand-
ing, these elements are discussed separately in the following paragraphs, but you should
work out operative combinations and relationships of these elements as part of your training
strategy to get positive outcomes for the programme.
Emotional Component
The participants feel comfortable and emotionally relaxed, in the sessions and in
informal settings.
There is high level of trust and goodwill among members of the group. There is also
high degree of openness and transparency in behaviour and actions and sincerity of
purpose and intent. There are no hidden agendas.
There is positive and invigorating bonding between the group, on the one hand, and
the trainers, on the other.
The participants are also able to relate to the trainers on a one-on-one basis as well.
They are accessible and the participants do not feel inhibited to approach them even
with their personal problems.
The group is high on self-esteem. There is an element of self-belief and confidence
in the participants.
The training team and the participants serve as part of the mechanism within the
group that extends emotional support to an individual when she needs it.
There is a sense of fulfilment and satisfaction from participation in the programme.
The participants feel emotionally stable and sound.
Intellectual Component
Participants are able to respond spontaneously and readily to the learning stimuli
sent by the trainers or other participants.
They have a keen desire for growth and change, based on the learning accruing
from the training. They do not wait for opportunities to learn but are keen to explore
or create them.
The participants look forward to the next training activity with enthusiasm, curiosity
and expectancy.
They feel free to express views and opinions on the issues being discussed.
They are confident and capable of making the right choices in the learning process,
consistent with their personal learning objectives.
They feel motivated to participate meaningfully in the training activities.
They have healthy respect for the professional competence of the trainers.
There is healthy competition among the participants to perform and contribute.
Group is being recognised as an important source of learning, both by the participants
and by the trainers.
It brings out the best from the trainers. Sometimes, they may get surprised by their
inputs and very competent professional interventions.
Physical Component
Physical surrounding of the room.

Comfort level for the participants.
Living conditions.
Environment that provides opportunities for relaxation and reflection.
Response of the support staff.
Building Positive and Healthy Environment—Some Key Steps
Creating learning climate is not something that can be achieved through some basic do’s
and don’ts. There is no mantra or a short answer to this question. It is the result of several
measures and approaches that you adopt and follow them throughout the programme.
You must clarify the purpose and outcomes of the programme to the participants
and indicate how the learning accruing from various training activities fit into a
larger picture of their work and life. In other words, you must establish the context
of learning. Discuss with them the relevance and value of learning.
Encourage the participants to set out their personal learning objectives, realistic and
consistent with the programme objectives.
It is important that you engage them in a process of discussion that enhances their
commitment to the programme, and makes them aware of their responsibilities
and obligations towards themselves, the organisations they represent, the training
group and the training team.
Establish yourself with the participants professionally and on a personal level. You
must build trust and goodwill. Your credibility will be assessed by the participants in
two ways—your professional competence and ability to deal with the topics under
the programme; and sincerity of purpose, honesty and openness.
Your own training style is a key factor in promoting a healthy, learning environment.
As the programme progresses, its requirements and those of the group change. You
should be willing to examine the relevance and appropriateness of your style in
accordance with the demands of the programme and bring in the desired changes.
An important ingredient in promoting the learning process is the use of a variety
of learner-friendly training methods that stimulate active participation and reduce
learning fatigue. Make sure that while deciding on the training methods to be used,
you take into consideration the learning styles of the participants. While you may
focus on group learning, you must also offer opportunities for learning through
individual projects and exercises. Be creative and introduce innovation, where ap-
propriate. You should not, however, lose sight of the programme objectives.
Create risk-free environment for the participants. Assure them that you are willing
to help them learn; and committing mistakes or slip-ups will not invite censure or
ridicule from you or the participants. Recognise initiative and enterprise but remind
them that lack of efforts will not be in the spirit of the programme.
You have to lead by example upfront. Demonstrate that you are enjoying your work,
relaxed, fully committed to the success of the programme and willing to take risks.
If learning is not put together and communicated to the group at regular intervals, it
can be lost in the plethora of training activities and intense involvement of the par-
ticipants. You must, therefore, aim to periodically bring out the key learning points
from the training activities and indicate how this learning affects the job and personal
behaviour of the participants, consistent with the nature of the programme. Putting
together bits and pieces of learning into recognisable and useful learning packages
gives more meaning to training, keeping the participants’ motivation at a high level.
You should also encourage them to engage in a process of reflection and assessment
to identify areas of learning that might not be so apparent. Remember that some
learning also takes place at the subconscious level.
Besides the use of basic tools, you can also enhance the learning process by attend-
ing to the nuts and bolts of the programme. Make sure that no time is wasted. Start
and finish the session on time. Breaks between the sessions should be regulated,
enabling the next activity to start on time. Give clear and precise instructions for
group or individual assignments and let it be known to the participants that you
want these assignments to be completed and submitted on time. However, you need
to be careful and not overburden them.
You should be fully committed to the essentials of adult learning. Only then can you
expect the group to respond to you in a positive and active manner.
Determine at what pace the group is prepared to move with you in the process of
learning, and organise training activities and your presentations accordingly.
Treat the participants with respect and courtesy. You will find that they will recip-
rocate this gesture. Respond to the participants in the way you expect them to re-
spond to you and others in the group.
Establish support system in the group as key to risk-free participation.

Open their eyes to their own worth. Make them aware of what they already know;
about their strengths.
A conscious effort is made by the facilitators to harness positive energy (and minimise
the influence of negative energy) and stimulate them to get into a learning mode.
Indicators of a Healthy Learning Climate in the Group
Discussion on various topics is animated, evocative and productive. The participants

bring up new issues and points that widen the scope of the discussion making it
more meaningful and valuable.
There is wider participation in the discussions and you are not required to coax
them to volunteer for expressing their views and contributing. There is no domin-
ation by a few and every participant is eager and comfortable to present her views.
There is extensive participant–trainer and participant–participant interaction in the
session and during other training activities. The participants express their views and
ask questions that are relevant to the topic and reflect positive listening and good
understanding of the issues under discussions. The interventions are not frivolous.
Participants are asking challenging questions indicating sincerity of purpose and a
desire to learn and grow. There are no hidden agendas or an attempt to engage in
one-upmanship game either with the other participants or with the trainers.
There is a lot of positive energy in the group as manifested in the body language
of the participants. They move briskly for getting together for training activities,
within the room or when they move to other settings. They rush to join their
respective groups. This energy is particularly apparent in small group discussion or
activities.
You find a lot of issues emerging from the discussion that provide you opportuni-
ties to be more creative in presenting ideas, generate enhanced interest in the topic
and take the discussion to a higher level. You feel that the participants are able to
get the best out of you. Sometimes, you are surprised by your knowledgeable inter-
ventions, going beyond your planned presentation or inputs.
The participants are able to bond well with one another, regardless of their status in
their respective organisations and professional experience.
There is punctuality all around without reminders from you or other participants.
Everyone arrives on time at the beginning of the proceedings for the day and after
breaks.
Discussion does not end with the closing of the session. It gets extended beyond
the room, to the tea or lunch table or to the corridors of the venue.
There is a lot of healthy humour and laughter around. The participants appear to be
enjoying the company of one another at the sessions.
Participants come to you (if you have made a presentation or leading the discussion)
at the breaks with questions, ideas and suggestions.
Participants are sitting up, leaning forward and looking you in the eye.
Judging by facial expressions, the participants seem eager, learning ready and glad
to be involved.
Participants are not only listening intently but also taking down notes.
5.3.2 Delivering the Programme—Some Key Tasks
As the programme has commenced and you have set it on proper course, you must continue
to assess your professional and mental competencies to move it at a brisk and uniform pace.
The training team must be proactive, keeping itself in readiness to meet various challenges
and situations as they emerge from the implementation. You must constantly ensure that
initial efforts to set the programme on a progressive path get further consolidated by your
actions and behaviour. A wrong step at this stage can negate your earlier gains and cause
you immense problems. Delivering the programme in accordance with the training design
is a major test for you and the training team. And you can face it competently and with
equanimity if you ensure that all its constituents are in place and you are professionally and
mentally prepared to implement the plan of action. You must realise that once the imple-
mentation begins and events start unfolding, the training activities will keep you so engaged
that you will have little time to attend to details. Such is the intensity of action in a training
programme.
In addition to the assignments discussed in earlier sections, there are some other on-
going tasks that the training team is expected to perform in order to deliver the programme
effectively. These are not exclusive to one another. As you work towards advancing the
learning process and realising the programme objectives, some degree of overlap between
these tasks is unavoidable. Remember training process is an integrated system. The purpose
of discussing these tasks independently is to underscore the significance of each of these and
highlight their respective role in promoting the learning process. Relative emphasis on any
of these tasks depends on the nature and objectives of the programme and the strategy you
adopt for delivering it.
Overcoming Resistance to Learning
You need to recognise that a few participants, if not many, come with mental blocks and
a not-so-positive attitude to training and learning. The reasons can be varied. Some may
have an exaggerated image of their own competence and expertise in the areas to be covered
by the programme. Some others may have an overstated sense of self-importance because
of their senior positions in their organisations. As a result, these participants have a dif-
ferent perception of their role and position within the group or in the training. Some of
them may even feel that they do not need any further training and convey this message to
the group and the trainers by their behaviour within the session and outside it. They might
demonstrate little interest in what goes on during the sessions. They resist learning and, in
most cases, their antipathy will be directed against the trainers. Your task in such cases is
to identify such participants, take appropriate measures to overcome their resistance and
change their attitude, and bring them into the mainstream of the programme. It is important
that you keep a watch on such elements ensuring that they do not adversely influence the
group processes. However, it would be unwise to confront them directly, so use subtle
measures to do so.
Overseeing the Group Processes
The importance of social processes in a training programme cannot be overemphasised. A

key facet of the group process is the development and nurturing of a positive and mutually
supportive relationship among the participants. This relationship translates into an environ-
ment that fosters an attitude of interdependence, trust and collaborative efforts in realising
the objectives not only of the group but of individuals as well. It is, therefore, important
that you should closely monitor these processes, ensuring that they remain supportive of
your efforts to promote learning. Getting actively involved in group activities becomes an
enjoyable and meaningful experience for a participant only when she knows that she has
the encouragement and cooperation of other members of the group. While a participant
influences other members of the group through her conduct, contribution and actions, in
turn, she should be willing to get influenced by them as well. This two-way process will
ensure that group processes remain lively and productive. A key prerequisite for this rela-
tionship is that the channels of communication among the participants remain vibrant and
functional throughout the programme.
You should aim to widen participation and get more and more members of the group
actively involved in the training activities. You must give particular attention to those who
continue to maintain a low profile and are inhibited in their interaction with the trainers and
other participants. Help them come out of their mental state. Keep a watchful eye on those
dominant elements in the group whose desire (and behaviour and actions) to occupy leader-
ship positions may have a restraining influence on others. You must ensure that no one is
deprived of an opportunity for more active participation. You should endeavour to create an
environment in which every participant feels that she has a place in the group and is capable
of making a meaningful contribution.
You should be watchful of the emergence of sub-groups as they usually play a crucial role
in group life, especially in a long-term programme. You must make sure that these sub-groups
do not function contrary to the interests of the programme. Direct the energy of the group
towards more desirable pursuits and objectives. You must assist the group in establish-
ing and developing a self-operating mechanism that has the capability of coping with intra-
group problems and issues without outside intervention. Disagreements and small prob-
lems should not be allowed to grow into discord and conflicts. You should also work on
your skills to make constructive use of group conflicts.
Functional and dysfunctional behaviour is part of the group process. You should con-
stantly monitor the situation to enable you to keep a close watch on the participants whose
behaviour has unfavourable consequences for the group and the programme. On the other
hand, those who remain committed to it should receive your support and encouragement.
This strategy will help curb the dysfunctional behaviour while, at the same time, promote
behaviour that is helpful of your efforts.
Receiving and Giving Proper Feedback
You should encourage the participants to provide feedback on your presentations and the
manner in which you plan and conduct the training activities. You may have legitimate claim
of being an experienced and good trainer because you had been successful with previous
groups but this is a new group and it is not inconceivable that the participants perceive
you and your performance differently. The requirements of the programme may also differ
considerably from those of earlier groups. So be open to feedback from participants, even
when it is not gracious. Be more perceptible of what is happening in the group in the session
and outside it, and you will get plenty of worthwhile data on how your presentations and
training activities are being received by the participants. Remember that you can qualify
to be a proficient trainer if you develop your abilities to elicit and analyse feedback from the
participants. However, participants’ responses and views on your presentation and the
manner you are handling a session has some value only if you are willing to take prompt
follow-up or corrective action. You should be willing and have the capability to bring about
a change in your training style; make an extra effort to improve the quality of the contents
or widen the scope of the discussion or introduce variety in the method of your present-
ation. All this may add worth to the outcomes of the discussion or the presentation.
Another important task for you is providing regular feedback to the participants on
the quality of their participation in the training activities. You should also assist them in
finding out the incremental changes that have taken place in their learning and the degree
to which they are working to realise their personal learning objectives. Some participants
are keen to know how the trainers perceive their contribution to the programme, in general,
and to discussions, in particular. Give them your considered views and comments on their
participation and general conduct, and suggest ways and means for improving their per-
formance. This will help in keeping their morale high and ensure their commitment.
Maintaining Harmony between Programme Contents and Training Process
An essential element in the effective delivery of a training programme is the ongoing

linkage between its contents and the process. Process and contents should complement each
other. As mentioned earlier, organising a programme is not just putting together topics,
modules or training activities. There is a need for a clearly defined linkage between these
events, reflected in its integrity and the corporate image. Learning should be considered a
continuum. It cannot be fragmented. It is necessary that the training team takes a holistic
view of the programme. Therefore, an important task for the trainers is to put together
the learning accruing from different training activities and integrate them in a way that the
participants get a comprehensive and wider picture, relevant to their learning needs. They
should be helped to understand and recognise this linkage. This exercise makes learning
more perceptible, lends meaning and substance to the training process and serves as a strong
motivating factor for the participants.
It is not easy to develop a training design that fully reflects or provides for consistency
of the training process with the programme contents. During the process of planning, it
may not be possible to foresee the nature, intensity or the likely impact of all the forces and
factors on the implementation of the programme once it gets under way. There is some
unpredictability about the situation. However, as the process is activated and the plan of action
is put into implementation mode, things start happening and many forces start operating.
A whole set of circumstances come into play. It is, therefore, important that the plan-
ning team should work with some foresight and clear thinking on this aspect of the pro-
gramme. This will help prepare the trainers for handling emerging situations in a more
professional manner and with greater efficacy.
Coordination between the contents and the process requires you to constantly monitor
the outcomes from various training activities. There should be complete harmony between
the learning outcomes of training activities and programme objectives. Also, any variance
between the intended and the actual outcomes from the training activities should be pro-
perly examined and necessary corrective measures should be promptly put in place.
A key factor in ensuring coordination between the contents and the training process is
the training team. All members of the team should function in concert, regardless of their
individual assignments and diverse training styles. There should be shared perceptions about
the programme, the training strategy and their respective role and responsibilities. If every
member of the team carries out her assignment independent of others, it becomes diffi-
cult to maintain harmony and follow a common approach. You need to give special attention
to outside resource persons. Sometimes, their assignments stand out in discordance from
those of other members of the team. You should ensure that their presentations are con-
sistent with the overall strategy and approach for the delivery of the programme.
Monitoring the Programme and Making Necessary Changes
The training programme might be planned well in advance of the date of its commence-
ment, taking into account the data and information available at the time of planning. As the
plan is put into action, many unforeseen factors could intervene. While on the one hand,
you must ensure that the programme proceeds in accordance with the plan, on the other
hand, you cannot ignore the existent factors that affect its implementation. It is, therefore,
necessary that you constantly monitor its progress. This facilitates mid-course correction. If
everything is left to the end-programme evaluation, it is too late to modify the programme.
Regular monitoring and the trainers’ desire to act on the feedback go a long way in as-
suring the participants that the training team is genuinely interested in addressing the learn-
ing concerns of the participants. They feel convinced that nothing is taken for granted and
the training team is keeping a close watch on all aspects of the programme as it progresses.
This helps in reinforcing the participants’ motivation for training and in developing a positive
attitude towards the trainers and the training agency.
Managing Challenge and Dissent
It is not unusual for a trainer to face situations when her views and ideas are challenged
and some participants even express divergent views. Managing this challenge is a measure
of your self-confidence and proficiency in the subject matter. Some trainers may consider
it as an act of defiance and confrontation, some a positive indicator of the interest and in-
volvement of the participants in the discussion and some others a mere distraction. Some
trainers may react by throwing up a counter challenge, some may meekly give in and accept
the participant’s views without analysing the relative merit of the two positions. Both these
approaches are not reasonable. In the former, it is evident that the trainer has already lost
the point. Other participants may rally round the participant and it turns into a ‘partici-
pants vs trainer’ situation. In the latter, the credibility of the trainer takes a knock. It is
important that you prepare yourself well in order to face these situations and adopt a strategy
that is helpful to you and the programme. In most situations, you should exercise utmost
patience and restrain yourself from reacting in an impulsive manner.
Another aspect of this challenge is the ability to dexterously handle questions from the par-
ticipants, especially during a session. This, undoubtedly, would be a big asset. The ease and
confidence with which you are able to handle questions and provide clarification to the
participants is very reassuring to them. There are numerous situations in training, regardless
of the method used for the session, when the participants seek the assistance of the trainer
to clarify certain issues related to the discussion. Some trainers get irritated when they
are asked questions in the midst of a presentation. Be watchful of your behaviour and act
professionally.
(For cross-reference see the following section in this chapter.)
Consolidating Learning
As the programme progresses, a lot of learning will accrue from the training activities. While
on some occasions, learning is fairly apparent and the participants are able to comprehend
it, there are times when it is not so perceptible. Here it is your responsibility to bring out
the key learning points for the benefit of the participants. You must ensure that after a train-
ing activity is completed, the group gets adequate opportunity to reflect and identify the
learning, otherwise your efforts may not yield expected outcomes. It is, therefore, impor-
tant that periodically you must consolidate learning and help participants recognise and
internalise it. Another key task for you will be to constantly establish a linkage between
the learning flowing from the training and its application in the situations that await the
participants back home. If this is done properly, they will find more meaning and value in
the learning. By collating and consolidating learning you can also specify the progression in
the learning process consistent with the progress of the programme itself. You may do it as
part of your debriefing after a training activity is completed or consider preparing written
summaries of the learning points. The advantage in the latter case is the materials made
available to the participants can serve as reference materials after the training. This will also
facilitate your putting together learning at the end of the programme.
Highlighting learning will also strengthen your bonds with the participants. This will also
assist you in your professional growth as you will develop your ability to translate training
activities into learning and putting learning in the context of their work situation. This
experience will help you when you are planning future training programme.
5.3.3 Using Question–Response Approach for Enhancing Participation
Understanding the Approach
When we speak about questions in the context of training, we are not referring to a question–
answer session at the end of a presentation or lecture that is assumed to be mandatory. In
such cases, the key purpose is to seek more information or clarification on the points made
by the presenter or the speaker. Some members of the group (or the audience) may also ex-
press their views. This practice is not designed to energise the group or get its participation
but more as an exercise in winding up the lecture/presentation.
However, in the context of training in management or social development areas where,
in most cases, participants are adults, question–response approach (or technique) assumes
a different meaning and scope than what is commonly understood. The adult participants
bring to the programme considerable experience and knowledge. On the other hand, the
trainers are also given the responsibility to deliver the training programme as they have the
necessary competence and expertise in the topics or modules covered by the contents.
Therefore, this approach should be viewed as a tool that promotes interaction between these
two sets of knowledge, experience and competence, and facilitates pooling of these resources
for the learning of the group, including the trainers. It aims to enhance the participation
of the members of the training group and to make them partners in the learning process,
making it more active and participatory.
In general cases, questions may have right or wrong answers but not in this case. There
is no absoluteness about them. It is not black and white. The answer can bring in new
perspective and add a new dimension to the discussion. It is, therefore, important that
question–response strategy should be viewed in that light.
Before we elaborate on this approach in the following pages, it is necessary to establish
the context, relevant to this Handbook, and set out the assumptions on which the discussion
will be based. These are:
In our context, a ‘question’ from the participant may take the form of a query, a
statement, an assertion or a verbal expression, with the explicit aim of presenting
her understanding or experience on the issues under discussion, substantiating or
validating the line of reasoning or a point made by the trainer, introducing an-
other dimension to the issue under discussion or conveying a different point of view
or perspective.
Similarly, question from the trainer may also be in the form of a request for issue-
related information, expression of views or for sharing of experiences. Here also the
scope of the question is much wider.
Thus, questions are not necessarily queries, seeking answers in the form of facts,
figures or information. Sometimes, they can even be referred as ‘interventions’ either
by the trainer or by the participants.
The purpose of questions (from the trainers) is not to test the knowledge or intel-
ligence of the participants. It is to bring out their experience and knowledge as a tool
for learning of the group as a whole.
The responses given by the participants to questions from the trainers are generally
not viewed in absolute terms—either right or wrong, except in special cases. At
worst, the response may reflect lack of appropriate knowledge or experience of the
participant on the issues under discussion and, at best, it may contribute substan-
tively to the learning process of the group, by adding more meaning to the dis-
cussion and providing new perspective or dimensions to the topic.
However, in view of the fact that asking questions to the group and handling them is
viewed as an important competency of the trainers, we will discuss it as question–response
approach. Evidently, the focus too will be developing your ability to manage the entire realm
of questions—whether asked by you or by the participants. Each aspect will be elaborated to
help you become more efficient in this key area of your repertoire.
Using Questions for Enhancing Participation
Questions—whether asked by the participants or by the trainers—constitute a valuable tool

with a trainer for stimulating the learning process, making the presentation interesting and
ensuring that the group moves with her and the participants continue to enjoy the position
of equal partners in carrying the training process forward. It is, therefore, important that
the trainer has a positive attitude towards questions and the questioners. She should not
shy away from questions (from the participants) or consider them as irritants or unhelpful
interruptions in the presentation. Questions–responses should be promoted as part of inter-
active process in a session. Trainers should consider this as opportunities for building up a
relationship with the participants, promoting participation and enhancing learning. If pro-
ficiently used, questions are helpful in many ways.
Functions of Questions
It is important that you should know how to make optimum use of the questions in
enhancing participation and making the group more active and participatory, and in creating
an environment that stimulates thinking and encourages the participants to clarify their
doubts or seek clarifications.
It can help in promoting interaction among the participants. A question asked or a

doubt raised by a participant can generate interest in other members of the group
and, sometimes, even elicit response from some of them. It has often been observed
that some participants may have similar doubts (as expressed by the participant)
about certain issues under discussion but for some personal reasons they are reluctant
to share their views. These participants may feel closer to those who appear to be
echoing their views or sharing the questions on the topic. This may become the
basis of further interaction among these participants and help develop bonds bet-
ween them.
Question–response transactions can also help in establishing a good functional
relationship between the training group, on the one hand, and the trainer or the
training team, on the other. This promotes interactive process between the trainers
and the group, more specifically with the participants asking the question, thus en-
hancing learning. If the question was asked, she may develop healthy respect for the
participants and this can become the basis for further interaction. It is seen that if
the question does not put the trainer in an uncomfortable position, (in responding
to it), is relevant to the discussion and provides an opportunity to the trainer to
elaborate further on her presentation, she will enjoy this interaction with the partici-
pants and develop a positive demeanour towards the participants. This will be
perceived as an attempt by the participants to carry forward the learning process
through questions. However, it is equally true that if the questioner’s intentions
are perceived to be suspect by the trainer, the question can trigger a negative vibe
between the two.
Regardless of who initiates the process, question–response approach acts as a key
aspect of the feedback system. Questions from the participants help you in gauging
your own performance and finding out to what extent you were able to communi-
cate effectively with the participants, in the context of your presentation or expressing
your views on a topic or an issue. The tenor of the questions, their contents and the
questioners’ body language will indicate to what degree the participants understand
or comprehend the discussion or the materials/inputs provided by you meet the
training needs of the participants. A question asked by a participant also provides
an opportunity to you to check whether other members of the group too share
similar doubts on the discussion by redirecting the question to others (preferably by
rephrasing) or widening the scope of the question. This will help you identify areas
in which the participants require help or there is a need for special emphasis.
Question–response interaction, if pursued discerningly, can also help you assess the
level of knowledge of the group in the context of the topic under discussion and
find out the dimensions of the topic that they are familiar with. Questions (by the
participants) may also be viewed as the result of the thought process that goes in
the mind of the participants about either the degree of agreement with the views
expressed by the trainer or the relevance of the contents to her work back home. It
must be remembered that, sometimes, questions are asked keeping in mind the
application of the learning to field situations. Thus, the questions will also provide
some indication of the extent the participants are in a position to relate the contents
of the training to back-home situation. If properly interpreted and analysed, this
transaction helps you modify the contents and your inputs in accordance with the
training needs of the participants, especially with regard to the application of the
learning accruing from your presentation or the training activity.
The time lag between the question asked and response by the trainer or vice versa
can also serve as a period of reflection on the contents not only by the participants
who asked the questions but also by others in the group who might be paying
greater attention to the questioners. This time gap will also help them ponder
over their own views on the issue or the situation back home. This, undoubtedly,
helps the learning process. This can also provide you with an opportunity to gather
your thoughts and plan out how you wish to continue with the session and handle
issues that arise during the discussion in order to enhance the learning process.
Question–response transaction can generate an environment that is learner-friendly
and thus helps many participants feel more relaxed in the session. It heightens
interest of the group and increases its energy level. This will be helpful to you for
enhancing participation.
Effective and timely questioning by the trainer does not allow the participants to
ease off. They remain alert and active throughout the session. Question is a very
useful tool to regenerate interest when you find it sagging. Questioning also en-
courages a process of thinking, reflecting and responding. It makes the participants
a keen and active partner in the training process. A single question either from a
participant or from a trainer can spark an interesting discussion that can create an
environment that assists in the learning process. In some cases, it can also help in
easing a somewhat stressful or heavy situation.
Sometimes, the questions may also set direction for further discussion in the group
on the topic under discussion.
Question can foster self-confidence in the questioner or is its manifestation. This
can prove to be infectious influencing others in the group as well.
Effective handling of the questions from the participants can contribute immensely
to your professional growth. Your ability to respond to questions can make you a
confident, accomplished trainer.
When a participant asks a question, her tone, phrasing of the question, body lan-
guage and overall demeanour may provide you some indication of her attitude
towards the trainer/s and the group, and level of enthusiasm and interest in the
session and her learning. There may also be clues that reflect anger, hostility or biases.
It will, however, be wrong to rely totally on your initial assessment and get biased
towards the questioner. You need to confirm your perceptions by promoting inter-
action with the concerned participant.
Some seasoned and experienced trainers may even take the option of building
up the session on the basis of questions that are directed towards the group at the
start of the session. However, if you take this option, you should be reasonably
confident of your facilitative skills and your knowledge of the topic. It is also impor-
tant that before you initiate this process, an environment is created in the group
that encourages participation, otherwise the group may freeze and you may not get
proper response. You must also ensure that the questions are appropriately framed
and carefully worded to help you realise your objective. Another prerequisite for the
use of this technique is good bonding between you and the participants.
Question related to an issue or point under discussion will help you highlight the
issue/point and the group will have a chance of checking up their understanding
with you. This can also help you summarise some key points made in your pre-
sentation. Questions by the participants should be viewed by the trainer as oppor-
tunities to elaborate on some of the points that form part of the presentation and
augment or enrich learning. It can encourage a process of analysis and collating.
Depending on the type of questions asked or the manner it is used, this technique
can also help you in providing linkage of one point to another, ensuring a better
flow of your presentation.
You may also ask question to check understanding and retention of what you said.
This will give you an opportunity to correct misunderstandings and misperceptions.
There are occasions when the trainer addresses a question to the group in order
to instigate a process or create an environment in which the participants will feel
encouraged to express themselves as questions. This is to check the learning initiated
by the presentation or clarity of inputs.
Sometimes, the question can be asked just to draw out the silent and shy
participants.
Trainers’ Inner Restraints with Respect to Questions
Question Viewed as a Challenge
Questions, especially when they appear to be reflecting conflicting or even a different point
of view or opinion from that expressed by the trainer may be considered as a challenge to
the knowledge and experience of the trainer. There are many trainers who do not relish chal-
lenge. They do not like to be questioned about their views and find the situation unacceptable.
Some may even go beyond this position and feel that this ‘challenge’ could undermine their
authority and status as a trainer, within the group, by encouraging others to take similar
stance. They consider it as hurtful to their ego. You need to check on your attitude by engag-
ing in some self-reflection.
Lack of Preparation or Self-confidence
Those trainers who are not fully confident of their knowledge about the topic may have
fear of exposure through the questions. They feel that if they are not able to respond to
the question to the satisfaction of the questioner or other participants, they may lose their
credibility. The question may expose their ignorance or lack of knowledge about the topic
or the issue. They may also suffer from anxiety that the participant may upstage them before
the group, affecting their position.
Some trainers may also be apprehensive about questions as they are concerned with the
fact that in responding to the question, they may be unwittingly drawn into a discussion
that they do not want to and may be forced to say things that they wish to avoid. Some may
even feel that by responding to the question, it is likely that they may open new issues for
discussion for which they are not prepared and they may not be able to manage.
Attitude towards the Questioner
Your own suspicion and attitude towards some participants may also drive you towards
not feeling comfortable with either the question or the questioner. Many trainers are quite
comfortable when a ‘friendly’ participant asks a question, but are not in the right frame of
mind when some participant who is not considered friendly asks a question, regardless of
the importance, relevance or merit of the question. This bias can act as a deterrent for the
trainer.
Question as a Distraction
You may also feel that the question may take the group away from the focus of the discussion.
You fear that once you start responding to the question, it may not be easy to maintain the
interest and momentum that have been generated in the discussion. There is some merit in
this concern but what is important here is to consider the extent to which the question is
related to the discussion. You must take a call on your ability to handle the question and the
questioner deftly, and yet, maintain the level of interest and energy in the group. This is a
challenge for you.
Waste of Time
You may feel tired after the presentation and not feel enthusiastic about the questions. You
may feel the pressure of time and this may result in ‘resentment’ against those who are
‘wasting’ time by asking questions.
Question–Response Approach—Guidelines to Enhance Its Usefulness
In the following paragraphs, an attempt is made to put across some suggestions that
may enable you to enhance the usefulness of this approach in training. This will also help
you prepare well for your presentation or discussion where you propose to pursue this
approach.
Right at the beginning of your presentation or the session, you should inform the
group that you wish to follow question–response approach and the participants
should not hesitate to interrupt you and put forward their views or ask a question.
You must also make it clear to them that you also have the right to stop at any point
in time and get the views of the group on the issues under discussion. This will
keep the group in an ‘alert’ mode. Some trainers do not like intervention by the par-
ticipants during the presentation and instead they want the group to wait till the
end of the presentation. This approach does not promote participation and may,
sometimes, put the group in an indifferent (or even disinterested) mode. Many of
them may not be willing to wait until the presentation ends. If they have something
to share but are constrained by this ‘rule’, they may lose interest in your inputs.
Do not let a few participants monopolise the question–response interaction. Re-
member that this approach is to enhance participation and make the group an active
partner in the learning process. It is, therefore, your responsibility to ensure that
most of the participants, if not all, become active in the process, otherwise you will
defeat your own purpose. If the group is heterogeneous, it is all the more important
that you encourage questions and responses from a cross-section of the participants
representing different levels of experience and knowledge. This will ensure that
various dimensions or perspectives of the issue/s are brought in the discussion, bene-
fiting the group.
You should develop a positive attitude towards questions. Do not dread them. This
is your ultimate test as an accomplished and effective trainer. Welcome them en-
thusiastically and thank the participants for asking questions. Remember that no
question should be rejected, ignored, downplayed or sidelined.
Do not feel compelled to field every question or worry about the questions that
may not have clear-cut responses. Some trainers may feel that they will lose their
credibility if they do not answer every question; it is not so. Even the group does
not expect it. Remember never to make up an answer about which you are not fully
confident. You may resort to a rambling response and it is likely that the group
may see through your confusion. Rather than making up an answer and twisting
and turning the question, it is better to say that you are not sure about the answer
and then turn to the group. Your ability is tested in cleverly turning the question
over to the group while you reflect on the possible response. If some other partici-
pants try to respond to the question let them do that. You get breathing time and
it is possible that as others attempt to put together a response or express their views,
you may get some clues or ideas in building your own response.
If you are not keen to respond to the question, you have the choice of deflecting it
to the group for possible response. However, you should not resort to this option
too often, otherwise the group may take a dim view of your ability to field questions
and respond effectively. Remember that your credibility as an effective trainer is
constantly under the scanner of the group.
Do not give a long-winded or incoherent response. As far as possible, be specific
and brief. If you feel that the question can trigger more substantive discussion,
inform the group and introduce the new points that may have emerged from the
discussion. It will be wrong to extend your answer to include additional views
because the group may not realise that you are now adding some more points. You
may say, ‘this question opens up a new area or this question has brought in another per-
spective that requires some elaboration’ and then proceed to do it. If you go on and on,
the group may feel that you are labouring on and feel alienated from your response.
Avoid such situation. If there are supplementaries, attend to them as well. Use the
question to generate interest and activity in the group while seeking participation.
However, ensure that the question and your response do not take away the group
from the core of the discussion.
If there are organisational issues that are likely to come out in replying to the ques-
tion, inform the group that as you are likely to transgress into the wider area of
organisational functioning, it may be prudent to leave the discussion for more
appropriate time, later. You must acknowledge that it is out of your domain. The
group will appreciate this. It is better to keep out of a controversy than to gener-
ate one.
One way of handling ‘off the wall’ question from the participants is to tell the
group, ‘let me get back to you’ and post it on the white board or a flip chart labelled
‘parking lot’.
As a rule of the thumb, do not be judgemental on the intention and motive of the
questioner. You must give her the benefit of the doubt. However, if you are con-
vinced of negative or hostile undertone of the question or the questioner, you should
attempt to take the sting out of it by rephrasing it for a more objective and pro-
fessional discussion. You should do it subtly and ensure that you are in full control
of your emotions and body language. Once you get the nod of the group on the
rephrased question, the questioner will find it difficult to disagree.
Regardless of the merit, timing or relevance of the question, you should give
attention to the questioner and the question. Listen to it carefully and then set out
to respond to it. Dismissing the question out of hand may annoy the questioner or
even other participants. So be patient when dealing with questions.
If the question appears to be challenging or perceptibly attacking the trainer,
some may take it personally and decide to give it back to the participant in similar
language and tone. This is not a wise course of action and can be counterproduc-
tive. Avoid it and try to diffuse the situation through humour or by involving the
group.
Remember that question–response approach is aimed to benefit the group and

not just a few participants. It is, therefore, important that the questions and the
responses, regardless of whether they originate from the trainer or the participants,
should be deemed as the ‘property’ of the group. This is the essence of this approach.
After all, this transaction uses group time, not just of the participant, asking question
or giving a response. The group should be convinced that this time is well spent. If
the question remains that of the participant alone, there may be resentment of other
participants and they may consider it a waste of time of all. Sometimes, this resent-
ment may be directed towards either the participant or even the trainer for choosing
to give importance to the question or the questioner. There is another aspect of it.
By making the question or the response the group ‘property’, you will remove the
focus from the questioner and it will not be a face off between you and her.
Equally important is that your response should also be addressed to the group and
not just the questioner. While it is important to ask the questioner whether she is
comfortable with the response, you should also take the group’s nod before moving
on. It is likely that while you were responding to the questioner, some other par-
ticipant may have some related or supplementary question. Do not ignore that pos-
sibility unless you have time constraint.
There are instances when participants’ questions or responses may lack focus,
coherence or may even be irrelevant to the discussion. Treat such questions or res-
ponses graciously. Where possible, help by rephrasing or picking out some posi-
tive points from it. It is your responsibility to keep things on course. Do not put the
participant down, use sarcasm or enter into an engagement. You will be a loser.
If you are not in a position to answer, admit it. How you do it is the test of your skill
and presence of mind. Do not bluff. Your credibility is at stake.
During question–response transaction, you should be fully in control of your-
self. The participants should get the message that you are feeling good about it and
enjoying this exchange. In encouraging or welcoming questions you should not
sound superficial or artificial or faking interest. You should appear to be genuine.
By this attitude, you will generate energy and keep the group alert and the environ-
ment lively.
While keeping an eye on the time factor, you should not appear to be hurrying
things. This will send a negative message to the group.
You should make it a practice to repeat the question particularly when you consider
it important for your presentation and the learning process.
It is okay to sometimes feel defensive but do not act or manifest it while respond-
ing to the question. Acting or appearing defensive can cost you your credibility and
goodwill of the group. At worst, you get sympathy and, at best, tolerance. Both
damage your ability to influence the group.
There may be a tendency with some trainers to give importance to questions from
key or more articulate participants, while ignoring or rejecting those questions which
are raised by those participants who are not strong in their verbal communication.
This is against the code of conduct of a professional trainer.
As far as possible use participants’ words and phrases verbatim. This gives an in-
dication that you value their questions and even legitimises their way of asking
questions. There are occasions when the question is not worded properly by the partici-
pant. Due to language limitation, some of them may find it difficult to properly
phrase the question or use the right words. Do not deride or discount it or the
questioner. Here you may rephrase it, keeping its substance intact. Check with the
participant if this is what she meant and if you get her nod proceed to respond to
that. In doing so, however, you should not appear to be condescending or trying
to convey a message that the questioner could not word it properly. Bring the onus
on you by saying ‘let me try to understand what you mean by this’; or ‘I am sorry I did
not get it. Please let me know if this is what you wanted to say’. You may then proceed
to rephrase it but check with the questioner whether this is what she meant.
There are situations when a question asked by a participant may be the one some
others also had in mind but did not venture out. They may say in their mind, ‘This
is exactly what I wanted to know.’ On the other hand, there are occasions when the
question may be viewed differently by some other participants. They may say, ‘What
a dumb question’; ‘She is just trying to be smart. This question should not have been
asked’; ‘She is just delaying us for the break’; or ‘She is just distracting the group’. These
are not unfamiliar reactions, expressed or not. Be sensitive and careful about these
articulated or unarticulated comments.
Steps in Asking Questions
Deciding When to Ask Question
Some indicators that may assist you in deciding on the timing for asking question are:
When participants appear to be indifferent to your presentation or discussion or

you feel that general interest of a large number of participants is dwindling (check
on their body language).
Some participants appear to be uneasy not because of their lack of interest but they
are finding it difficult to fully comprehend your inputs or unable to keep pace with
your presentation (look for body language).
You are yourself unsure whether you have been able to communicate the point
you are attempting to make and rephrasing too has not helped (carry out a self-
check or look for the body language of the participants).
You want to make sure that the group remains with you in the learning process
and a question at this stage may help you assess that.
Sometimes it is helpful to take away the focus from you and turn the attention of
the group inwards.
You feel that you are losing control of the group or the presentation. You want to
have a reality check and, perhaps, need some moments to ponder over the situation
and plan your next move (self-check and body language of the group).
Your feedback system tells you that some participants want to contribute as evident
from their body language.
Timing is very important for seeking response from the group. Even when there is a
signal from one or more of these indicators, you should not throw the question at the group
in an abrupt manner. Create proper environment so that the group is not caught by surprise
or napping. A pause in your presentation, a sweeping glance through the group, a change in
your stance or a few words addressed to the group may be helpful. You may say ‘Ok, let us
see where we are’; or ‘What are our views on this’; or ‘Let us pause and take a check on us on this
point’. It may not be inappropriate to use some humour to unwind the group. If the group
is not prepared for the response, you may be greeted by blank faces or silence. It may then
become more difficult for you to retrieve the situation.
Identifying the Point or Issue
This is not an easy task and calls for your alertness and thorough understanding of the scope
and contents of your presentation or of the discussion. You should also be aware of the level
of the knowledge of the group in the context of the topic.
In identifying the point or issue round which you wish to formulate your question or
interaction with the group, the following guidelines may be helpful.
You feel that the issue or the idea presented by you can be understood and analysed
from different perspectives, and you consider it important to elicit the views of the
participants and enlarge the scope of the discussion by familiarising the group with
other viewpoints as well.
You believe that the issue or the point has relevance for the participants beyond
the discussion and there is a need to relate the inputs to back-home situation of the
participants. The elaboration through question–response interaction will facilitate
bringing to the fore practical aspects of the issues and this will help the learning
process.
In the scheme of your presentation, the issue or the point forms part of the core
ideas of your inputs and you want the group to get a thorough understanding of it.
You expect that the discussion generated through questions will be helpful.
You must also decide whether the issue is worthwhile spending more time as the
question–response technique is somewhat time-consuming though it makes the
discussion more meaningful.
In your view, the issue you are raising is somewhat complicated and not easy to
comprehend, given the level of the group, and you think that by involving the group
in the discussion through questions you will get an opportunity to clarify the issue
and remove possible doubts of the participants.
Phrasing the Question
The phrasing of the question is crucial because the response will largely depend on it. It
should be persuasive and encouraging for the participants, aiming to enhance participation
by involving them in their learning process. The wording should be such that they see in the
question an invitation to share their views openly and without inhibitions. They should get
stimulated. In phrasing the question, the following guidelines may be helpful.
You decide whether the question will be open-ended or closed. However, remem-
ber that if you wish to enhance participation you should take the option of open-
ended questions or statements.
Questions that elicit response only in ‘yes’ or ‘no’ or simply nods will not energise
the group or bring about desired participation. It is also likely that if the question is
framed in this mode, some participants may find a window of escape by just giving
a brief response. This will defeat your purpose. You can generate enthusiasm among
the participants only when they make out an opportunity for expressing themselves
freely and in an open manner.
Make up your mind whether you aim to probe further on the views expressed by
you on certain aspects of your presentation. If this is your objective, you have several
choices for phrasing your question. For instance, you may begin by saying, ‘Ok, let
us examine other points of view on this’; ‘This is my view but some of you may also have your
own views on this issue, let us hear them also’. In this way you emphasise the importance
of the views of the participants, thus, raising their self-esteem. In the process, you
enhance chances of getting useful inputs from them.
Try to be as brief as appropriate in framing your question. If the phrasing is long
and winding, it may confuse the participants making it difficult for them to grasp its
substance. As a result, they may not be sure about how to respond or their response
will not be on expected lines. The core essence of the question should not be lost in
less comprehensible or difficult words. Clarity of expression is a key element of good
questions and, therefore, you must give special attention to the choice of words.
If the question is not understood by the participants and you are obliged to either
repeat it or rephrase it, it may lose some of its significance and value. You may not
present yourself in good light.
While formulating the question, remember that you are not interrogating the par-
ticipants or testing their knowledge but seeking their views or comments.
You should guard against intimidating or antagonising the group through your
words or demeanour. Either you may make the participants nervous or they may
become indifferent or even aggressive. Challenge the experience and competence of
the group through the question, but do not provoke it.
Asking the Question
The manner in which you ask the question is also important. You should not ap-
pear to be anxious or excited. You should be relaxed, both mentally and physically.
Your body language and tone should be impelling, inducing response from the
participants. Even the surprise element should be compounded with humour and a
relaxed demeanour.
Clarity of expression is the key to getting a meaningful response. Your voice and
tone should be steady, conveying your expectations from the group. Even the tone
should convey persuasiveness and encouragement. Your manner and body language
are also important. Do not ramble or hide the main purport of the question in
the words. You should not appear to be stern or aggressive.
Once you have finished asking the question, you must ensure that the participants
understand it. You will get a good feedback from the body language of the partici-
pants. And as the question is directed at the group and not to a particular participant,
you must be sure that everyone is with you.
Sometimes the trainers get the impression that the question is understood if there
are a few nodding heads. This could be misleading. Some active or intelligent par-
ticipants may understand the question quickly and are prepared to answer, but
it is important for you to make certain that the question is understood by ‘most’
of them.
You have the option of directing the question at one participant. However, you
should be careful that this does not put her in an embarrassing situation or unsettle
her. If this happens, the chances are that she will keep quiet.
Sometimes, it may be more judicious to direct the question to a more articulate
participant or someone whose body language gives you a positive signal. Once the
ice is broken, you may find that other participants are also willing to share their
views in response to the question.
Giving Time for the Response
You should not expect that as soon as you finish asking the question the partici-
pant will immediately respond. In fact, it may even be appropriate to tell the group,
‘Let this sink in you before you respond’; or ‘Take time to ponder and then respond’; or
words to that effect. This will be an assurance to those who may be slow in under-
standing the meaning and substance of the question, and convey a message to the
group that you are seeking wider participation through the question.
Some trainers expect a very quick response and they start getting anxious when the
group appears to be not responding. As seconds tick away, they seem minutes. This
is not an unusual situation. If there is a time gap, do not assume that the partici-
pants are reluctant to answer. Depending on how complex the question is, it may
simply be that they need time to reflect and formulate a response. This may be
particularly so if the question requires them to present different perspectives of the

issue or calls for reverting back to the situation back home.
It is important that you must keep the group constantly with you either through
persuasive words or through body language. The group should get the message that
you are expecting a response and waiting for that. Also, let the group feel a little
pressure, otherwise the participants may like to take the easier way out by keeping
quiet or expecting the trainer to lose patience, answer it for them or simply continue
with the presentation. If you do not let them sweat a little, this may become the
pattern of their response. This will discourage participation and let the group go into
an indifferent mode. The interest in the session and, more importantly, the question
at this moment should be kept alive. It is also possible that some participants may
use the time not for pondering on the question but for getting back to their own
thoughts and relax. They may mentally break away from the session.
Choices in Listening to the Responses
If you find a few participants eager to respond, you have the choice of inviting one
of them. It may be prudent to invite someone who has not contributed earlier but
do not ignore others. You may say, ‘Well, we have heard some of you but may be we
want to hear new voices’ and then proceed further. It is always helpful to let the group
know why you are for the present ignoring those who are keen to contribute. They
will appreciate this gesture. If you just pass them over without giving the rationale,
you may be annoying them.
Listen carefully to the answer and after thanking the participant decide whether you
want to hear other participants. It is advisable to let more than one participant share
her views before you either move to the next point or proceed to summarise. This
ensures wider participation and the discussion will also be enriched.
Dealing with Irrelevant or Inappropriate Responses
There are several ways of dealing with the responses that are not in line with what you ex-
pected on the point.
If a participant does not answer the question you expected, do not say, ‘This is not
what I was looking for’; or ‘This is wrong’. Some trainers have the tendency of ignor-
ing irrelevant or vague responses not by specifying that this was not what they
were looking for but just moving to other participants. This sends the message to
the participant that the trainer is not paying attention to her response. Avoid this
situation. Remember that the participant ventured to respond and deserves some
credit for that initiative. By overlooking her you may hurt her feelings. Find appro-
priate words to acknowledge her contribution and then you may say, ‘May we have
another perspective’. Do not belittle the participant. Sometimes it is good to put some
key words from the response on the flip chart or white board. This will boost the
confidence of the participant. If she is ridiculed, she may never respond to your
question again or share her views.
If you fail to get proper response from the group, you should be prepared to inter-
vene. But in doing so, do not undermine the ability of the group otherwise you
will erode their self-confidence. You may say, ‘All right let us see how we can respond
to this together.’ You may begin responding but glance around to see whether some
participants are now getting clues and formulating their response. It is good to
pause and pass on the opportunity to the participants. Possibly, some of them may
be forthcoming to respond. This may set in motion a process for others to contribute.
Your objective is realised. Remember you are not competing with the group. If you
are obliged to complete your response, you may add, ‘Does anyone want to contri-
bute further or add to what I said.’ This provides the group with another opportunity
to share.
If the answer is not to the point, do not put the participant in the dock. Pick up some
part of the answer that is closer to the correct one and highlight that. Be supportive
of her. This is part of the support mechanism that helps participants develop confi-
dence and express their views freely. If you are supportive of them, they will return
the call. If you find that a shy or a low-profile participant has taken the initiative to
respond, acknowledge that without offending others. One way of making it easier
for these participants to come out of their shell and gain confidence is to extend help
in organising their thoughts and articulating them. However, this should be done
very subtly so that she does not feel that you are acting in a condescending manner.
When you paraphrase her views, add a few words from your side to make it more
logical and valid and check with the participant if this is what she meant. On most
occasions, she will affirm that. This would serve your purpose. The group will also
not resent it.
If the response is not proper, do not jump to provide it. Look around and see if
some other participant is keen to share her views. (Look for the body language
and overall demeanour.) By providing answer quickly, you may miss the chance of
involving the group and making it more active and participatory.
You may also use humour to handle the situation, ensuring, however, that the par-
ticipant does not take it in a contrary way.
Acknowledging Valid Answers
Even with the seemingly valid answers, avoid using the words such as, ‘excellent’, ‘very
good’. You may appear to be evaluative. The situation is compounded because once you start
using these complimentary words you may unwittingly get into a situation where the par-
ticipants start comparing your choice of words for different responses. This is not what you
expected. Those for whom you used words that can be construed as of higher value may be
a happy lot but those on the other end of the spectrum may feel uncomfortable. You may
decide to use common words such as, ‘good’, ‘okay’, ‘fine’, with subtle non-verbal enforcers
to compliment those who were on target. But you may have special word for those who
took the initiative to respond or those who overcame their nervousness and expressed their
views. They deserve it. This will go a long way to encourage them to shed their inhibitions
and participate more actively. This will energise them and build their confidence.
Reinforcing Answers
In some cases, you may feel that the response that you have got from the participant needs
further elaboration, clarification or reinforcement. You may seek clarification from the
participant herself, but in the case of elaboration or reinforcement, you may either involve
other members of the group or choose to step in yourself. It is, however, important that
you should be clear about what additional ideas or views you wish to generate on the issue
to make the discussion more comprehensive. Whatever course of action you take, you must
make sure that the participant (who responded) is not put in an uneasy situation. You may
just say, ‘Is there something that we can add to these views.’ And proceed further.
Summarising Responses
This is the decision that you have to take. It is, however, suggested that in most cases you
should summarise before you move on. The conclusions or summary help focus on key
learning points. The participants will also feel happy that their contributions are being
acknowledged in the form of learning for the group. This becomes part of consolidation
of learning to which reference has been made earlier. Summarising also helps you move
forward to the next point.
Fielding Questions—Process and Guidelines
Have you heard a participant say, ‘Great answer, but that was not my question’.
There are a few possibilities for this situation. You did not understand the question;
or you deliberately distorted the question to bring it in the domain that you are
comfortable with. There are occasions when a trainer understands the question, but
gives the response that she is comfortable with hoping that she will be able to ‘sell’ it
and satisfy the participant. You should guard against this tendency. Some intelligent
participants may be able to see through your trick and you will lose your credibility
with the group.
You should demonstrate active listening. Unless you are sure you have understood
the question fully, repeat it and check with the participant. Ask for confirmation.
Do not get into a situation when the participant has to tell you that this was not her
question. This will also help the group get a clear picture on the question and add
the participants’ perspective to your response. Evidently, when everyone is sure
what is being expressed, the whole group gets involved in the process in giving a
response. This enhances participation.
There are occasions when some very vocal and dominating participant tries to inter-
vene on behalf of the questioner, volunteering to clarify the question. Do not accept
this offer. This will mean belittling the ability of the questioner to properly for-
mulate the question. Sometimes, she may even feel offended. Ask the participant to
clarify and repeat the question to assure her that you want to be sure that you have
fully comprehended the question.
Decide whether you wish to respond or deflect the question to the group. This is
your decision. You also have the choice of responding to the question straightaway
or exploring further if other participants have similar queries or views to share. This
will help you group the questions together that have same or similar focus or con-
tents. It is likely that some other participants may have related doubts and concerns.
In this way, you will save group time. Once you have packaged them, you may
proceed to bring out the key points for the benefit of the group and then respond. If
you wish to deflect, you should do it subtly. You may say, ‘This is a good question and
let me see if someone from the group can respond keeping in view the inputs or the situation
back home.’
The next step obviously will be to construct your response. In doing so, you need to
take the following into account.
The first consideration will be to identify the information or decide on the views
you wish to express as response to the question. While it may be helpful to keep
it as close to the contents of the question as possible you should not feel limited
by this concern. Sometimes, it may even become necessary to provide another
perspective of the issue or widen the scope of the discussion. You may plan your
response accordingly. However, you must ensure that it does not distract the
group from the central issues of the discussion.
Determine the main focus of your response, the key point that you wish to
convey.
The main task for you is to choose appropriate words for your response. The
language should be such that the participants understand, otherwise the message
will not be conveyed and the participant or the group may be left disappointed.
In phrasing your response you need to give attention to coherence of your
views. Do not give a winding response that the participants will find difficult to
decipher. You should also be brief and to the point.
Some Sample Situations for Your Action
Should you toss out a question for a voluntary response or at a particular par-
ticipant by name?
Both choices can be considered, depending on the level of group readiness. If you
find that the group is quite involved in the discussion and is in an active mode, you
may decide to take the option of voluntary response. If you wish to name a particular
participant for a response, be sure that there is a reasonable chance of getting it.
You can later bring in other participants also in the discussion. If you name some-
one who is otherwise not a very active participant, you may end up embarrassing her.
In some cases, this approach may even backfire on you as the participant may choose
to just keep quiet, putting you in some discomfiture. By naming a participant, you
may also run the risk of discouraging others from thinking and responding. So take
the call after assessing the environment and the state of readiness of the group.
Involving those who never volunteer
You cannot involve those who are somewhat shy and reluctant to share their
views without proper preparations. You may invoke the ground rules and gently
remind the group that you are looking for wider participation. You may also say
a few reassuring, persuasive words to those who are not very forthcoming with
their views. You may say, ‘All of us have something to contribute, regardless of the level
of knowledge or experience. Sharing of our views helps in clearing our doubts, thus helping
learning. Let us now hear those who have not yet shared their views. Who among you would
like to set the ball rolling?’ Make some gestures of encouragement and exhortation
through your body language. You will click. You also have the option of employing
some innovative ways. For instance, ask everyone to prepare a written response and
then share, draw lots for picking out the volunteers, call numbers, go alphabetically.
You can think of other methods but it is important that you attempt to involve most
participants.
You are not sure whether everyone has understood the question.
There are two sides to this situation. A participant asks a question directed at you.
You are not sure whether everyone has understood the question. Remember that
while it is the prerogative of a participant to ask a question or raise an issue but its
ownership rests with the group. It is, therefore, important that the group com-
prehends it fully. Check with the group whether your perception is correct. Look
for the body language or you may simply ask the group. If you find that most have
not followed the question, proceed accordingly. You may ask the questioner to
clarify it or you take the responsibility to rephrase it. It is, however, necessary for
you to check with the questioner if that is what she meant. Once the question or the
issue is understood by all, you may proceed to respond to it.
The other scenario is when you ask a question or raise an issue and you are not sure
whether you have communicated with the group. Here also look for clues through
body language of the participants. If necessary, check with the group. Reword or
rephrase the question, elaborating where you feel necessary. In any case, you should
not look for a response immediately.
An important member of the group gives you an inappropriate response.
Your best bet is to broaden out to other participants. Without embarrassing the par-
ticipant you may say, ‘Well, we have one view. Let us see how others look at this issue.’ You
may then proceed further. Do not make an attempt to judge the response because
the participant may take a defensive stand to justify it and you may get into an
unpleasant situation. Use the group as the corrective resource.
You are not sure whether you have understood the response or answer.
Check with the participant. Repeat what you have understood. But for your lack
of understanding do not put the responsibility on the participant. Keep the onus
on you. Tell her that you are trying to get the import of what she said and seek her
help. She will feel delighted and help you out. The group will also be with you.
Dealing with slow, rambling, disorganised response.
Do not expect that every participant will be a good communicator. This is not a
realistic expectation. So, be patient. Never put down or deride the participant. Also,
do not appear to be patronising. Help the participant articulate better or organise
her thoughts in a more coherent way by ‘supplying’ words or rephrasing. Do it in a
subtle manner. You also have the option of asking some other participant to sum-
marise the thoughts, though, it is not a preferred one.
No one responds to your question.
There are several explanations for this situation.
The question is too simple and no one is ready to respond.
Group may not be sufficiently enthused by the question.
No one really knows the answer.
Perhaps, no one had understood the question.
They do not want to waste time answering question.
The environment or timing is not appropriate.
Take your call on possible explanation and act accordingly. If you feel that the
question has been understood but no one knows the answer, be patient. Try a bit
of humour to relax the group. Wait for sometime and then respond to it yourself.
It is, however, important that you should not appear to be scoring a point over the
group. Do it in a way that the group feels that you are responding on behalf of the
group. You will enhance your credibility.
Dealing with irrelevant, distracting questions.
Do not express your irritation or disappointment openly. Try to find some posit-
ive point in it and proceed accordingly. Another option is to toss the question to
the group and try to get comments from the participants. There is a possibility that
someone may be able to point out the irrelevance of the question and express her
views. Still, you should not be in a hurry to seize on this view and announce the
question to be irrelevant. This may irritate the questioner or she may be embarrassed.
You may also toss back the question to the questioner and suggest that she clarifies
in what ways this relates to the topic currently under discussion. However, in doing
so, you should not appear to be confronting her. Choose your words carefully and
use the tone that is friendly and helpful. You may even say that you have not really
understood the import of the question. If you are subtle enough, she may even get
the message that her question is not suitable.
A participant asks the question but you do not know the answer.
Do not attempt to be a know-all. Be candid and admit that you do not have an
answer. Do not bluff or give wrong answer. Do not appear to be playing a mind game
with the group. Another helpful option is to widen the scope and invite the partici-
pants to respond to the question. However, in doing so you should not appear to be
nervous or embarrassed. Do it as part of your style of dealing with such situations.
Seemingly, the participant is posing a question but actually it is a statement or
an opinion.
As mentioned earlier in this section, in order to optimise the participation of the
group the meaning and scope of ‘question’ should be widened to include views and
opinions expressed by the participants on the issues under discussion. So do not be
surprised by this situation. Be considerate to the participant and thank her for the
statement she has just made. It may, however, be useful to check with the participant
whether she also has a question related to her views. In most cases, she will have
none. You are then free to proceed with the session. Some trainers are tempted to
ask, ‘But what is the question you want to ask.’ Avoid this phrase or words to that ef-
fect. This can put her in an uncomfortable position.
Handling a question on an issue that was covered 10–20 minutes back but
now the group has moved on.
Remember that there is no bar that a participant cannot ask question about some-
thing that was covered sometime back. She might be reflecting on that issue but
missed the timing. You must pause and acknowledge the importance of the question,
but it will be more desirable to take the group with you in reverting to the dis-
cussion. Just check whether others also have a related question. This way you will
alleviate her discomfiture. Once you have gone through this course, go ahead and
respond to it but quickly return to what you are handling at present.
5.4 EVALUATING THE PROGRAMME
After the programme has been delivered and all training activities have been concluded, it
is necessary to look back and appraise to what extent you were able to achieve what you
had planned as part of the training design. As mentioned earlier, it is not always possible to
wholly follow the action plan for the programme. Therefore, before undertaking the exercise,
you must consider what changes—in terms of contents, training strategy, methodology, and
so on—were effected as a result of ongoing monitoring and evaluation of the programme
by the training team. It will be helpful to recall these changes and bring them to the notice
of the participants so that their views are based on what was actually delivered, and not on
what was planned and reflected in the materials given before the programme commenced.
This will make the evaluation more inclusive and authentic.
Evaluation should be considered a formal activity of the programme and duly included
in the programme schedule. The training team should also prepare appropriate tools and
instruments for the purpose well in advance of the exercise. This will lend more credibility
to it and the participants will also take it seriously. Chapter 9 provides you with full details
on this important programme activity. Some guidelines are also given there to help you
prepare the necessary tools and instruments for this exercise.
5.5 CONCLUDING THE PROGRAMME
It is not appropriate that substantive training sessions should continue till the last hour of
the schedule. Many trainers do that and then take the participants straight to the evaluation
by handing them the evaluation instruments or pro forma. You should not close the pro-
gramme abruptly, but take the group gradually to the point of its termination, while still
maintaining its momentum and interest of the group.
The activities that you organise to bring it to a close and the time you spend on them
depend on a number of factors, such as the nature of the programme, its duration and the
training group. There should also be consistency between the programme objectives and
the closing activities. It is advised that you include the closing session in the schedule and
set aside time for these activities. The participants should know well in advance that they
would have an opportunity to express their views, get answers to their remaining questions
and clear any persisting doubts. In this way, they would not only be prepared for the session
but also look forward to it. By doing this, you also communicate to the participants that all
details had been meticulously worked out by the training team. This lends meaning and value
to the concluding activities. They are not looked upon as a postscript to the programme and
dealt with in a casual or hasty manner.
Some key tasks for the concluding phase of the training programme are indicated as
follows.
5.5.1 Recalling and Consolidating Learning
An important concluding activity is to assist the participants in recalling the key learning
points. There are several reasons for this exercise. Some of them could be the following.
It is likely that the learning that occurred in the earlier part might have been blotted
out by subsequent learning and training activities. Sometimes, especially in long- or
medium-term programmes, the events in the earlier phases appear to be too distant
or can even get erased from memory. The participants would remember only what
they have learnt during immediately preceding days. It is, therefore, necessary to
recapitulate and put together the learning that had taken place in the earlier part of
the programme.
The exercise can also assist the participants in revisiting something that they might
have missed earlier. Perhaps, they can discover something new and valuable in the
past activities.
It is also possible that the participants might have undergone shifts in their perception
of the earlier training events in the light of what followed later in the programme.
Something that might have been considered mundane and pointless at that time
may now appear to be very useful or vice versa. Once all the learning from the train-
ing activities is consolidated and put before the participants, they may find new
meaning and substance in it. They are in a position to situate learning in the overall
context of the programme, its objectives and their work back home. In the pro-
cess they might also appreciate your efforts more. This facilitates transfer of learning
as well.
The participants also get an opportunity to examine whether their initial concerns
were unfounded. As the programme progressed, they might have got insights into
the training process. They may feel that their concerns had been very well dealt with.
This session also provides them with an opportunity to reflect on the training activit-
ies in a more objective and detached manner. This can improve their perceptions of
the programme and the trainers.
A sample exercise for this task is given as follows. You can, however, devise new
exercises in accordance with your requirements. It is suggested that as part of con-
solidating learning, you can consider preparing learning packages that the partici-
pants would carry with them.
Sample Exercise
Ask the participants to individually write two or three key points of their learning.
Collect responses of the group and compile a list that can be displayed for the group.
This will, in fact, sum up the learning in the programme. You may decide to supplement
the list by highlighting other unrecorded learning.
You may use games, quizzes and tests to help the participants recall facts, concepts and
procedures they have learnt. Some performance tests may be given for rehearsing skills
developing in the programme.
(For more details see Chapter 9.)
5.5.2 Clarifying Lingering Doubts and Queries
When a programme is about to conclude, it is not unusual for some participants to have
some lingering questions and doubts. However, they may be reluctant to raise these issues as
they may not be sure about their relevance and importance at this stage of the programme.
They may not be sure about the reactions of the trainers and other participants. They may
also feel that raising these issues may delay the concluding activities. But it is necessary to
provide an opportunity to the participants because it is likely that they may carry these
to their organisations or continue to mull over them and this may dilute the benefits that
accrued from the training. If they leave carrying these questions with them, the value of
the programme is reduced. These questions may be trivial in nature but, nevertheless, go
down in the record of the participants as questions and doubts that were not addressed by
the trainers. Therefore, it is sound strategy to provide one last chance to the participants to
clear their doubts and you should make a mention of this as part of the concluding activities,
otherwise the participants may feel that this is just an afterthought. This is a constructive
way of ending the programme.
Sample Exercise
Give them one card and ask them to write one question (or doubt) that they would
like the trainers to answer before the group disperses. A variation is when you form
dyads or triads. The participants discuss their questions/doubts and come up with
a combined list for the group. The trainers get an opportunity to respond to these
questions/doubts. This exercise helps you to end the programme on a positive
note. This also conveys a message to the participants that although it is coming to a
close the trainers are still concerned with their learning.
Another variation is to ask the participants to complete a statement like; ‘One thing
that still bothers me…’
5.5.3 Getting Back to the Family and Work
As the programme draws to a close, it is time to look beyond it and into the future. The
participants will return to their organisations and hopefully apply what they have learnt
during the training to their job situations. Similarly, if the programme focused on personal
development, you should think of preparing the participants for something on the basis of
their development in the training programme. They should be in a position to indicate areas
in which they will bring about changes in their behaviour and interaction with others. What
attitudes they will work harder to change? It is like setting out the agenda or action plan for
the future.
Sample Exercise
If it is a long-term programme, the participants should be prepared for a reunion with
the family. For long-term programmes, preparations for going back to the family or
the organisation they belong to constitute an important component of the concluding
session.
The participants may be asked to give their responses to the following questions.
What will be the first words you will speak to your family when you meet them
after this long gap?
What are likely to be their first words to you?
What would you like to eat as your first dish on reaching home?
What experiences from the programme (other than professional part) would you
like to share with your family or your colleagues in your organisation?
What activity would you like to undertake in the family or the organisation as
your first priority?
How would you like to spend your first day in the office after your return to action?
5.5.4 Saying Goodbye to the Group Members
If the participants have been together for a long period of time, they might become close
to one another. A lot of investment goes into nurturing these relationships. Under these
circumstances, saying goodbye to them can be an emotional or even painful experience. Of
course, the extent of anguish or distress one undergoes depends on the nature of the rela-
tionship and the prospects of continuing this relationship in the future. But there is no
way of getting away from the reality of having to suspend these relationships and leave the
feelings behind. They have to return to their pre-training bonds. In such a situation, the
participants would be keen to share their feelings with other participants and the trainers, and
express their gratitude for the support and encouragement extended to them during the pro-
gramme. Your task is to facilitate the process through which they are able to make these final
gestures. However, you should take care that the exercise does not get extended, otherwise
its significance may be lost. It is recommended that these responses should not be shared
in the group as they are very private and personal responses unless some participants are
keen for that. The choice should be with the group.
5.5.5 Some More Sample Exercises for the Concluding Session

Let each participant describe herself in one word. Compare this with her response
at the beginning of the programme. If the participant wishes, she may share her
thoughts on the differences, if any, in the two descriptions.
Ask the participant to compare herself with a bird or an animal, consistent with the
qualities the participant possesses, highlighting the contribution the training has
made to her perception about herself.
Each participant may write one sentence to describe her experience in the pro-
gramme. This will sum up her feeling, learning and experience.
In another variation, the participants are asked to complete a sentence saying ‘One
thing that I wanted to do but could not do during the programme was…’ This repre-
sents the unfulfilled objectives of the participants and can be helpful to the trainers
for future programmes.
Another exercise is asking the participants to indicate five key points of their deve-
lopment as a direct result of the programme. The question can be: How do you
see yourself as a result of the training? What behaviour of yours contributed to the
group’s learning process and its cohesion? What behaviour inhibited the group?
During the delivery of a training programme, the challenges and tasks differ from
one phase to another. While in the initial phase, the main emphasis is on blending
the group and set the learning process in motion, in the succeeding phase, the
focus is on participation and sustaining the learning process.
As part of getting yourself ready for the programme, you should attend to the
following:
Preparing for your presentations.
Mental and emotional preparedness.
Keeping in contact with your values and attitudes, relevant to your role as a
trainer.
Setting standards for your performance and personal objectives.
For beginning an active and participatory training, the following tasks should
receive your priority attention:
Connecting with the participants.
Establishing participants’ ownership of the programme.
Blending the group into a cohesive unit.
Empowering the group.
Learning environment can be described as the climate in a training programme
that stimulates learning and creates a desire for growth and change in the
participants. It is not an intangible term but has dimensions that need to be
properly understood, analysed and related in a manner that optimises learning.
Learning environment has three key elements—emotional, intellectual and
physical—though they are not exclusive to one another. There is constant interplay
of these elements, each one influencing the other, and the final outcome that
emerges is the learning environment.
Creating learning climate is not something that can be achieved through some
basic do’s and don’ts. There is no mantra or a short answer to this question. It
is the result of several measures and approaches that you adopt and follow them
throughout the programme.
Key tasks during the delivery phase are:
Overcoming resistance to learning.
Overseeing the group processes.
Receiving and giving proper feedback.
Maintaining harmony between programme contents and training process.
Monitoring the programme and making necessary changes.
Managing challenge and dissent.
Consolidating learning.
The question–response approach in training is a tool that promotes interaction

between the two sets of knowledge, experience and competence—of the training
team and the participants—and facilitates pooling of these resources for the
learning of the group, including the trainers. It aims to enhance the participation
of the members of the training group and to make them partners in the learning
process, making it more active and participatory.
In the concluding phase of the programme, you should assist the participants in
recalling the learning that accrued from the programme and help consolidate it.
You should also assist them in clarifying lingering doubts and queries and facilitate
their re-entry into the organisation.
6
Training Methods and Techniques
Training methods provide excellent support to the trainers for their presentations and in
organising training activities. They generate a lot of interest among the participants, stimulat-
ing them for active participation. Given the usefulness and significance of training methods in
modern-day training, this chapter focuses on providing substantial details on some popular
methods that will help you deliver the training in a more effective manner. You will get
comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of these methods and guidelines for their
productive application. This is not intended to be an exhaustive listing of the methods but
these are among the most basic methods that you must be familiar with. Specifically this
chapter deals with the following:
z Importance of Training Methods

z Factors Influencing Choice of Training Methods
z Lecture as a Method of Training
z Case Study Method
z Role Play as a Method of Training
z Management Games
z Laboratory Training
z Individual and Group Practical Assignments
z Group Discussion as a Method of Training
z Panel Discussion
z Brainstorming
Training Methods and Techniques z 195
z Preparing and Using Training Support Materials

z Training through Placements
z Field Trip as a Method of Training
z Demonstrations
Learning Outcomes
z Understand the importance of training methods in training and describe their

key functions in advancing the learning process.
z List the main factors that influence the selection of a training method.
z Get detailed information on the application and use of some of the commonly
used methods in a training programme.
6.1 IMPORTANCE OF TRAINING METHODS
As training is being increasingly recognised as a major tool for developing competencies

and improving performance in various fields, trainers, the world over, have been investing
time and effort in exploring ways and means to improve its delivery. Their task has been
facilitated by the major strides made in the area of educational and training technology,
especially during the last three decades. As a result of the research in the psychology of
learners, we now have considerable understanding of their learning styles and the kind of en-
vironment that enhances the learning process in a training programme. As a result of these
developments, the role and importance of training methods in promoting the training pro-
cess has been widely acknowledged by trainers and learners, alike. Undeniably, these days,
trainers rely heavily on the use of a variety of training methods in enhancing the quality and
efficacy of their presentations.
A training method can be understood as an instrument or a technique that a trainer em-
ploys for delivering training content or for facilitating the learning process, in pursuance
of predetermined learning objectives. It helps the trainer to communicate with the training
group, reach out to the participants, motivate them and instigate action. The fundamental
objective is, obviously, to deliver the training in an effective manner, thus ensuring success of
the programme. It is, however, necessary to remember that a training method is not an end
in itself, but a means to enhance learning and achieve certain specific objectives.
There are several aspects of the use of training methods. Some methods require relatively
less involvement of the participants, while the success of others depends a lot on their active
participation. Some training methods do not need much of preparations and can be used
right away. On the other hand, there are some methods that require a lot of preparatory
work, both on the part of the trainers and the training group. The levels of expertise involved
in using the methods also differ widely.
6.1.1 Functions of Training Methods
A trainer may use a range of training methods to provide variety in the delivery of training,
to sustain the interest of the participants and to maintain the momentum of the training pro-
cess. She may even use more than one method for a single training activity. It is also possible
that in using a specific training method, the trainer may employ a number of sub-techniques
or make use of different variations, to enhance its effectiveness.
Some major functions of training methods are discussed in the following paragraphs.
Assist in Creating an Appropriate Learning Environment
The training method facilitates learning in a relatively risk-free and non-threatening manner.
It aims to reduce learning fatigue by making it an interesting, meaningful and even enjoyable
experience. Use of appropriate training methods stimulates the participants and sustains their
interest and enthusiasm in the training activity. Thus, it helps in creating and sustaining an
appropriate learning environment for a particular module or topic.
Enhance Participation and Involvement of the Group
In our earlier discussion, we have emphasised the importance of participation of the train-
ing group in the process of training and learning. A key function of the training methods is
to actively engage the participants in the training activities. It helps in energising and motiv-
ating the training group for more productive contribution and involvement in the training
process. It promotes two-way communication between the participants and the trainers and
keeps all concerned (participants and the trainers) in a state of action and agility. It is directed
at bringing out the best in them. It also facilitates meaningful and significant investment of
their knowledge and experience in the learning process.
Give Greater Control of the Learning Process to the Participants
Modern learning theory emphasises the desirability of giving adult learners a certain degree
of ownership and control of the learning process. In this Handbook also, while dealing with
specific characteristics of adult learning and the issues related to participatory and facilitative
training, this point has been highlighted. Ownership of the programme raises the stakes for
the participants, strengthening their commitment to it and its success. Training methods,
when used judiciously, give them the feeling of being a part of the process. They feel they
are key partners in their own learning.
Promote Group Interaction and Cohesion
Group activities, especially when they are carried out in smaller groups, promote interaction
among the participants. As part of the group process, each one extends support and cooper-
ation to others in order to accomplish the group task and realise the objectives. This enhances
understanding among the members, leading to greater cohesion and fostering team spirit.
There is healthy competition all around. In group discussion as well, free and open shar-
ing of experiences and ideas can assist in establishing and nurturing healthy and positive
relationships within the group. Support mechanisms are strengthened and there is increased
interdependency among the participants. However, it is important that the trainer should
keep a close watch on the dynamics as they unfold during these activities, to ensure that nega-
tive tendencies are not allowed to emerge in the group and positive attitudes are reinforced.
6.2 FACTORS INFLUENCING CHOICE OF TRAINING METHODS
The choice of the training method for delivering a particular module or topic or conducting a
training activity is a crucial decision. In most cases, the trainer, responsible for delivering the
module, takes the decision but, in some cases, the training team is associated with the choice,
emphasising the need for consistency in the overall training strategy. It is, therefore, im-
portant that prior to deciding on the method for your topic or module, you should take into
consideration all the related factors. This ensures that the objectives of using the method are
achieved, the quality of your presentation is enhanced and the training activity is delivered
in an effective manner.
Selecting a training method is all about choosing a method that is most appropriate and
relevant to your situation—the nature of the programme, the training objectives, composition
and level of the training group, your own experience and expertise in using the method, and
so on. Training methods should be seen as part of the overall training strategy or the plan
of action. They should be fully integrated with the group processes and the contents of the
programme. They should assist the training team to set the pace of learning that is consistent
with the special characteristics of the group. You must also remember that the training
methods you use is a measure of your confidence and reflect your training style.
6.2.1 Pressures on the Trainer in Selecting a Method
In deciding on the option of a particular training method, the trainers are often beset with
several pressures. In the following paragraphs, an attempt is made to identify some of these.
You need to recognise them and work your way through in selecting a method that promises
optimum results for your efforts and provides a productive learning experience not only for
the participants but for you as well.
z Your co-trainers or those associated with the delivery of the programme may influ-
ence your decision by making strong and leading suggestions for using a particular
method or methods. They may argue that a particular method is in the best interest
of the group or the training, and that it is consistent with the expectations of the
organisations.
z As you are keen to establish your credibility with the group, sometimes, you may be
tempted to use a method that appears to be interesting and exciting. In the process,
it is likely that you may overlook its training value or your ability to use it.
z You may be guided by the acknowledged popularity of the method and its extensive
use by experienced and known trainers. You may also be attracted by the impact it
is likely to have on the group, in terms of motivation and interest. You may even try
to convince yourself that if others have successfully used the method in similar situ-
ations, its effectiveness is assured. You should remember that your circumstances
might be significantly different from those under which the method had been used
previously. You may also not possess the expertise of an experienced trainer to be able
to handle the method or the dynamics it generates in the group or its effects on the
group processes.
z You may be driven by a desire to be innovative and experiment with new methods.
There is nothing wrong with this approach but do not enter into uncharted territory
just because you wish to do something different. You should be reasonably sure of
the success of the method. It has to be a calculated risk. Prepare well for the session
to raise the chances of success. Some trainers are tempted to be spontaneous in intro-
ducing a method. Do not do it unless you are an experienced trainer and capable of
handling unforeseen situations that might arise due to the use of the method.
z By using an innovative and modern method, you may want to score a point over your
colleagues in the team and stand out as different. You may feel that, after all, there is
nothing unusual in playing a game of one-upmanship with your co-trainers. You are
only proving your competence and establishing your place in the team.
z You have to attend to a few other things and you want time off from the group.
And you may be constrained to use a method—like group discussion or group
assignment—that will keep the group engaged while you are away. This situation is
not unusual in a training programme but goes against professionalism.
z You may simply want to take away some pressure from yourself and, therefore,
use a method that will give you some time to relax or recoup your energy. Or, you
may simply want to remove yourself from the centre stage and take the focus away
from you.
6.2.2 Learning Objectives for the Sub-topic or the Module
Perhaps, the most important factor that guides the choice of a method is that of the learning
outcomes for the training activity. There is a definite correlation between the method and
the learning outcomes. Your primary consideration in selecting a method is to ensure that it
will help you realise the learning objectives of the training activity. If the intended learning
outcome is limited to the development of knowledge, there are methods that are most suit-
able for the purpose. On the other hand, if the activity is directed at developing competencies
in the participants, you have a range of other options. It is, therefore, important that before
you take a decision on this issue, the learning objectives for a training activity should be
clearly and precisely set out. The table showing appropriateness of training methods to
learning outcomes could provide guidance in this regard (see Table 6.1).
There is another aspect of learning outcomes of a training activity. Some methods pro-
mote learning through interaction within the group, emphasising the role of the group as a
key source of learning. For instance, discussion methods yield good results as they provide
opportunities for sharing and exchange of ideas and experiences among the participants.
On the other hand, there are methods—for instance, practical assignments, laboratory
training—that promote learning by focusing on the individuals or engaging participants in
exercises that involve practical work and emphasise action.
6.2.3 Special Characteristics of the Training Group
Another important factor is the nature of the training group, its composition and other re-
lated attributes. There are some training methods, such as role-play and laboratory training,
which demand a high level of participation and commitment from the group. There are
others (like the case study method) whose effectiveness depends on analysing abilities of the
group. You must also ensure that the group is adequately prepared for the methods that you
propose to use. Before you decide on the method for a particular training activity, it will be
helpful to find answers to the following questions in relation to your training group.
z Major learning styles of the participants.

z Composition of the group, including the sex balance, age groupings and social
background of the participants.
z Level of comprehension of the group.
z Participants’ previous experience of training (their prior exposure to participatory
methods).
z The ability of the participants to understand the complexities and implications of the
training method.
z The extent to which the method will be able to stimulate the group and induce their
participation.
z The sensitivities in the group with regard to the requirements of the method and its
implications.
z Appropriateness of the size of the group to the method.
Table 6.1
Appropriateness of Training Methods to Learning Outcomes
Group Practical Management

Learning Lecture Case study Role play discussion Laboratory assignment games
Enhancing information Appropriate Not Not Not Not Not Not
on certain areas or issues appropriate appropriate appropriate appropriate appropriate appropriate
or training.
Promoting knowledge Appropriate Most Most Most Not Not Appropriate
on training topics and appropriate appropriate appropriate appropriate appropriate
areas; understanding
of concepts, theories,
principles and methods
of working, and
dimensions of issues
related to the topics.
Development of Not Most Most Not Appropriate Most Appropriate
knowledge about the appropriate appropriate appropriate appropriate appropriate
skills required for
performing tasks or job-
related activities.
Development of Not Not Appropriate Not Appropriate Most Appropriate
physical or mental skills appropriate appropriate appropriate appropriate
necessary for performing
tasks or job-related
activities.
Imbibing attitudes and Not Appropriate Appropriate Not Most Not Appropriate
values appropriate for appropriate appropriate appropriate appropriate
personal or job-related
behaviour.
6.2.4 Time Allotted for the Sub-topic, Module or the Session

At the time of designing the programme, the planning team draws up a schedule, allocat-
ing time for each training activity. You need to keep this allocation in mind when deciding
on the method that you wish to use for your training activity. Some methods, like role-play
and other simulation exercises, generally require a good deal of time. Check whether the al-
located time is adequate. Sometimes, you need to modify the method to ensure that the
activity is completed within the allocated time. But, be sure that you do not compromise on
the core requirements of the method as this can render the activity unproductive, resulting
in a waste of time.
6.2.5 Level of Competence of the Trainer in Its Use

You should objectively assess your own ability and expertise in using the method, in handling
the situations arising out of its application and in analysing the data generated by the train-
ing activity to arrive at the expected learning outcomes. You should be sure of your knowledge
and experience in using the method for similar groups. If you have no prior experience of
using it, you may consider consulting those who are fully conversant with its dynamics. The
key points are that you should be fully prepared for the method and feel confident of hand-
ling it (see Table 6.2).
6.2.6 Availability of Required Facilities and Resources

You should also consider practical and operational aspects of using a method such as costs,
materials, equipments and other facilities required for the purpose.
6.2.7 Style Preferences of the Trainer

Every trainer has a distinct training style and method of dealing with her training assign-
ments. It is likely that certain training methods may not be consistent with a particular train-
ing style. As a result, a trainer may not feel comfortable with the method because of her own
predilections and attitude. Keep this factor in view. The incongruities may become apparent
to the discerning participants, affecting the training activity and even the attitude towards
the trainer.
6.2.8 Ease of Presentation

Sometimes a trainer may opt for a training method because it is hassle free and there are
no complexities involved in its application. It may just require a general level of skills and
competence on the part of the trainer. And good results are assured. This makes the pre-
sentation easy.
Table 6.2
Skills Required by a Trainer for Training Methods
Group Practical Management

Skills of a trainer in... Lecture Case study Role play discussion Laboratory assignment games
Communication Very high High High High High Medium High
Diagnosing problems Low Very high High Very high Low Medium High
and facilitating decision
making
Facilitating and guiding Low Very high Medium Very high High Medium Medium
discussion
Organising and Low Medium Very high Medium Low High Very high
conducting training
activities
Understanding and using High High High Very high Very high Medium High
group processes
Understanding human Low Medium High High Very high Low High
behaviour; management
of emotions and feelings
6.2.9 Stage of the Programme
Experience suggests that some training methods produce optimum results when used in
the initial phase of the programme, while some others are more effective when used during
intermediate or later stages. It is not advisable to use intensely interactive and participatory
methods, such as role-play and simulation games, early in the schedule. At this point, the
group is in a state of flux—it is maturing, the patterns of relationships are being formed
and support mechanisms are being established. Therefore, the dynamics of participation
in the activity will be different and may not yield desired results. However, if the purpose
of using such a method is to promote interaction among the participants and no specific
learning outcomes are expected, then some interactive methods, like group games, may be
employed.
6.3 LECTURE AS A METHOD OF TRAINING
The lecture is, by definition, words spoken by the trainer. It is thus a verbal symbol medium.
This is the oldest method of training in which the trainer, by virtue of her knowledge and ex-
pertise in a field, presents orally, in a direct and often unilateral manner, the subject matter.
In most cases, it implies a one-way communication. In this method, the possibility of sig-
nificant learning is greatly diminished by the lack of interaction not only between the trainer
and the participants but among the participants as well.
As a training method, the purpose of the lecture is, in fact, specific and limited. In the
continuum of information, understanding, knowledge, skills/competencies, behaviour or
attitudes, the lecture method is effective only where it seeks to transmit information or intel-
lectual understanding, as part of the learning process. It can be useful for passing on know-
ledge, but for developing skills and engendering behavioural changes, this is not effective.
In the lecture method, the trainer becomes the centre of attention and remains in constant
focus. Generally speaking, it offers a relatively passive and uninspiring experience to the par-
ticipants. However, if the trainer has an unusual talent to stimulate and keep the audience
engaged through excellent verbal communication skills and sheer personality, or by estab-
lishing a warm and positive relationship with the participants during the course of the lecture,
there may be unexpected and productive results. Otherwise, the participants may become
inattentive and distracted. Therefore, the trainer must incorporate plenty of interesting ex-
amples, cases and anecdotes in order to illustrate concepts and theoretical inputs, and make
the presentation in persuasive language and in a pleasant and stimulating manner.
Though it has been under constant attack, the lecture method has apparently proved
overwhelmingly appealing to those trainers who wish to excel in the relative security of
prepared lecture notes, enjoy the feeling of exercising control and domination over the group,
want to avoid any unfavourable response or embarrassing challenge from the participants
or have a style that firmly believes in the pre-eminent status of a trainer in relation to the
learners.
6.3.1 Why and When to Use the Method
z The most obvious application is where there is a large group needing information
or knowledge about certain concepts, theories and issues and participation is not
possible because of the sheer size of the group. The timing can be worked out with
considerable degree of accuracy, with an assurance that the trainer will be able to
cover the ground she intended to within the stipulated period. This is usually not
the case with other methods of training. Thus, time-effectiveness is a distinct ad-
vantage along with its suitability for large groups.
z The main attraction of lecturing as a method of training is its deceptive simplicity
and the control over the session and the participants it purportedly gives to a trainer.
Coverage and preparation of the lecture can be predetermined and, once prepared,
the lecture can be delivered by even a stand-in and repeated any number of times.
A trainer can derive considerable satisfaction from her performance as she holds the
direct responsibility for its preparation and delivery. Thus, lecturing holds a premier
place as an established method of training.
z Usually, in a lecture, the participants are expected to listen carefully and reflect on
the subject and clear their doubts either before or after the lecture. It has a number of
variations and can be used in combination with other methods of training, perhaps,
with greater effectiveness.
z Because of the live voice and manner and the ambience generally associated with the
presentation of the lecture, the trainer can make facts come alive, making the session
more inspiring and full of vitality.
6.3.2 Why and When Not to Use the Method
z In the lecture method, it is assumed that the participants can by themselves, through
reading and informal discussions, bridge the gap between the contents of the lecture
and the realities at their work situation. Intellectual understanding of the issues will
be translated into action. However, this assumption may not be valid. There is no
assurance that the participants will be willing to invest further time and effort to
build on the knowledge transmitted by the lecture.
z Also, as the method does not stimulate thinking or actively involve the participants,
the understanding of various issues that the lecture may generate in the participants
is often not very lasting, and after a certain length of time the participants may not
be in a position to recall much of what was said during the lecture. This dilutes the
efficacy of this method.
z In most cases, the onus for the success of the method lies with the trainer and its
effectiveness, to a considerable extent, depends on the personality of the trainer
and the manner of presentation. There are few opportunities to apply correctives
midway through the lecture if things are not going the way the trainer would have
wanted them to.
z The process of lecturing calls for motivation and commitment on the part of the
individual. Lecturing, by itself, addresses neither the individual nor the social
dimensions of this process. It is proper, then, that training through lecturing should
be renamed, in many instances, as ‘orientation’. The tested results of lecturing,
therefore, encourage only its rare and discreet use.
z It is a non-participatory, passive medium that does not allow two-way communi-
cation. Although it is relatively a simple method but its simplicity can be deceptive
because the emphasis can be on effective delivery and presentation of the contents,
rather than on the contents and learning. Thus, what the trainer says in a lecture may
not be directly related to what the participants learn or wish to learn.
z The lecture method also develops a sense of dependence on the trainer. Some par-
ticipants may be inclined to accept the trainer’s views and opinions as gospel and
make it part of their own understanding. They may not feel the need to go through
a process of thinking, analysing, choosing and discarding or accepting.
z The very qualities of a good lecture threaten its value as a training method, aiming to
develop the potential and understanding of the participants. The more complete and
logically consistent the argument is, the more erudite its derivation. The more ap-
pealing its delivery, the more it tends to be ‘bought’ as the final answer or view.
z The lack of involvement of the participant leaves the trainer without any feedback
on the extent the materials are absorbed and the inputs are comprehended by the
participants. Unless the entire presentation is fully understood and assimilated, the
sequence and sense of the lecture may be lost.
6.3.3 Enhancing Its Usefulness
In spite of criticisms by the advocates of participatory learning, the lecture method still has
its place in certain training situations, provided the trainers are willing to bring about some
changes in the manner it is delivered.
z For this method to be successful and effective, a key factor is the trainer. It demands
a high level of skills from her. If the object of the lecture is transmission of infor-
mation and understanding of issues, it is necessary for the trainer to possess the re-
quisite knowledge and information in the subject and that she is perceived as such
by the participants. The quicker the trainer is able to establish her credibility with
the group, the better it is for the delivery of the lecture.
z Good lecturing skills are a prerequisite for a good presentation. If the trainer is
skilled in interacting with the audience and creating a climate suited to learning, the
message will be effectively transmitted. The participants may have their minds full
of other problems and concerns and many things may distract them during the pre-
sentation. Somehow the trainer has to break into their thoughts and redirect their
motivation and energy towards the learning process and the contents.
z Since by its very nature the lecture method tends to be relatively passive and un-
inspiring, it needs to have a built-in participatory element in order to stand a
reasonable chance of satisfying its learning objectives. The skilful use of audience
involvement and providing encouragement to the participants to interact can turn
the lecture into a dynamic learning experience for everyone, including the trainer.
It can be transformed into a process of two-way communication. There is no good
reason why the participants cannot interrupt the trainer during the lecture and ask
for a clarification or raise a query. Further, all the questions need not be from the
participants. Nothing prohibits the trainer from asking questions of the group or
interacting with it during the lecture. This approach can also fulfil the need for a
feedback.
(For cross-reference see the section on ‘Using question–response technique for enhancing
participation’ in Chapter 5.)
z The trainer should not feel inhibited to use visual aids to emphasise, highlight or
elaborate a point. However, it should never be assumed that the use of training aids
is essential for a lecture to be successful. Many a lecture has been ruined by visual
aids that have been badly produced or inappropriately used.
z If readings and assignments about a topic or a subject precede the lecture, the trainer
can present the facts in the context of such readings, making the lecture learner-
friendly, turning it into an understandable whole. The trainer can also help the
participants synthesise and analyse facts and focus on relevant aspects.
z Handouts could also be used albeit with some care and discretion. They are a valu-
able means of consolidating and supplementing information provided in a lecture.
But they should be suitably designed and produced and used at the right time to
make them more effective. If handouts are distributed at the beginning or during
the lecture, the group (as also the trainer) can get distracted and the participants may
get so engaged in reading through them that they may disregard the trainer or the
lecture. If the participants find that the lecture is only repeating or restating what
is incorporated in the handouts, they are likely to be less attentive to what is being
said in the session. Therefore, while the lecture may be based on handouts they
should not be repeating the contents of such material. One suggestion could be that
a framework of the lecture could be provided before the lecture is delivered to enable
the participants to follow the contents easily and, later, handouts may be given out
to supplement the lecture. This will also ensure that the learning the participants
acquire is more lasting.
z Perhaps another functional approach is to provide the framework of the lecture
before the lecture commences (as suggested earlier), but under each subhead leave
some space to enable the participant to write key points of the lecture that she finds
interesting and worthwhile.
z The effectiveness of the lecture method also depends on its place among other methods
in the same programme. The lecture holds greatest promise when it is a response to
the questions and concerns of the participants, raised in earlier discussions, fieldwork
or other experiences. It can also be effectively used as a prelude to other experiential

methods such as role-play, case study, simulation games, laboratory training or
field visit.
z The length of the lecture is an important factor in its effectiveness. Studies have
shown that 20 or 30 minutes may be the maximum time that a lecturer can hold the
attention of the participants effectively. However, if the lecture is interspersed with
some interaction with the participants and occasional use of visual aids, this period
may be extended considerably.
Table 6.3
A Quick Checklist for Lecture as a Method of Training
Training specifications Requirements

Trainer’s role. Initiator.
Main speaker.
In full control of the session.
Has the option of involving the audience through questions.
Must ensure that the interest of the group is kept alive.
Climate-building, The group should be prepared for the lecture. It should be receptive
preparing the group. to the contents.
Participants’ role; their Participants are listeners. Their interest and motivation in the lecture
level of comprehension depend on the style of the speaker.
and understanding. It is assumed that they are conversant with the medium of the lecture
and would be able to comprehend the contents of the lecture.
Facilities, resources A room large enough to comfortably accommodate the participants.
and equipment, White board, chart papers, markers, if the trainer chooses to highlight
including space some points.
requirements. Handouts, support materials, depending on the decision of the
trainer. These should be distributed either at the commencement or
at the end of the session.
Time allocation. Actual time for delivery of the lecture depends on the trainer, keeping
in view the nature of the topic, the group and the environment.
6.4 CASE STUDY METHOD
The case study method is very popular with the trainers. It has become an accepted way of
transmitting knowledge through involvement of the participants and by generating a high
level of interest among them. It samples a real-life situation in the field and provides an
opportunity to the participants to learn on the basis of a summary of a well-documented
series of events, incidents and circumstances, centring on an organisation, an individual
or an issue. A carefully selected and well-written case can induce reality into the training
setting and bring the discussion to a reasonable level of concreteness and reality. It helps the
participants to familiarise themselves with facts, situations and dilemmas that they might
face in real life. A discussion on a case study can highlight their assumptions, experiences,
attitudes, preferences and ways of functioning, giving them an opportunity to correlate
these with those of the others in the group. The case study method thus provides a frame of
reference for the participants.
It demonstrates in a ‘live’ and realistic way, the complex or multi-dimensional nature of a
situation or a problem in which a number of individuals, factors or circumstances are at play.
It helps a participant to understand the situation from the perspective of wider organisational
interests and not merely from her own standpoint.
6.4.1 Objectives of the Method
The objectives for using case study as a method of training vary in accordance with the learn-
ing objectives for the session or the topic.
z It can be used to stimulate analytical, in-depth discussion with a view to presenting

a multifaceted or an integrated perspective of the situation for better understanding,
guidance and action of the participants. This will also help them develop a wider
outlook of the situation and issues that they are likely to face in their job. They have
an opportunity to view the problem or the issues not only from their limited per-
spective related to their own job responsibilities but also from the point of view of
others who might be involved in the process.
z The case study method can help in deriving useful generalisations or principles re-
garding working in the field. These can be related to a relevant theory, model or a
body of knowledge.
z In many cases, the method is used as an exercise in decision making or problem
solving. It helps to develop the participant’s ability to think, decide and choose
proper course/s of action. She learns to respond to a situation or problem in the
most appropriate way, taking into consideration all the incriminating circumstances,
rather than going by a particular style of functioning or response.
z The case study method can help develop knowledge of skills in the participants that
will help them to deal with a multitude of situations in their job that require regular
action or intervention.
z As a case study incorporates description of people and situations taken from real-
life events with which the participants are familiar and can even identify with, this
method also promotes exploration and awareness of one’s attitudes, values and
patterns of job or personal behaviour.
z This method can be effective in enhancing the involvement of the participants in the
process of learning. Thus, a greater responsibility is devolved on them for their own
learning. They can learn in a relatively non-threatening and risk-free environment.
This can help in their overall motivation for the programme.
6.4.2 Guidelines for Using the Method
z In order to make effective use of the method, it is important for you to first identify
the objectives of the session, assess the level of skill and comprehension among the
participants, and appraise the expertise and experience you have in handling this
method with the given group. You should possess a thorough knowledge of the
topic or the issues to be discussed in the case. Do not use the method simply to intro-
duce variety in the methodology of the training programme, to create an impact or
because someone has told you to do so. Use it only when you are fully convinced
of its utility and usefulness. Learning and not ‘fun’ should be your guiding principle
or objective.
z It is desirable that a case study should be based on genuine data and situations. How-
ever, in the absence of good case studies for a wide range of purposes and groups,
sometimes, the information is concocted, although it might be presented as facts in
a fairly convincing way.
z If the case deals with a real situation, you should usually know the actual outcome
in order to enable you to compare and contrast the participants’ findings and con-
clusions. Since the true outcome may not be the most expedient or desirable, you
should encourage the participants to explore various options that might be avail-
able rather than directing their efforts towards searching for the right response or
predetermined conclusions. When dealing with certain problems or situations in the
field, it is quite unrealistic to assume that there is only one response to a situation.
z Before the case study method is introduced, it may be useful to prepare the participants
by exposing them to basic concepts likely to be emphasised in the case study and
providing relevant theoretical inputs. Ideally this method should be preceded by
a sound theoretical and conceptual discussion on the issues that are likely to be
highlighted in the case study.
6.4.3 Guidelines for Writing a Case Study
General Guidelines
z Writing a good case study is an important aspect of the use of the method. You
have two options in writing the case study. You either do it yourself or delegate the
task to a group of participants. If they are given the responsibility, you must en-
sure that the case study is written in accordance with the learning objectives for the
session/s. They may need some guidance for carrying out the task.
z The situation or the problem/s chosen for the case should be consistent with the
broad objectives of the training programme. The case to be used must relate to
the overall work situation of the participants, their level of experience and know-
ledge. They should be able to identify with the situation described in the case and
recognise the individuals or groups that find mention in it. It should have practical
use in training situations. If you are able to meet these basic conditions in the writing
of the case, a stimulating, meaningful and productive discussion is assured.
z Preparing a case requires good writing as well as communication skills. You should
be able to say all that you want to say clearly and precisely. If the participants are
confused, each will attempt to interpret the case in her own way, adversely affecting
the discussion. They should not lose their way in a maze of information and details.
Always keep in mind the purpose for which the case is being written. It is not a
report on the functioning of the organisation or the performance of individuals that
find mention in the case.
z There are numerous sources of material for writing a case study—available docu-
mentation on the functioning of related organisations, participants’ experiences in
relevant areas or through research. However, it is important for you to ensure that
the case is as close to reality as possible and pertinent to the group.
z In case the group is of one organisation there is an advantage in using case studies
derived from the experiences of the participants. However, a word of caution is neces-
sary here. If some of them were directly or indirectly involved with the case, they may
bring with them their own predetermined views and opinions on various aspects of
the case. This introduces an element of bias and prejudice in the discussion. Some
of them may also not feel free to express their views for fear of hurting those who
had been associated with the situation or the decisions.
z The length of the case may vary considerably, depending on the learning objectives,
the nature of the issues it seeks to focus and the time allotted for the analysis and
discussion. However, it contains sufficient details to enable the participants to have
a meaningful and productive discussion and suggest suitable action. The manner in
which you guide and manage the discussion is relative to the selection of details, the
writing of the case, the way you postulate the task/s and in setting out the learning
objectives or the desired outcomes of the case.
z The situation or the problem/s around which the case is structured should reflect
objectivity. Be mindful of your personal preferences, partisan views and biases. The
case should not reflect your own opinions, analysis, evaluation or answers. This may
influence the course discussion takes or inhibit meaningful contribution, thus, ad-
versely affecting the learning outcomes.
z The case is written in past tense with proper disguises so that the identity of the
organisation or the individuals is protected.
Steps for Writing a Case Study
z Once you have decided on the use of case study as the training method for your topic,
the first prerequisite for writing a good case is clarity on the learning objectives. You
should clearly set out the learning outcomes, as the case will be structured on the
basis of these outcomes. Obviously, they must be consistent with the overall objec-
tives of the training programme.
z You must also carefully assess the ability of the participants to analyse available
data and information, their experience in dealing with the issues and the problems
highlighted in the case, as also their skills in discussion.
z The next step is to identify the problems or issues you wish to deal with in the case.
It is advisable to focus on one or two situations or problems. If you include a num-
ber of issues/problems, the case will get cluttered with a plethora of information and
data. This may confuse the participants, affecting their participation, the course of
the discussion as well as the learning outcomes.
z Collect as much data as possible, keeping in view the approaches or the action you
wish to highlight in the case. Of course, quality and coverage of the materials are im-
portant considerations. The materials should relate to everyday operations of the
participants. It is always useful to collect more data than you may actually require
or use as this gives you more scope or latitude in writing the case. To begin with,
do not have a preconceived pattern for the case in mind, otherwise it is likely that
you may leave out important data and information and rue it later. You still have
the option to include data which are relevant and leave out those that do not fit into
your mental picture of the case. Additional materials, not included in the case, will
also help you respond to the clarifications and queries of the group at the time of
discussion.
z Arrange the collected data and information in a logical structure or scheme. Decide
on the operating statements for the facts of the case. This gives you an outline and
a broad framework for the case. Ensure that the issues and the situations around
which the case is to be structured are adequately highlighted. If you find that two
situations/problems are running concurrently and may confuse the participants,
review the case to keep the focus on the problem you wish to project prominently.
This framework should be further examined and considered in the light of the
objectives of the case.
z You are now ready to write the first draft. Add more details and information to the
outline you have prepared. These details should assist the participants in fully com-
prehending and understanding the situation as it unfolds in the case. Do not jumble
the information or create a maze. Avoid superfluous details. Be as specific as pos-
sible. If the problems or issues are presented in a general way, you may not achieve
the desired results.
z Write in simple and easy language. Do not use complicated words or phrases. Do
not embellish. This is not an exercise in demonstrating your prowess in the lan-
guage. Effective communication is the objective. For easy comprehension and
smooth reading, write short sentences and paragraphs, one leading to the other.
z Once the main body of the case is completed, you may write the introductory
paragraph/s. Very briefly, you should spell out the broad parameters and the prin-
ciples within which the case is to be viewed, analysed and discussed. You should also
set the scene for the case, giving relevant and adequate information on the organ-
isation and/or the individuals who constitute the subject of the case. You also have
the option of giving an overview of the case before you elaborate on the issues in the
main body.
z Go over the case again to ensure that relevant details have not been missed out. This
is the time to check on the length of the case as well, in accordance with the time al-
lotted for the consideration of the case and completion of the prescribed tasks. Here,
you must also consider the ability of the participants to comprehend and retain the
contents.
z Revise the draft and finalise the case.
z The next step is to set out the tasks that you expect the group to accomplish dur-
ing the discussion. This could be in the form of decisions, a range of solutions to the
problem/s or conclusions, depending on the learning outcomes of the session. The
tasks for the group must be specific and written in clear, unambiguous words. If
the initial discussion on the case is conducted in smaller subgroups or syndicates,
you have the option of giving either different or the same tasks to the subgroups.
6.4.4 Presentation and Discussion of the Case Study
You are a key player in this exercise and, therefore, it is imperative that you possess the
necessary skills for conducting the session/s in which the case study is presented and discussed.
The extent to which the group is able to achieve the learning objectives depends largely on
how well you conduct the discussion.
z For carrying out your responsibility with discretion, finesse and sagacity, a key pre-
requisite is that you should be fully conversant with all aspects of the case. In fact,
as indicated earlier, you should have full and complete materials, even fuller than
required for the case, in order to be in a position to respond to the queries and clari-
fications of the participants. This is necessary in order to lead the group to the de-
sired objectives for the session. If the case writer and the discussion leader are
different persons, the discussion leader should read the case thoroughly, well in
advance of the session, and grasp all the facts of the case and the main points for
guiding the discussion on the right lines.
z As leader of the discussion, your role is to help the participants, individually and col-
lectively, in clarifying their understanding of the persons and the situations mentioned
in the case. They should be able to analyse the decisions and actions indicated in the
case and draw inferences from them. You then have to build on the participants’
contributions, making appropriate derivations and highlighting key points.
z As you will realise, the functions related to guiding discussion on a case are dif-
ferent from piloting a meeting through an agenda, chairing a debate on an issue
or lecturing on a concept. The fact that the presentation, analysis or discussion
needs to be conducted within the framework of the learning objectives cannot be
overemphasised.
z It is important to adequately prepare the group for the exercise. In the traditional
way of using the method, the participants receive a printed copy of the case, well in
advance of the discussion. This gives them enough time to read the case before the
exercise begins. You should encourage the participants to familiarise themselves
with the facts and other details of the case, explore ways of relating to them usefully
and grasp important points for discussion. However, the participants should be
restrained from discussing the case amongst them before the session. The group
may be restricted to the materials contained in the case study or permitted to seek
further information, either directly from the trainer during the session or through
research. By way of guidelines for the presentation of the case and discussion, the
participants should be told to concentrate on consideration of data provided in the
case, avoid abstract or generic arguments, explore relevant facts and issues, and exam-
ine the situations and issues in the light of their own experiences and those of others
in the group.
z Your briefing for the exercise should reflect the reality of the situation and its im-
portance to their respective organisations. You should refrain from introducing
hypothetical factors or arbitrary viewpoints into the discussion but should only cite
facts pertaining to what actually happened in the case.
z Together with the aforementioned, it is necessary that you have a good understand-
ing of the training group and its dynamics. You must have a clear idea about who
among the participants has the ability to initiate discussion, and which other mem-
bers are capable of playing different roles for a meaningful and productive discussion.
For example, seeking clarifications, raising queries, analysing situations and issues,
providing insights into certain aspects of the case, providing impetus to the discussion
when the group appears to be slackening and bringing the group back on course if
it seems to be moving out of the parameters set for the discussion. This will greatly
facilitate your task, as the group is able to generate its own momentum and become
self-regulating, of course, with the discussion leader guiding the session.
z It is also necessary for you to be fully skilled in various discussion techniques and
methods, and capable of eliciting the involvement and participation of all members
of the group. You should be in a position to provide an environment conducive to
free and informal discussion. An important function for you is to stimulate discussion
and allow it to proceed in an uninterrupted and uninhibited way. Your interventions
should be kept to the minimum—only when the situation demands. Further, your
comment should be brief and specific, for example, to clarify the issues or details of
the case, to respond to the participants’ queries or to keep the discussion focused
on the issues and problems that are consistent with the learning outcomes for the
exercise. If the participants miss certain key points, it is your responsibility to bring
those to their attention. You should refrain from expressing opinions and your own
viewpoints on the issues under discussion. This may freeze or block the discussion.
It is, however, important that you maintain control of the session, while allowing
for maximum participation of the members.
z You should be aware of and in contact with your personal biases and prejudices in
the areas and aspects likely to be covered by the discussion. If this does not happen
you may consciously or subconsciously influence the discussion, thus inhibiting free
flow of ideas and viewpoints.
z To increase the total participation, you may consider dividing the group into smaller
subgroups. This facilitates more in-depth consideration of the issues. The subgroups
may be given different sets of tasks and their conclusions and decisions may be
further discussed in the plenary session for wider consensus and integration.
z The task of summing up the discussion and bringing out the key learning points is
very crucial to the entire exercise. For this, you will have to collate all the relevant
points that emerged through the discussion. You should be able to relate these
points to the tasks that the group was expected to focus on during discussion on the
case. As part of summing up, at the end of the discussion, you should collate the key
points—issues, points of views, inferences and suggestions for action—that have
emerged during the discussion and reorganise them into concepts, generalisations
and learning outcomes. Do not forget that the case was a means to bring out certain
learning that will help the participants approach their work in future with greater
understanding of the problems and better insights into dynamics associated with
similar situations. This will enhance their ability to deal with various organisational
scenarios and conditions.
6.4.5 Limitations of Case Study as a Method of Training

z It is not always possible to get quality and adequate materials for developing good
case studies that can be used in a variety of training situations. The trainers, therefore,
find themselves relying on substandard and fragmentary materials. As the effective-
ness of this method depends, to a considerable extent, on the way the case is written, in
the absence of good materials and data the whole exercise can be rendered unproduc-
tive. The problem is further compounded in multi-cultural training settings.
z However realistic the data may be, the off-the-job training environment introduces
an artificial element. There is, therefore, the risk that the participants may treat the
whole experience with a certain degree of detachment and not enter into the spirit
of an activity that can and should have a practice-based outcome.
z There is also a shortage of skilled trainers capable of guiding discussion of case stud-
ies in a training group. The exercise can become counterproductive if the discussion
session is not handled in an efficient manner.
z It is often difficult to sustain the interest and enthusiasm of the group in the discus-
sion or to maintain the tempo. If the participants’ interest wanes, the discussion can
become lopsided and tardy.
z One of the criticisms levelled at case studies by participants is that they are often
bombarded with a whole volume of information that utterly bewilders them. This
can cause considerable stress resulting in an unfocused discussion.
z The case study method is time-consuming and can, therefore, be used only under
special situations in a training programme.
Table 6.4
A Quick Checklist for Case Study as a Method of Training
Training specifications Requirements for the method

Trainer’s role Prepares the case study keeping in view the expected learning
outcomes.
Initiates and guides discussion.
Clarifies issues and supplies additional information, if and when
required.
Highlights the learning points and sums up the discussion.
Climate-building; The participants should be familiarised with the method,
preparing the group procedures, norms of discussion, and so on.
Enough time should be given to them to go through the case and
to prepare for the discussion.
Participants’ role, their Participants need to be actively involved in analysing the case in
level of comprehension accordance with the guidelines suggested by the trainer.
and understanding. Some participants may require the assistance of the trainer to
understand some of the situations and issues mentioned in the case.
Facilities, resources and Case sheets for distribution to the participants.
equipment, including A room large enough to seat the group comfortably.
space requirement. White board, flip charts and markers for highlighting some points
during discussion.
Time allocation Depends on the length of the case, the learning outcomes and the
extent of discussion expected.
A minimum of 1½ to 2 hours.
6.5 ROLE-PLAY AS A METHOD OF TRAINING
Training in the field is often a major effort that can be a time-consuming and costly venture.
Creating situations that help the participants learn about the conditions that they are likely
to encounter in the field and making them aware of their job behaviour, especially in relation
to others, takes time. Instead of taking the participants to the field at high cost, both in terms
of time and money, it is possible to design training activities that are just one step removed
from the real-life situation. The field can be simulated during the training session itself in
order to provide insights to the participants into a variety of situations that they are likely to
confront in their job and help them understand and define their role and response.
Role-playing is a method of training in which the participants are required to act out the
role of an individual in a situation or circumstances that are relevant to her. The parameters
of the situation, within which the exercise is conducted, are presented in the form of a case
or a particular scenario. Depending on the requirements of the role-play, the situation is
set out with multiple characters, each having its own pattern of interaction. Role-play is a
conscious attempt to bring out the dynamics and intricacies of various roles performed in
real life. Therefore, role-play is not a theoretical but a live experience. The ways in which the
individuals approach the roles and the process of interaction between different persons are
analysed and discussed, leading to the learning outcomes.
6.5.1 Objectives of Role-play
Role-playing is a valuable training method that provides opportunities for participation,

involvement and action learning. It is a very flexible method that can be effectively used for
training in behavioural dimensions, especially job behaviour and social skills, and developing
preferred attitudes and values.
z Role-play is a key training method for engendering behavioural changes. The

actions, behaviour and interactions of the participants during the exercise form the
basis of self-appraisal and feedback from others in the group. It permits the par-
ticipants to receive objective feedback from other members of the group in a relatively
non-threatening and risk-free atmosphere. They can know how others, involved in
the same situation and circumstances, perceive their behaviour and actions and the
consequent effects on themselves. Thus, it provides a mirror to the participants to see
themselves as others see them. This encourages the participants to develop insights
into their own behaviour. Thus it enhances self-awareness. The whole process of
feedback and analysis leads to learning and promotes the desired changes.
z Role-play emphasises the importance of understanding and appreciating others’
points of view, behaviour and feelings. The exercise also provides opportunities to
the participants to learn about different ways, other than their own, of responding to
a particular situation or a problem. This, in itself, is good learning. It also enhances
their perception of others’ behaviour, thus helping in their interaction with other
people, in job or life situations.
z It is also a training tool to improve the skills of the participants in the areas of prob-
lem solving and decision making. They are able to develop better insights into the
problems that they are likely to confront in their job situations and are exposed to
different dimensions of these problems. The participants are also in a position to de-
velop their negotiating skills through interaction within the subgroups as well as in
the larger group. Depending on the situation given in the role-play, it offers role-
players an experience in dealing with conflict-ridden and stressful situations and
develops their coping skills, including management of interpersonal conflicts.
z It provides a useful practice in self-expression and interpersonal communication and
enhances interpersonal effectiveness. The method provides opportunities for intro-
ducing new stimuli and evoking new responses to a variety of conditions.
6.5.2 Case Study and Role-play—A Comparison
z Both these methods sample real-life situations, revolving around scenarios and prob-
lems concerning individuals and organisations. However, the main differences are
in the focus they create and the impact they have on the participants. While the case
study method presents the problem for analysis and discussion, the role-play locates
it in a life-like, interactive setting. As the case study focuses on discussion, it is
centred more on cognitive learning, whereas a role-play typically emphasises both
cognitive and affective development on the part of the learners. Thus, role-play de-
monstrates the difference between ‘thinking’ and ‘thinking and doing’.
z The case study has the ‘there-and-then’ rather than the ‘here-and-now’ emphasis as
in the role-play. It gives rise to lesser learner involvement than the latter. Although
in both methods, the environment is risk free, but in role-play the stakes are much
higher as participants are in direct and active involvement in ‘here-and-now’ situation.
Therefore, relatively speaking, there is higher risk in role-play. The scenario is ‘live’
and ‘dynamic’. In view of more intense engagement and close association of the par-
ticipants with the role they are playing, there is increased identification with the
dynamics of the exercise. As a result, learning from it is more enduring and there is
greater ownership of it by the participants. This has better potential for transferring
the learning to the field situation.
z The case study emphasises specific features, incidents and situations and deals
with the analysis and responses of the participants, but the role-playing stresses the
importance of their behaviour, reactions and feelings. Personal preferences and at-
titudes of the participants also play a prominent role. Analysis of the exercise is also
built on that.
z In case study, the information and data provided in the narrative cannot be changed.
At the most, some supplementary information and data can be provided to assist
the participants in arriving at a decision or a conclusion. There is, therefore, certain
predictability about the discussion and the response of the group. On the other
hand, despite the given scripts and the framework of the roles, the route that a role-
play may take is not so predictable. There could be constant changes in the situations
as the events unfold and interaction intensifies. There are constant stimuli from
different sources and the role-players need to be fully prepared to respond quickly.
Therefore, the dynamics of a role-play is far more complex.
z The trainer has greater control on the process and contents in a case study than in
role-play. The level and nature of skills required to handle the activity are far more
complex in a role-play than in a case study.
6.5.3 When to Use Role-play

In role-play, the participants interact with field situations (given in the script) and get the
opportunity to take action or behave in a manner that they consider right, generally within
Table 6.5
A Quick Checklist on Comparison between Case Study Method and Role-play
Case study Role-play

This method samples the real-life This method also samples the real-life situation,
situation, revolving round scenarios and revolving round scenarios and problems
problems concerning organisations and concerning organisations and individuals.
individuals.
Presents the problem for analysis and Locates it in a life-like interactive setting.
discussion.
Focuses more on cognitive learning and Typically emphasises both cognitive and affective
thinking. development on the part of the learners. Thus, it
focuses on thinking and doing.
There-and-then situation. Therefore, less Here-and-now situation. Therefore, greater
involvement of the participants. involvement of the participants.
There is some predictability about Action and behaviour of the role-players are
the discussion and the response of the mostly unpredictable and so is the way in which
participants. the particular situation unfolds.
Emphasises facts and situations and deals Stresses the importance of behaviour, reactions
with analyses and responses. and feelings.
the dynamics of the role set out in the script. Role-play can provide a meaningful learning
experience in situations in which the participants are able to enact their respective roles as
close to the real-life situation as possible. Of course, they need to keep in view the limits and
constraints of the rules and procedures and the framework set out for the conduct of the
activity.
Outcomes of a role-play are often the most satisfactory when it is preceded by some prior
input on the issues that are likely to be at the core of the role-play, either through lecture or
through some other methods. The role-play is thus used as an opportunity for the partici-
pants to put into practice some of the acquired knowledge and skills, of course, drawing from
their experiences as well. Through such an enactment they can try out modes of behaviour
they have just acquired, and re-examine previous behaviour or experiences with other behav-
ioural modes that strike them as potentially useful. They have the possibilities to try alternative
approaches or provide varied responses to a given situation or problem. Their participation
can, therefore, help them bring about necessary changes in their behaviour and actions.
In a role-play, the participants engage in actual behaviour, confronting problems and inter-
acting with other individuals associated with the situation. As they move on in the activity,
they receive immediate feedback from others and this helps them to fine-tune their behav-
iour to bring it closer to actual conditions in the area of work. They also get insights into
the issues and the situations that form part of the role-play through interaction with others
and observation. Thus, the exercise helps in establishing a linkage between the training and
the realities of practical work. This is very helpful to the participants in transferring training
to their job conditions.
6.5.4 Essential Elements of Role-play
The activity consists of several key elements. As an aid to memory and learning, these are in-
dicated later although they are discussed in greater detail under relevant sections, later.
z In the role-play, the participants should get first-hand experience of the situations
that they face on the job or in real life. In other words, regardless of its purpose, it is
important that it reflects the true working conditions of the participants’ work life.
The situation, however, should be challenging enough to stimulate them, arouse their
curiosity and motivate them to perform their roles with interest and involvement.
z It should be able to promote interaction among different players, within the frame-
work of the established objectives and procedures.
z Although the roles are defined through scripts, there is scope for the participants to
evolve and develop their respective roles as the action moves forward. They get ener-
gised and interested if they are encouraged to explore and examine, use their imagin-
ation, be enterprising and draw on their perceptions and experience. If the framework
for playing the roles is rigid, the participants’ initiative, interest and enthusiasm are
scotched and their involvement may become indifferent.
z The whole group has to be briefed about the exercise, the rules governing it and
other do’s and don’ts for the role-players. The participants should be fully aware of
the parameters within which they can perform their roles as well as the rules of inter-
action. This will avoid untoward happenings during the role-play, ensuring smooth
progress.
z You have to effectively monitor the role-play through observation, making certain
that there are no major deviations from the intended objectives. However, you
should not hold predetermined and rigid ideas about how the role-play should pro-
ceed. Remember that several courses are open for reaching the objectives and it is
possible that you might have thought of only one. It is better, therefore, to allow the
play to progress and apply the corrections only if they are really needed. Some aber-
rations and deviations can also provide you with useful materials for discussion and
feedback later. These also have potential for learning.
z For the discussion following the completion of the exercise, the group needs to
be suitably briefed. If there are no proper guidelines for the discussion, it will lack
focus. The participants and the observers may go all over and miss the points that
facilitate productive discussion. They should know what is relevant and what is not.
Otherwise, it will be difficult for you to bring out the learning from the exercise.
z Participants should be cautioned not to allow their personal prejudices and biases to
get the better of them while playing the role. They should play it as realistically as
possible.
z It is always useful to appoint separate observers for the process and the contents of
the play. Process observation includes the dynamics in the subgroups, the nature
of interactions, patterns of leadership emerging in the subgroups and the larger
group, and support system established within the subgroups and how it functioned.
It should also cover patterns of communication within the subgroups and in the big-
ger group.
z Contents observation focuses on the manner in which the individuals evolved their
role and the efforts each one has put in. Who played it realistically? Did they carry
out some research or exploratory work, if needed? The thoughts that have gone into
developing the roles; the issues that emerged from the exercise and how they were
tackled by different groups. How were the conflicts, if any, resolved? This observa-
tion should also cover coping skills of the participants.
z It is suggested that, to the extent possible, the observers should have specific assign-
ments with certain individuals or groups. This makes the observation more compre-
hensive and important points are not missed. If there is greater load on the observers,
the observation can be lopsided and the report sketchy. This affects the post-exercise
discussion.
z It will be useful to prepare observation sheets for the observers listing out clearly the
points they should cover. These guidelines will facilitate their work. Recording of
unnecessary and irrelevant details will be avoided. This ensures that the time and ef-
forts of the observers are properly utilised. Guided observation should be consistent
with the learning objectives of the activity. This also helps in the discussion.
6.5.5 Types of Role-play
Simple Role-play
This is the simplest form of role-play. The small group (it may just be 2 or 3 persons) per-
forms before the larger group or an audience that acts as the observer and at the end of the
presentation, analyses and evaluates it. This type of role-play does not require structure. It
is quite useful for demonstrations, developing sensitivity to the feelings and behaviour of
others, intensive training and use of small groups for productive training activity. This method
also helps in developing skills in observation, as all participants other than the role-players
are involved in that process. Different persons observe various aspects of the role-play. You
can reverse the roles to provide an opportunity to the other players to develop understand-
ing of the feelings of their counterparts as well. It will help in appreciation of the differences
in the perception of feelings by the role-player and the alter ego. Thus, it can be useful in
training in behaviour analysis as well. Various observers present in the group attempt to seek
the reasons for things said or done and the dynamics behind the behaviour of different role-
players. In simple role-play, the feedback is readily available to the role-players and they will
be able to develop insight into the behaviour of the roles that they have been playing. These
evaluative comments are more effective as they come from different sources.
Multiple Role-play
When the purpose of the role-playing is to involve the whole or a large part of the group,
multiple role-playing may be adopted. In this exercise, the group is divided into convenient
role-playing groups, and the various subgroups play the roles simultaneously, working on
the same situation and with similar issues. Generally, this type of role-play is structured and
is staged after proper preparations that may include written scripts and instructions. After a
specified time the role-play is terminated, followed by the discussion.
In this way, every member of the group gets an opportunity to participate actively in the
activity and experience the same situation. The interaction is intense and the dynamics can
be complex, providing a sense of the real situation in the field. Group interactions can provide
considerable scope and opportunities to the participants to learn. Within a subgroup as well,
interpersonal communication and the interactions can be interesting and very useful for
learning. For instance, the manner in which a group arrives at a consensus for certain action or
decisions. Thus, intra-group and inter-group dynamics can be demonstrated simultaneously
when tackling the same problem or facing the same situation. Differences due to personal
dissimilarities and group factors can also become evident. When process observers are work-
ing with various groups, the reports can be very interesting and provide a wide range of
learning.
Reverse Role-play
Reverse role-play is used when two participants have reached what appears to be an intract-
able situation in their discussions. They are asked by the trainer to switch roles. This move
serves to bring home to each participant the need for understanding and respecting the other
person’s point of view. It can be a salutary exercise for dealing with someone who delights
in putting another on the spot, although the trainer should be on her guard against giving
the impression that the ploy is used for disciplinary purposes or to cause embarrassment.
It should be seen as a training tool to improve negotiating skills and it does, of course, em-
phasise the importance of understanding the feelings of others.
Spontaneous Role-play
As a variation of the role-play the participants can be encouraged to enact impromptu. You
can use this as a sub-methodology. For instance, while giving a lecture or leading a discus-
sion in the group, you can use this to emphasise a point or to demonstrate certain specific
situation. In this variation, no script is made available and the participants are asked to play
the roles spontaneously before the group. There are no preparations and the participants are
instructed to play the role as directed by the trainer. Discussion is held immediately after-
wards and the relevant points can then be brought out by the trainer.
6.5.6 Planning Role-play—Some Guidelines
The nature and extent of preparations for the exercise depend a great deal on the type
of role-play you propose to design for the group. The following guidelines have been set
out keeping in view a more complex and elaborate role- play wherein several groups and
individuals enact different roles. These can be suitably modified or adapted for role-plays
with less complex overtones and implications, for instance, simple role-play or spontaneous
role-play.
Identifying the Problem
The first step is to identify the problem/s or issue/s that you wish to highlight in the situation
for the role-play. These should be appropriate to the module or the topic for which the activ-
ity is planned. The situation should be of a challenging nature; it should interest the par-
ticipants and be of concern to them. They should be in a position to relate it to their job
situation and perceive both the short- and long-term benefits of it, otherwise they may
not take interest in the play and their involvement might remain superficial and distant. It
is, therefore, important that you have a fairly good knowledge of the background of the
participants and their work responsibilities. You may choose a situation that:
z highlights issues related to the functioning of an agency/organisation, including

conflicts;
z deals with differences of perception of a problem or an issue between two or more
units/departments;
z emphasises the importance of intra-organisational coordination or inter-agency
cooperation;
z focuses on issues related to leadership and boss–subordinate interactions and under-
scores the significance of taking on board all the factors and circumstances while
arriving at a decision or solving a problem; and
z demonstrates the interaction of various groups or agencies in relation to issue con-
cerning their work and functioning.
However, it is not imperative that the role-play should focus on only one situation. Several
interrelated aspects may be highlighted but ensuring that key issues are not lost. Role-play
can also be developed to meet specific needs of an organisation if the entire group is from it.
In this case, however, you need to be cautious. If the role-play is based on an actual situation
in the organisation, it may bring to the surface certain contentious issues or relationships.
This could be detrimental for the exercise. In any case, do not bring in situations that deal
with personal conflicts.
Developing Structure for the Role-play
z The first decision will be on the extent of involvement of the group members. A role-
play can be acted out by one subgroup of the participants or by the entire group.
If the problem is uncomplicated, with less implication for the participants, it may
lend itself to a simple role-play in which only a few participants are involved, the rest
acting as observers. If you decide to involve the whole group—either as players or as
observers—it will require elaborate pre-planning, with the players carefully primed
and session time specifically marked for the play and subsequent discussion. You will
then decide how many members of the group will participate in the actual exercise.
z In using any of the variations of role-play, it is important to have specific objectives.
Whatever is demonstrated and ultimately learnt should contribute to the achievement
of the specific learning objectives of the training activity or the module.
z Most role-plays are conducted for specific periods of time. In some cases, the role-
play goes on until some predetermined conclusion is reached, the problem is resolved
or time is called. In other designs, the time is specified and regardless of the stage the
role-play is at, the exercise is terminated. Other variations call for the action to be
stopped during the role-play so that the role-players can describe their thoughts and
feelings and the observers can make comments on the role-play and indicate whether
it is going in line with the agreed learning objectives. Suggestions can then be made
and the role-play can be resumed on the basis of the agreed line of action. But this
variation has a disadvantage—the momentum of the play may be lost and it may
not be easy to build up the tempo all over again. You will have to decide on the best
option to ensure that the learning goals are met.
z Role-plays may be highly structured, with well-defined roles; conversely, they may
allow the participants a great deal of flexibility in acting out the roles. (This aspect will
be further elaborated in later paragraphs.)
z You may decide to arrange for back-up guidance for the role-players, in the form of
support or reference groups, to enable them to fully understand the role and play it
more realistically. Either some members from the group who are familiar with the
roles may be assigned this task or you opt for individuals from outside. They can pro-
vide each role-player with a support base for getting into and staying in the role.
z The structure of the role-play determines the physical arrangements for the exercise.
Assigning Roles to the Participants—Some Considerations
z In setting up the situation, it is important to give an overview to establish who is

going to be involved and how. Roles can be assigned on the basis of the expressed
preferences of the participants or you may undertake the job of assigning roles
yourself. One may argue that the former is a more democratic method but it is likely
that some participants may opt for certain roles for reasons other than the success
of the exercise. Participants with claims of higher status and position in the group
may be keen to play important and high profile roles. Or, those who are shy may
prefer a role in which they do not have much to do. This will not be appropriate for
the success of the activity. Therefore, it is advisable for you to keep the option of
assigning roles, if necessary.
z If the training team takes up the task of assigning roles, it should be done on the basis
of some knowledge of the background and personality of the participants. Whatever
method is used you must ensure that the assignment of the roles is purposive and
assists in achieving the objectives of the role-play.
z Experimentation may not be good if it affects the outcomes as a lot of time and en-
ergy is invested in the exercise. If a number of subgroups are to be involved in the
role-play, roles will have to be assigned within these subgroups as well.
z If there are differences in status and position among the participants—that is likely to
be the case if they are drawn from different organisations—it may create a problem
of attitude or demeanour and this can affect interaction among various role-players.
The extent of this problem, however, depends on the participants involved and their
background. It might pose a challenge for you and you may have to summon all your
persuasive skills to handle the situation. A polite reminder of the group’s ground rules
or a reiteration of your earlier counsel on the issue of rank and status in the training
group could be helpful. If the participants belong to the same organisation, the prob-
lem can become more complicated, but it can be tackled with the assistance of those
responsible for organising the training programme. It is generally not a good idea to
put people holding different hierarchical positions in the same organisation into the
same group unless the aim is to bring out organisational problems.
z You may opt for role inversion in assigning the roles. Those who are more vocal may
be given a low key role and vice versa. The role-play, sometimes, helps the partici-
pants overcome their shyness and discover their latent talents and skills that they had
hitherto not explored. Besides contributing to the success of the exercise, this can help
some participants acquire new attributes and qualities. But in all cases, your prime
consideration is to realise the learning outcomes.
z The presence of men and women in a role-play can be both an asset and a problem.
In assigning roles, you must ensure that the women participants are in a position to
enact their roles effectively as it may involve intense interaction with male partici-
pants. They should be in a position to hold their own in playing the role and not get
intimidated or subdued by male members, whether they are from their subgroup
or the larger group. However, in certain cases, the presence of women participants
can be helpful. The players may operate with greater self-control and self-discipline
while playing the role and during interactions with others. If the role-play is to focus
on gender issues or stereotypes, it can be conducted first with all participants playing
members of their own sex and then men and women exchanging roles and playing
members of the opposite sex. This will make participants sensitive to the feelings and
behaviour of persons of the opposite sex.
Developing Materials for the Exercise
For the conduct of the role-play and discussion later, the trainer needs to prepare written
materials. It is important that all the participants’ materials—for players as well as observers—
should be in the language that is comprehensible because if the players do not understand
their roles clearly, they will not be able to do justice to their respective assignments. These
should not be too lengthy or complicated for a participant to remember and act on. Generally,
the materials would constitute the following.
Introduction—Setting the Scene
Introduction to the role-play constitutes the basic material. It describes the situation and
the circumstances that provide the backdrop for it. Generally, this material consists of some
background data to set the scene for the participants and the observers. This information
is quite different from the role instructions that the participants receive individually. Some
trainers may like to verbally explain the situation, but it is advisable to provide every partici-
pant with a written sheet of paper, not leaving it to the memory of the participants. In the
absence of a written sheet, facts, as provided by the trainer could be disputed later and this
would, naturally, affect the discussion. Each participant gets the same background informa-
tion and data, and, at the same time.
In writing the background information, it is important to include everything that the role-
players need to know in order to get into their roles. Do not include more than what is con-
sidered necessary. Role-players can be easily overwhelmed by historical and numerical data
and may have to spend time and effort in comprehending and remembering such details. It
is usually best if details are generalised as much as possible.
Setting out Operating Rules and Norms
In order to ensure that the exercise proceeds in a smooth manner, it is necessary for you to set
out the operating rules and norms. Each participant, regardless of what role she is playing,
should be aware of the broad parameters within which it will be conducted and what she
can expect to happen once the action begins. You should also provide to the participants
a statement of goals and objectives that the activity will attempt to achieve and the issues/
problems that it addresses. It is often useful to also state the rationale for using role-play
as the training method for the module or the topic. This background information helps in
setting the tone for action and in satisfying some concerns of the participants that they might
have but may not express. The extent to which written information will be required depends
on how complicated or detailed the role play design is.
Role Briefs
You are expected to prepare role descriptions for each of the roles. In its simplest form, the
role description may just be limited to the name and description of the actual role that the par-
ticipant will play, along with information on other roles. But, generally, it includes some
hints on the manner in which the role could be performed, expected behaviour of the role-
player or other attributes or characteristics that she could manifest. Some role-play design
may also require defining the attitudes, values, and preferences of a role. It is, however, im-
portant that the role description should be located in the background of the exercise and the
operating rules and norms. Role description should also state explicitly whether the player
is to:
z act as she would in real life;

z play the role as an ideal person;
z adhere strictly to the role instructions/description; or
z act as the role description indicates but change her/his position in response to the
situations as they develop.
Generally, the first and the last choices are the most preferred. The second will not bring
out the finer nuances of the role. The role description (a separate one for each role player)
should also be written in simple, uncomplicated language.
All participants should receive a sheet assigning the roles and their locations. However,
you need to decide which role-player/s, if any, will receive the role description of others
and in what form. It is not necessary that all players should know about the role description
of the others. Many trainers leave it to the role-players to communicate their role through
their interaction with others and through their actions and behaviour, in the manner they
consider appropriate. The nature of the design and the expected dynamics during the play
will guide you in taking this decision.
In unstructured role-playing, a freer form of role-playing, participants can create their own
roles instead of using prepared, written role materials. In this case, the participants should
receive an instruction sheet telling them how to proceed in defining the critical elements of
the situation and in developing interactions that will explore and expand on it. Although
this approach minimises the need for printed materials, it is often more difficult to handle
by the trainer. The outcome is less predictable and may not be consistent with the learning
objectives for the exercise.
Observers’ Sheet
If you propose to have a structured observation, it is necessary for you to prepare appropriate
material for use by the appointed observers. Some trainers may opt to brief the observers
orally. But it has been the experience of many trainers that without written description of
their task, there may be a tendency on the part of the observers to over-personalise their
observations and to fail to focus on the specific learning intended. For their main task, the
observers should receive suitably designed observation sheets. These sheets may simply pro-
vide space for specific observations to be noted or contain a proper format for the collection
of data, especially if results from several groups are to be compared or collated. The materials
designed for the observers should also set out the procedures and the norms within which
they are expected to operate. In addition to these materials, the observers also receive the
role sheets of all role-players.
Some of the suggested areas that should be reflected in the observation sheets are given
in Box 6.1.
Box 6.1
Suggested Areas for Preparing Observers’ Sheet
What will they observe?
To facilitate an objective and focused observation that would provide a sound basis for a
meaningful and productive discussion later, it will be useful to divide the task into two main
aspects—process observation and contents observation. It must, however, be remembered
that these two aspects are interrelated and may, sometimes, overlap.
The process observation will emphasise the dynamics of action by different groups or
individuals and interaction among them once the exercise gets under way. Among other
points, this aspect will:
z highlight the patterns of leadership that emerged in different groups and its role;
z record the process of decision making in different subgroups and in the larger group
as well;
z indicate who took initiative for action in getting the exercise moving and in what
manner;
z name the role-player/s who dominated the exercise, regardless of the nature and contents
of the role;
z describe how disagreements and conflicts emerged and how they were managed or
resolved and
z list the factors that were at play during the play and influenced the action.
The contents observation focuses on the:
z roles of different role-players and the extent to which the players modified them;
z issues that emerged during the exercise and the response of various groups and indi-
viduals in tackling them;
z nature of disagreements and conflicts that emerged within the group and between dif-
ferent groups and individuals;
z issues that were central to the negotiations between different groups and how they were
tackled and
z negotiating skills of different role-players.
(Box 6.1 contd.)
(Box 6.1 contd.)
Each observer may either be responsible for process or contents observation or both. The
observers should record both the positive and the negative factors.
Whom will they observe?
The trainer has the choice of either assigning individual observers to specific role-player/s
or asking all of them to observe the whole exercise and all role-players. There are positive
and negative points in both. While the former will provide for a more focused and directed
approach, the latter helps in comparing the results of different observers, eliminating the
element of bias and subjectivity. Also, others can pick up the points left out by an observer
and thus the whole process would be more comprehensive.
Procedures for observation
It is necessary to set out the procedures and norms for the task. The observers should be
cautioned against interfering with or influencing the process or the progress of the exer-
cise. The observers should be told in unambiguous words that they are not supervising or
monitoring the play. Their role is not superior to that of others and that they are carrying
out a specified task as part of the exercise, as members of the training group. Some other
questions, indicated later, should also be clarified in the sheet for the observers.
Under what circumstances can the observers intervene in the exercise? To what extent are they
permitted to interact with the role-players and what can be the nature of this interaction? To what
extent can they consult one another?
Recording of the observations
It is preferable to provide observers with printed observation sheets, generally in instrument
format. Any such forms for recording observations should be explained to them clearly.
Presenting the observations
The trainer should also clarify in what form the report of the observers will be presented to
the group for purposes of discussion. This is a crucial decision as, to a considerable extent, the
value and quality of the discussion depend on the data generated by the observers and
the manner in which these are presented to the group. The sensibilities of the role-players
should not be ignored. If the observations are presented in a highly critical manner, the par-
ticipants may become defensive of their actions and the discussion can even become acrimo-
nious. Your role in guiding the discussion, therefore, is crucial.
Making Physical Arrangements for the Exercise
Depending on the design of the role-play, you will have to make appropriate arrangement
for the exercise. If it is a multiple role-play and there are a number of role-players and sub-
groups, it cannot be confined to a room. You will be expected to provide proper meeting
places for various role-players or subgroups as their operating base and to enable them to
discuss and plan their strategy. In some cases, some additional room may be earmarked for
discussions between different subgroups. Some support staff may be kept as standby for pro-
viding any assistance the role-players may require during the action.
6.5.7 Commencement of the Role-play
Setting the Climate for the Exercise
Before the action begins, it is important for you to prepare the group for the role-play by es-
tablishing proper mood and expectations. The importance of establishing a proper mindset
early cannot be overemphasised. Keep the objectives clear at all times, and make sure that
the entire experience has an obvious logic to it. As the term ‘role-playing’ can mean fun and
games for some people, it is up to you to establish that the activity is intended to promote
learning. The nature of the role-play and the objectives should be specified beforehand,
except in a situation intended to explore covert interpersonal processes such as the use and
impact of hidden agendas. Even in such a case you need to keep the training objectives in
mind at all times.
Some specific tasks that you are expected to carry out for establishing proper environment
for the exercise are outlined as follows:
z It is a good strategy to precede the exercise by a brief presentation, dealing with the
issues and problems that form the basis of the role-play. This helps you to establish
reference points for post-play discussion and for bringing out the learning outcomes.
Later, you can elaborate on these points as part of your summing up.
z It is extremely useful for the participants if at the very outset, you specify the reasons
behind using this training method for the topic under discussion. Convince the
participants of the relevance and utility of the method; underscore its training value
in terms of learning objectives and relevance to their work. They may not ask this
question, but it may be uppermost in their minds. In fact, they have a right to know
this.
z It is likely that some members of the training group would not have participated
in a role-play earlier. It will, therefore, be useful if you provide a brief introduction
to the method, explaining its broad objectives, the process and its various aspects.
For those participants who feel inhibited and nervous, a few words of support and
explanation are very beneficial. Some of them may even feel that by acting out their
roles they might be making a fool of themselves in front of others in the group. You
should address these concerns and apprehensions, with assurance and promise of
support.
z You are now ready to move on to brief the group on the role-play itself. Outline
its broad parameters and explain the norms and standards of behaviour and action
under which the participants will perform their respective roles and the exercise is
conducted. Encourage the participants to ask questions and express their concerns
and misgivings. Let them seek clarifications on their role and contribution and clear
their doubts. This will assist them in shedding some of their inhibitions and ner-
vousness. This briefing will also clarify a number of issues connected with the role-
play, set the momentum for action, generate enthusiasm and put the participants in
the right frame of mind. All this preparatory work is necessary for the success of the
role play.
z While stressing the need for working together as a group to make a success of the
exercise, highlight the significance of individual contributions as well. In some cases,
the participants may also be helped to establish personal learning objectives. Under-
score the risk- and threat-free environment and emphasise that the group members’
thoughts as well as their feelings must be involved in order to make the role-play
realistic and effective. Urge the participants to provide mutual support while the ac-
tivity is underway.
z Explain the purpose and procedure for the feedback and how it will be used dur-
ing discussion session, following the completion of the main activity. Introduce the
observers and make it clear that they are not there to scrutinise or supervise their
actions and behaviour but to assist in bringing out the learning points for the in-
dividuals and the group, as a whole. Some participants may be wary of the observers
if their past experience had shown them that the feedback session is a free-for-all to
criticise and evaluate others. They may feel inhibited or restrained. Assure them.
Briefing the Role-players
z In role-play that involves the whole group, you need to brief the participants on
all aspects of the activity—the objectives, expectations from the group, general en-
vironment, and so on.
z In briefing role-players, the trainer should not make the mistake of assuming that
people know how to get into their roles. It is, therefore, important that before the
role-play actually begins, you should allow time for the participants to think pri-
vately in order to assume the character of their roles. They may require a good deal
of explanation, clarification and even assistance to understand the finer nuances of
their roles. A bit of coaching on the role is necessary.
z After you have informed the participants of their assignments in the exercise—role-
players or the observers—and the composition of the subgroups, the next step is to
brief each role-player or subgroup on the role and expectations in the context of the
total exercise. This is a crucial part of the activity before it starts. Every role-player
should get a thorough understanding of specific attributes and character of the per-
son whom she is expected to portray during the session. The way she carries out
the brief depends upon how she perceives the role and intends to handle a particular
situation during the action. Based on the briefing, each participant develops a strategy
for approaching the task taking into account the anticipated reactions of the other
role-players. As the exercise moves forward, each player picks out the issues relevant
to her/his role, understands them in the light of her/his experience and knowledge,
and charts out a course of action within the framework of the assigned tasks.
z The briefing should also indicate the nature and level of skills required, especially in
the areas of communication, analysis and negotiation. This helps the role-player to
engage in self-analysis and find out the skills she will require in carrying out the tasks
that go with the role.
z Role instructions can be given in the form of printed sheets. Sometimes, the par-
ticipants do not read the instructions carefully. Therefore, allow them time to go
through them. Answer questions and clear their doubts, otherwise they will not
be in a position to perform their roles appropriately. However, this has to be done
individually. You should organise similar session for the team of observers but,
separately.
z For some role-play design, a very effective way of role briefing is to designate sup-
port individuals or groups of people who can function as coaches during caucusing
sessions.
z It is important that you should be thoroughly familiar with all role-play materials
before attempting to use them with the group. This will enable you to answer par-
ticipants’ questions and consult with those who have special role instructions. Some
guidelines for briefing the role-players are suggested in Box 6.2.
Box 6.2
Briefing the Role-players
In instructing participants on how to play the role, seven directions as outlined as follows
are important.
z Accept and adopt the facts of the role.
z Be the role.
z You may change your attitudes during the action.
z Let yourself be emotionally aroused. Identify completely with the role and get fully
involved in the exercise. Get into the shoes of the role.
z Make up data, if necessary, but do not alter the spirit of the role.
z Consult your role notes during the action, only if necessary, but do it discreetly.
z Do not overact, it may detract from the learning goals.
These instructions can also be reproduced on the role description sheets handed out to the
participants prior to the commencement of the activity.
The role instruction should clarify whether role-players are to:
z act as they personally would in such a situation;
z act as their character is described in the role instructions;
z remain true to the character as generally described but take it from there as the situation
develops or
z play it in an ideal way.
6.5.8 Directing Action—Guidelines for the Trainer
Once the action has begun, you have a crucial job to ensure that the exercise stays on course
and progresses on the desired lines. For this task, you should have your own guidelines and
notes.
z The material with you should state the purpose or possible goals of the role-play,
including the training outcomes and behavioural objectives. The design of the role-
play and all accompanying materials should relate directly to and reinforce the critical
problems and objectives that have been identified.
z Your notes should also have statements about the length of time required to con-
duct and process the role-play, the degree of skills needed by the participants to en-
gage in and process the role-play. Your brief should contain a step-by-step description
for setting up the role-playing scene and clear guidelines for conducting the exercise
itself.
z A structured role-play is directed by the design itself, by the role instructions, back-
ground information and other details that constitute part of its planning. It does not
normally require your intervention, except for the procedural matters or as part of
the agreed structure. However, if you find that the players are deviating substantially
from the role instructions or the script and, in your view, these deviations are likely
to affect the expected outcomes, your intervention may become necessary. The na-
ture of your intervention, though, depends on the situation that you encounter.
It is likely that in some cases, the role-players may be asked to refer back to their
role instructions and modify their behaviour or actions accordingly. But, obviously,
the interventions have to be kept at the minimum lest the tempo of the action is
affected.
z You must also keep the participants interested and engaged at all times. If you find
the involvement waning, you must have a plan to boost the morale of the group
and extend necessary support. By modelling openness, sincerity and concern for the
activity and the participants, you can help them to function together effectively.
z It is important that you must be aware of what is likely to happen in the role-play
and must have a sense of relative importance of situations and events that are likely to
unfold as the activity progresses.
z You must use tact and sensitivity in dealing with the role-players as they work
through the problem situations. The competence to straighten out complexities, per-
suasiveness and the ability to help people to see and understand what is going on are
your key attributes in handling this exercise.
z While the role-play is in progress, you should be able to modulate the intensity of the
event. This can be effected in a number of ways. You can ease the situation a bit if
the interactions are too intense and heavy. However, care should be taken that your
actions do not affect the rhythm of the play. This is a somewhat difficult task that
you, as a trainer, have to perform.
z The notes may also contain suggestions for facilitating the discussion after the role-
play has been acted out. This section may contain comments about the events and
results that are most likely to occur in the role-play and hints about how these might
be discussed.
6.5.9 Conducting the Feedback Session and Closing the Exercise
z The feedback session is a crucial part of the entire exercise. It is, therefore, necessary to
have a structured discussion within an agreed format. This will lend greater focus
to it. Your task of guiding the deliberations also becomes easier. It is suggested that
you develop the framework for feedback even before the play begins so that the
participants may feel assured. We have already discussed the importance of provid-
ing appropriate guidelines to the observers for presentation of their reports. You must
also decide on the nature of interventions by the role-players during the discussion
and on the actions, behaviour and interactions that you propose to highlight. These
will facilitate your developing a proper format for conducting the discussion.
z Depending on the role-play design and with the help of the observers, you may con-
sider interviewing the role-players at the end of the activity to get some clues behind
strategy, actions and interrelationships in the role-play. This can provide supple-
mentary materials for the discussion. However, this is optional.
z You should plan the discussion in a way that the threat perception is reduced. The
feedback needs to be constructive, otherwise it will become counterproductive. Posi-
tive and well-handled feedback can reinforce effective behaviour, instil confidence
and bring out areas for improvement in a way that is not critical and is readily ac-
ceptable. You should build an environment that promotes healthy discussion.
z Preparation of the participants for the analysis of their actions and behaviour is a key
task for a trainer. If the participants are in a position to appraise their actions and
behaviour in an objective manner, the chances for a positive and useful discussion
are enhanced. You, therefore, need to adequately prepare and brief the group for the
session. The participants should be urged to be open, both in analysing their behav-
iour and actions, and in receiving feedback, regardless of whether it is negative or
positive.
z Besides the role-players, the other source for you is the reports of the observers that
provide you the bulk of the data for analysis and discussion. If the observers’ re-
ports are presented in a form that furthers the discussion, your task becomes
that much easier. Therefore, the usefulness of structured observation cannot be
overemphasised.
z The feedback session can, sometimes, become a rough ride for you. It can produce
unexpectedly unpleasant situations. The discussion can become acrimonious and,
sometimes, even bitter. There will be arguments and counterarguments. Tempers
may run high, especially if the reports of the observers are presented in a critical
manner. Some participants may become excessively defensive of their behaviour
and actions. Your role, as the discussion leader, therefore, is pivotal. Check on your
skills to find out if you are capable of handling difficult situations arising out of the
discussion.
z You must have the expertise to bring out the key learning points after fully analys-
ing the activity, on the basis of the reports, discussion and supplementary material
generated through the exercise. These learning points should be ‘packaged’ in certain
concepts, working methods, guidelines and norms of behaviour and action in an
organisation, teamwork, interaction with colleagues from other departments and
units, and so on, that are germane to the activity. It is, however, not necessary that
you should confine yourself to the role-play. Feel free to provide additional learning
points that are relevant to the topic or the module but might not have emerged from
the discussion. This will be your inputs to the session. To the extent possible, you
should also take the learning one step further by underscoring its application. Where
possible, discussion should be linked to the real-world examples and extended to the
participants’ own work realm and application.
z After analysis and discussion the role-play may be concluded. However, before the
participants leave the room it is important to debrief them to ensure that they come
out of the roles that they had played. This is necessary to enable them to start their
normal work in the group, otherwise there is likely to be some hangover of the roles
leading to some unpleasant situations.
6.5.10 Limitations of the Method in Training
z To a considerable extent, the success and effectiveness of the method depend on the
manner the participants play their role. For some participants, especially those who
are shy and introverted, role-play can be an embarrassing experience. In a group that
is multicultural or multi-religious, the problem may be further compounded. There
are cultural inhibitions, especially with women who may feel too constrained to
participate actively in the role-play. They may, therefore, become passive players,
adversely affecting the progress and outcome of the exercise. Some of the participants,
however, may suffer only from initial nervousness and hesitation. All they need is a
bit of coaxing and your support and reassurance before the activity gets underway.
You must also make sure that the operating rules and norms for the role-play do not
further inhibit these participants and they continue to receive the necessary support
and assistance as the exercise progresses.
z The principal drawback with the method is that it is open to criticism for lack of
realism. While some participants may underplay their roles, the extrovert and the
outgoing participants may wish to play it with greater gusto and enthusiasm and in
the process they may go overboard. In playing their roles, some participants may
not feel constrained by the realities of the functioning of the organisations. As a
result of these situations, the exercise may become unrealistic and superficial, not
having value in a real-life situation. The learning value is reduced. It is also likely that
a participant would not be able to accurately depict all the nuances and complexities
of a role that one may confront in the field. The actions and behaviour of these
participants may, therefore, appear to be simplistic and removed from reality. You
can, however, address these problems at the commencement of the exercise, through
appropriate theoretical input and good briefing. Certainly, all the dimensions cannot
be presented but you can anticipate many of these concerns and formulate your
responses accordingly.
z One fallout of the artificiality or the superficiality of the situations depicted in the
role-play scenario is that it provides the scope to some participants to discount the
value of their learning generated through their participation. They may approach
the activity with some circumspection and cynicism. Those who wish to take it
seriously may also be affected by this attitude of some others. Sometimes because of
the actions and behaviour of a few participants it can degenerate into a fun play or
game and this may jeopardise the learning.
z People also feel threatened when they perceive that their actions and behaviour are
under observation or scrutiny and would be discussed at a later stage. They may be-
come cautious and guarded, curbing spontaneity of action.
z Some participants feel that they may look foolish before the group, playing some-
one else. It is your responsibility to allay these fears, handle these concerns of the par-
ticipants and provide an atmosphere that is mutually supportive rather than critical.
z As noted earlier, personalities play an important part in this exercise. In many ways,
the actual dynamics and interrelationships of the training group are likely to affect the
behaviour of the role-players and the subgroups. If there are conflicts in the group,
they may find expression in the interactions during the activity. You are well advised
to take into account the intra-group relationships while allocating roles.
z Not many trainers have the required skills in writing a role-play and conducting it.
The debriefing is also very important, otherwise the participants can go on playing
the role endlessly and this will affect the training process.
z Participants often lose themselves in a role and engage in inadvertent self-disclosure,
exposure and ventilation. It is important that the trainer points this out to the par-
ticipants beforehand.
z Roles sometimes reinforce stereotypes and caricature people’s behaviour. This pitfall
can be avoided if the trainer ensures that the role descriptions are credible and non-
stereotypical and that role-players are instructed not to caricature their roles.
For a quick checklist for role-play as a method of training see Table 6.6.
6.6 MANAGEMENT GAMES

A management game is a training method that deals with certain specific aspects of business
or administration. It is a simulated exercise representing, as closely as possible, the constraints
and pressures of the day-to-day work environment of the participants. They are presented
with information about operations of an organisation—marketing, financial, management
of human resource, and so on. They are grouped in functional teams to consider the
Table 6.6
A Quick Checklist for Role-play as a Method of Training
Training specifications Requirements for the method

Trainer’s role. Prepares the role-play and other materials, keeping in view the
expected learning outcomes.
Briefs the participants.
Ensures that the participants are acquainted with the method and the
conduct of the role-play.
Solicits their active involvement in the exercise.
Monitors the progress of the exercise, intervening where necessary.
Guides the post-exercise discussion and highlights the learning points.
Climate building, A lot of work is required in preparing the climate for the exercise and
preparing the group. in familiarising the participants with its details.
It is necessary that the participants fully understand the complexities
of the method and their role for the success of the activity.
They should be acquainted with the way the roles are to be played,
the interaction between different role-players; the procedures and
norms under which the exercise and subsequent discussion will be
conducted, and so on.
Adequate time should be given to them to go through their role and
prepare for the tasks ahead.
Participants’ role, their Participants are the key to the success of the exercise.
level of comprehension They should be fully involved in it in accordance with the procedures
and understanding. and guidelines set out by the trainer.
Some participants may require the assistance of the trainer in
understanding the situation, their role and the issues involved.
Facilities, resources and Appropriate materials for distribution to the participants.
equipment, including Depending on the number of subgroups, several locations or space
space requirements. may be required.
A room large enough to seat the group comfortably for briefing and
post-action discussion.
White board, flip charts and markers for explaining the details of the
role-play and for highlighting the learning points later.
Time allocation. Depends on the nature of role-play.
A minimum of 1½ to 2 hours is a suggested period.
Some complex role-plays may require a full day or even longer.
sequence of events and problems and manage the operations. The task includes finding
solutions to the problems, taking decisions and dealing with people. Each team takes a
decision considering the data and information available to it, within the broad parameters
and objectives of the game. The consequences of this decision are fed back to the team by
the trainer. The team analyses the outcomes of this decision in the light of their effect on
the situation and other events in the operation. And the team then proceeds to take further
decisions addressing the new situation, events and circumstances. So there is a sequence of
events and decisions developing during the exercise. Thus, a business game attempts to bring
together various elements of practical decision making. Its most crucial aspect is the effort
to create an environment representing the social, psychological and economic dynamics of
organisational behaviour in a simulated setting. The decisions taken and the actions initi-
ated are processed and appropriate reports and documents are produced to lend a degree of
authenticity to the activity.
Most games concentrate on general management principles such as planning, decision
making and effective utilisation of organisational resources. Other games, built around specific
business areas, such as production, marketing and financial management, aim at developing
corresponding competencies in the participants. Using simulation as a technique in a class-
room environment is not a shortcut to success. It demands special skills that require consider-
able effort to be rewarding. Perhaps more harm is done through the misuse of technique
than not using it at all. You, therefore, need to be careful when using this method.
6.6.1 Major Objectives
Business games can be incorporated in training programmes in many ways. They can be
used for orienting the participants and familiarising them with the functional dynamics of
an organisation or for reinforcing the learning accruing from an earlier discussion on various
aspects of management. A management game also helps the participants relate the manage-
ment principles, concepts and methods of working that are being discussed in the training,
to the real-life environment. It emphasises a functional linkage between theory and practice
through a simulated environment. The games can be used in conjunction with other train-
ing techniques, including structured experiences, instruments, lecture and audio-visuals.
Specifically, business games aim to enhance the participants’ understanding of:
z specific organisational problems;

z interrelatedness of the functions and parts of an organisation and its relation to the
environment;
z problems of organisation policy and decision making; and
z teamwork—norms and procedures
The participants get an opportunity to sit in the ‘hot’ seat and feel the direct impact of
decision making. The exercise offers opportunities for collaborative learning on self-directed
lines, that is, learning as much from one’s mistakes as from one’s success. It helps establish
a relationship and fundamental interplay between different roles. However, like any other
training method, its effectiveness can be more when it is used only with a clear understanding
of the objectives to be attained.
6.6.2 Design and Methodology of Organising the Games
z The first decision that a trainer is called upon to take is regarding the nature of
the game. This by itself is related to the objectives the trainer has in mind for the
exercise. What are the end results she expects from the activity and what is the learn-
ing she wants to transmit or reinforce? It must, however, be pointed out that the
learning accruing from the exercise is not often limited to these predetermined
objectives. There may be additional benefits that come to the participants.
z The trainer should also decide what the sequence and flow of the course of action
would be and plan for a balance between cognitive and experiential learning. It
is also important that the game should fit in the overall training strategy for the
programme.
z It is also necessary that the trainer should make her fully familiar with the various
components of the game and know how it works, the sequence of events and deci-
sions that are likely to unfold and how it responds to the participants’ actions.
z Games may be extremely simple or complex, and having considerable depth. De-
pending on the nature of the game, it may last for a few hours or continue for days.
The number of participants who are likely to be actively associated with it may vary
according to its design.
z It may be designed in a way that provides for each participant to be considered a
decision-making unit. However, in most cases, group decision making is the rule.
Depending on the structure the trainer wishes to provide, the internal organisation
of the group may be set out as part of the exercise or the instruments provided to the
players may assume a particular structure.
z The core around which a business game is constructed is a model of a business envir-
onment. In this model, the interrelationships between functional areas of a business
are translated into mathematical relationships. The number of planning and decision-
making activities that are available in a game should present reasonable opportunities
to the teams to establish the working of an organisation and demonstrate the full
range of its dynamics. Presumably, the optimal number of activities that can be
incorporated in a game tends to vary with the characteristics of both the individual
participants and its contents.
z The time available to the teams for making decisions is normally related to the com-
plexity of the game and the nature of problems they are expected to deal with. In
some cases, though, too little time is provided deliberately. This strategy impels the
teams to respond to the situations quickly. This can produce a lot of tension and
stress in the participants, adding to the excitement of the exercise. This could be re-
garded as an approximation of the pressures the participants are likely to encounter
in real situations while taking organisational decisions.
z After becoming familiar with the details of the game, the trainer should decide on
the time schedule. This includes the time needed to complete each step or stage and
the time to regroup after interruptions or breaks.
z Materials must be collected or prepared. The layout of the room and other physical
arrangements must be attended to. Care should be taken to eliminate or minimise
distractions. Other rules that govern the activity should also be specified.
z The terms and language used here should be the same as used in dealing with other
modules of the training programme. Otherwise, the participants will get confused
and learning could be affected.
6.6.3 Conducting the Game
Introduction and Briefing
z This part should never be hurried through as a lot depends on how well the partici-
pants assimilate the game and its dynamics. They must be sure of what is expected
of them before it starts, otherwise confusion will ensue. The participants must be
introduced to the exercise carefully. The rationale must be explained for using this
method for learning. They must know about the assumptions or the premises that
have been made while developing and setting it out. It should be made clear to them
that the activity model does not duplicate or recreate a real social system or organ-
isation but is designed to provide general experience in dealing with similar types
of situation or typical business issues. The participants should also understand that
because their experiences during the game are generalisations of what they encounter
in real life, they would not be the same in the next situation or a similar one.
z Tell the participants that their job is to learn the rules and procedures of the game just
as they would learn to operate within any social or organisational structure. During
this process of briefing, they may also learn to be explicit, find information, conduct
analyses, discuss and collaborate with others, plan strategies and action steps, use feed-
back and explore the concept of teamwork.
z The introduction should also include a brief explanation of why this particular game
was selected, what its objectives are and how it is related to other theories, models or
methodologies presented in the overall training design. Describe its basic structure
and operations. Read out the rules, list them on newsprint and distribute them in
written form, if required. Talk about the objectives in terms of expected results.
Then take the participants through the procedures for obtaining information, mak-
ing moves (entering decisions or changes), generating reports, and so on. This infor-
mation should also be provided in written form, either as handouts or as posters.
z It may be helpful to explain that it is natural to feel somewhat intimidated or over-
whelmed by the rules and processes at the beginning of action, but as the participants
get into the actual play, things will become more obvious and fall into place. Remind
the participants that they can refer to their handouts or the posters and can ask
questions as issues emerge. Finally, assure them that the trainers have actually gone
through the game themselves and that it is doable. At this point, the trainers must be
reassuring but they must also communicate enthusiasm for the task at hand.
Conducting the Game
z The business game is a training method and must be used seriously for transmit-
ting knowledge and skills in a particular module or topic or in combination with any
other techniques. Far from having a relaxed time, a trainer has to work a lot harder
here than in a lecture or case study exercise. Therefore, you must be prepared to work
under extreme pressure though for brief spells.
z Of all training techniques, a game generates the greatest involvement and enjoy-
ment amongst the participants. Even if they approach it in an apathetic or frivolous
mood, this quickly changes as the effects of competitive effort make themselves ap-
parent. You may, therefore, find yourself in charge of a tremendously energised,
interested and deeply involved group of participants. You must share and reflect this
enthusiasm and keep up the pace if you are not to send the participants away angry
and frustrated. But amid all this excitement and action, you must not lose sight of its
objectives. You should be prepared to constantly monitor the learning processes.
z It is important to ensure that the participants understand the game properly before it
gets under way. Not to do so is to court confusion and risk the non-realisation of the
objectives. You should, therefore, have a plan all worked out to the detail and also
a strategy for conducting the evaluation.
z You must also be fully familiar with its various aspects, situations and constraints.
This will equip you to deal immediately with any situation that arises and respond to
the participants’ queries. It is impossible to forecast every action of the participants
in this type of situation. Therefore, you must expect the unexpected. If you prepare
yourself well, you will be able to handle any new development as it progresses quickly
and calmly. Clearly, a trainer becomes more adept and skilled with experience.
z As the participants may be confused and apprehensive at first, they may try to find
reasons for their lack of expertise. Many will find fault with the game or your ins-
tructions. Do not get upset or irritated. This is not unusual. When they begin to
understand the tasks and become familiar with the rules and procedures, they will
be stimulated and get far more involved in the activity.
z While the participants are playing the game, your role depends on its nature. In
some cases, you may be required to serve as a referee or arbiter. This implies that
you may have to appraise the players’ responses, in light of the rules of the game, in
order to provide immediate feedback to them on the consequences of their actions.
However, generally, you will be expected to answer questions about rules of the
game, procedures, next steps, and so on.
z Each team may be called upon to make 6–10 decisions during the course of the
game. For each action item, the team attempts to come up with a common decision
that is acceptable to all its members. This helps to emphasise consensus-seeking pro-
cesses and the value of synergy in groups. Each team’s decisions are reported to you.
Your task is to critique them and provide them with prompt feedback. You may
decide that each team should record its decision, the action taken and the results,
on a worksheet. The team then engages in analysis, feedback and planning. It then
moves back into enactment and prepares to take new decisions.
z Each enactment provides an opportunity for the participants to experiment with new
techniques, utilise and apply new information, and learn from the insights and feed-
back provided by others. You may need to emphasise that one of the training objec-
tives is to teach the participants to analyse the facts in a given situation.
z In some games, strategies and consequences provide the basis for learning. In others,
the teams will be required to generate periodic reports on different aspects and plans.
z One of the tasks for you is to oversee what is happening during the game in order to
determine how to improve it during the next round or session and to prepare for the
processing discussion that will follow. It is important that the participants remain
focused on the processes rather than direct their energy on scoring a point over other
teams. For maximum learning, it is also important that all members of the team
should get opportunities for participation. If some people are dominating while
some others appear to be bored, roles of the players, team composition and team
processes may need to be re-examined.
z You must maintain momentum by feeding back results or your appraisal quickly.
Plan it in a way that when you are engaged in analysing and going over reports, and
so on, the participants have a task to perform. It is disastrous for a game if the par-
ticipants sit idle while the trainer is working. The participants must be kept busy
throughout the game.
Evaluating the Game
z It is the evaluation that is very crucial to the training. Once the exercise is over, the par-
ticipants are keen to find out just how their actions and decisions were perceived
by other teams and their impact on the game. Generally, in such cases, there is no
problem in getting the participants involved in the discussion. Your job is to convert
their enthusiasm into a productive and meaningful discussion. You must ensure that
everyone gets an opportunity to participate and steer the discussion towards its de-
sired objectives.
z An evaluation session might usefully begin by giving an opportunity to the par-
ticipants to share their reactions to the experience and their feelings about what hap-
pened in their groups, and so on. Keep this sharing focused. Once these affective
issues have been cleared, the group is ready to begin examining substantive aspects
of the game—the model on which it was based, the various roles that were involved,
and so on.
z Each team may be invited to review the final results of its work in the light of the
policies and objectives it had set for itself. Depending on the nature of the game,
you may take the option of letting the participants discuss these issues first in their
own teams and then share the highlights of their discussion with the full group. In
this way, it will be possible for the group to focus on key issues rather than spending
time on trivialities or irrelevant matters. It is also possible that members of the teams
may speak in different voices, thus, confusing issues.
z Wherever possible, comparisons must be made with real-life situations as the issues
come to the fore in the discussion. Some may consider the whole exercise as an over-
simplification. There is no doubt that a simulated activity will involve certain un-
realities and artificialities. These aspects are certain to be seized by those who felt
somewhat frustrated with their performance or were not satisfied with the way things
had gone for their group. However, you can get over this inadequacy by taking a
situation and pointing out how it could be handled in an organisation. Where pos-
sible, discussion should be linked to the real-world examples and extended to the
participants’ own work realm and application.
z Another area of discussion will be the patterns of behaviour within the teams—
difficulties in establishing a working organisation and in reaching a coordinated
decision at the right time, problem of delegation and responsibility. The extent to
which these topics feature in the evaluation depends on the nature of the game and
its objectives.
z The evaluation may also bring to the fore the connections between the interpersonal
dynamics and the tasks and structures of the game. It may help to have them create
graphic representation.
z Finally, they should be asked to state what they learnt or unlearnt from the experience
and how the details and the process were different from what they expected. Above
all, it is important to link the outcomes to the objectives with which the exercise had
begun.
z What must be avoided in this type of evaluation is to make comparisons between
the performances of different teams. There are no winners in this educational game.
The actual winner is the one who learnt the most from the activity. It is possible that
some participants may not be able to express their learning in specific terms but they
might have got the most from their participation.
6.7 LABORATORY TRAINING
The laboratory method provides the participants with an intensive experience of sharing,
participation and change through carefully designed exercises and training events, important
to the participants and relevant to the programme. In specific cases, the group is constituted
solely for the purpose of laboratory training. But the method is now being extensively used
as an important constituent of a number of training programmes in which the focus is on
development of competencies. To achieve optimum results from the method, in both the
above-mentioned cases, it is desirable that, for the period of the laboratory, the group is
insulated from its normal routine. This is suggestive of the intensity and exclusiveness of
the experience. For the purpose of intensity of experience and interaction, the number of
the participants should be kept at 12–15 participants. If a training group is larger, it may be
divided into subgroups for purposes of laboratory training.
Laboratory training engenders changes in work and other aspects of the life of an individual
through a process of affecting one another. It helps the participants in seeking and using the
resources of others to enhance their own learning, as also reciprocally becoming an effective
resource for others’ learning. It is a real experience in which the basic ingredients are the par-
ticipants’ own experiences and their behaviour. The method seeks to establish a linkage
between values, behaviour and actions of an individual. Changes that are brought about
through the laboratory are of a more permanent nature. These changes are not diverse; they
are instead in harmony with one another and they form an integrated whole, giving more
meaning and purpose to an individual’s life. They go a long way in shaping her work and
personal life. Thus, the changes are towards a more integrative and adoptive individual.
They include the ability of an individual to modify the environment to remove discrepancies
and other dissonant factors and achieve greater congruence between actions and behaviour.
Laboratory training also creates a special environment for learning about oneself, inter-
personal relations and group and organisational dynamics. It is designed to improve the
way an individual understands her social environment, develops alternative behaviours for
relating to it and chooses the most appropriate one from among the alternatives. It is an
engrossing, demanding and valuable process that provides the individual with a method of
learning how to learn and grow as an individual.
6.7.1 Goals and Outcomes
The goals of laboratory training and the expected outcomes from it are dependent on its
nature. They determine the relative emphasis on particular individuals in the group, the func-
tioning of the group or the working of the organisation to which the members of the group
belong. Therefore, it will be helpful to discuss the learning goals of laboratory training under
these three areas.
Individuals
z The success of the exercise depends on the ability and willingness of the participants
to share their ideas and feelings openly and without inhibitions. Openness is also
reflected in the capability of an individual to be appreciative and responsive to the
feelings and ideas of others in the group. This stimulates a process in which free flow
of information and feelings across the group is not only facilitated but also encouraged.
z A key objective of laboratory training is to promote a process of self-examination
and self-awareness. It means developing ability in an individual to get in touch with
her own self, not in a superficial manner but genuinely and with commitment. The
method provides opportunities to an individual to reflect on her feelings and ideas
within herself, including those about others.
z An individual is also assisted in exploring and even establishing a relationship be-
tween knowledge and competencies that she possesses, on the one hand, and her
values and emotions, on the other. Another area in which an individual is persuaded
to work is to recognise discrepancies between action, behaviour and feelings and

make an effort to bring about greater congruence between these elements. An in-
dividual is also assisted in effecting changes in her behaviour and actions. She is
enabled to widen the repertoire of behaviour, competencies, and so on, and she
learns to perform the tasks in new and different ways.
z An important outcome of the training is the integration of various parts of an indi-
vidual. There is greater coherence and coordination between different facets of an
individual’s personality. This helps in establishing a distinct and composite identity
for her.
Groups
z When the emphasis in the laboratory training is on the group (living in a group set-
ting), the exercise aims to highlight different dimensions of group life and famil-
iarises the participants with various group processes. It focuses on the role individuals
can play in building a group and making it effectively functional.
z The laboratory training copes with group-related issues such as interpersonal com-
munication, power play and its impact on group life, interpersonal conflicts, stages
in group development and the influence of norms and structure on the life of a group
and its functioning. The need for fostering and nurturing healthy interpersonal
relationships in the group is stressed. The interaction is not based on theories and
concepts but on live issues that the participants bring with them to the sessions. Their
experiences of working in various groups provide the necessary data for discussion.
At the end of the exercise, they carry with them new awareness and insights into these
issues and possibly an agenda for change. This learning enhances interpersonal ef-
fectiveness of individuals, thus, contributing to the growth of the group to which
they belong.
z The training group or T-group, as it is generally referred to in the context of
laboratory training, acts as a microcosm of the world. It focuses on conflicting
choices concerning dimensions such as authority and control, group membership
and leadership, assertion and passivity and other existential dilemmas posed by free-
dom of choice. It also establishes a linkage between individual interests and group
interests.
z Thus, in laboratory training, though individual learning occurs, the emphasis is on
helping the participants become more effective problem solvers, group discussion
leaders, organisers of work groups and builders of group cohesion. They become
better members of a team.
Organisations
A laboratory also provides opportunities to the participants to look beyond the group and
into the organisation to which they belong. The training programme aims to bring about a
better understanding of an organisation by helping the participants examine and interpret

the philosophy, working procedures and style of functioning of the management in the light
of its actions and behaviour. The issues that are likely to come up for discussion relate to
team building, communication network, interpersonal relations, allocation of responsibilities,
competitiveness, teamwork and status in the organisation. Organisations use human rela-
tions training to improve the quality of individual leadership and membership. This is part
of the management of human resources exercise in achieving organisational goals and to
provide individual work satisfaction. Laboratory training in human relations is one way
of addressing this problem. It does so by applying scientific knowledge in the behavioural
sciences to leadership training.
6.7.2 Factors Affecting Laboratory Training
In laboratory training, the participants play themselves. They work on problems that they
initiate and have experienced or are likely to confront on return from the laboratory. The
principles and orientations of laboratory method and the conditions for laboratory learning
determine the content and nature of training activities and exercises. Some factors that
influence the process in laboratory training are discussed below.
Here-and-now Focus
A major focus in every laboratory programme is on releasing significant here-and-now

experiences and data for analysis, conceptualisation, practice and generalisation. Thus, im-
mediate experiences of the participants provide the basic ingredients for learning. An
objective analysis takes place in light of the perceptions of others in the group and the events
presented by them. These encounters should be presented in a raw form for others to have
an objective view of it. Generalisations and conceptualisation should be made only after
these are duly processed and reflected.
There-and-then Focus
At appropriate times, attention needs also to be directed towards situations away from the
laboratory, more particularly, to those situations in which the participants have lived and are
likely to live again after the laboratory exercise has ended. If learning and behavioural gains
begun in the training programme are to be transplanted from the island of the laboratory to
the mainland of life and work, participants’ attention needs to be focused on the relationship
that exists between ‘here and now’ and ‘there and then’. This ordinarily involves the diagnosis
of forces at home that are resistant to or supportive of better ways of functioning. It involves
assistance in developing realistic commitments to continue such diagnosis in collaboration
with associates at home.
Value and Social Perspectives
In the associational life of the laboratory, participants are challenged to reassess the adequacy
of their value orientations and value perspectives as well as their motivation, knowledge and
skills. This analysis may even threaten their self-concepts. The participants ordinarily need
support in focusing reconstructive attention upon discrepancies among the differing values
they live by in various aspects of their lives or between their interpersonal values and those
implicit in this orientation to larger social issues and problems.
Use of the Tools and Skills of Inquiry
Learning and growth can be materially advanced as individuals improve their skills in
inquiry—in data collection and analysis, diagnosis, experimentation and evaluation. Skills
of inquiry may also help them to be more competent in assessing forces that effect changes
in situations away from the laboratory and in enlisting others in joint assessment and modi-
fication of these forces.
Self as an Agent of Change
Unless individuals perceive their need for continued learning and growth and accept re-
sponsibility for initiating steps towards learning; unless they have reduced internal barriers
and blocks to their learning; and unless they have learnt to receive help from others and to
give help to others in the processes of changing, little continuing learning or change will take
place within them or within the social system of which they are a part outside the laboratory.
The laboratory assists the participants to see themselves actually and potentially as agents of
change.
6.7.3 Conditions for Laboratory Training
Willingness to be Part of the Laboratory
It is important that the members who constitute the group for laboratory training should
be willing to be a part of it. If an individual is sponsored by an organisation for the training
programme but is an unwilling participant, most of the meaning and substance of the ex-
perience will be lost on her. Participation in a laboratory is very challenging and demands
100 per cent involvement from every participant. If an individual comes with mental blocks
and is unwilling to be persuaded by the trainers and other participants to open up and share,
she will not gain anything from this participation. The maxim that ‘you get out of training
as much as you are willing to put in’ is extremely true in laboratory training.
Objective and Honest Approach
The participants should be objective and honest in their approach. If each one comes with a
personal agenda that is not congruent with that of others, there can be difficulty in carrying
forward the process of open and frank exchange and sharing. As a result, it will be difficult
for the group to realise its objectives. Each participant may have a personal objective to
realise during the exercise, but these should not be discordant and should be within the
overall goals for the training. This method thrives if every participant is trying hard to be of
help to others in coping with the issues at hand and willing to invest. It is only then that each
will become a resource for the others to perceive and understand her actions and behaviour.
Until individuals have and use the opportunity to freely share the way they see and do
things, they have little basis for improvement and change.
Feedback
Using the resource of others and letting others use you as one for growth and change
involves receiving and giving constructive feedback. The participants learn by presenting
themselves as openly and authentically as possible in a situation in which they can receive
from others clear and accurate information about the effectiveness of their behaviour—a
feedback system that informs them of how their behaviour is perceived and judged and the
consequences thereof. Similarly, they should be willing to provide feedback to others that is
not disparaging and hurtful but constructive and helpful.
Conducive Atmosphere
An atmosphere of trust and non-defensiveness is necessary if people are to feel free to present
them and to accept, utilise and offer feedback and suggestions. The establishment of an en-
vironment that is psychologically and emotionally safe and supportive of one another is one
of your primary tasks. You must ensure that the participants contribute to maintaining this
environment. The points of view of others, their behaviour and actions are not criticised to
belittle or deride others, but as part of the role to assist them in improving their actions and
behaviour and bringing about desirable changes.
Participants’ Ability to Learn from the Experience
It is important that the participants should possess the necessary skills to learn from the ex-
periential mode, through presentation, feedback and experimentation. They should have the
ability to draw the learning points from this highly focused and intensive encounter. They
should draw from their knowledge to understand their experiences and to draw generalisa-
tions and conclusions from them. The process involves the competence to recall relevant and
useful experiences for the group and present them in a coherent manner that is understood
by other participants. Using every opportunity is the key to growth and change.
Changes that Have Potential for Application
Unless learning can be applied in the real-life situations, the changes are not likely to be
enduring or effective. Attention should be given to helping individuals draw a plan of action
to use their learning after they return to their organisations. The participants should get an
opportunity to practise the new behaviour so that they become comfortable with the changes
they have decided to bring in their behaviour. Unless they have possibilities of trying out the
new behaviour, individuals would be inhibited in utilising the feedback they receive.
6.7.4 Role of the Trainer
z In view of the special nature of this method, it is necessary that the trainer who is
responsible for it should possess not only the required expertise and skills to handle
the training activities and exercises but also have the ability to cope with situations
arising out of them. Sometimes, especially in the human relations laboratory, the
situations can become very difficult and sensitive, requiring extremely careful and deft
handling.
z A trainer who accepts a role for laboratory training assumes responsibility for her
behaviour and its consequences as well. She brings to the workshop her own set of
personal and professional values and needs, that should be made explicit whenever
appropriate. Because of the trainer’s role and the position and power invested in
her in overseeing the process, there is always a possibility for manipulation, seeking
personal gains and acting on the basis of a personal agenda. In addition, the need to
be seen as a competent trainer can severely restrict the flexibility of the trainer and
make her more rigid in her approach. All trainers have this need though in varying
degrees. It is important to be aware of this and be able to manage it.
z A distinction should be made between content and process. Trainers who are inclined
to assume advocacy positions of their views and opinions on the issues to be dealt
with are not making effective use of their abilities and means. If trainers value the
process that enables participants to express, clarify and examine their issues in terms
of the consequences, they can utilise their resources in the appropriate direction.
z Very little change occurs in an individual unless she is motivated and ready to change.
When dealing with highly personal and often ingrained attitudes of individuals
about themselves, any suggestion of a need for change can be threatening to people’s
feeling of security about themselves, their lifestyles and even behaviour patterns. In
part, the problem of motivation is met if the participants join the group of their own
volition. In cases where the participants are nominated much against their wish,
their resistance and even hostility need to be legitimised and accepted. You have
to then work on their attitudes to make them willing members of the group. This
should be handled early in the programme, otherwise their continued indifference
or disaffection will pose a big problem for you and even affect the entire group.
z Crucial to the success of human relations training is the demonstration of a set of
values through the trainer’s behaviour, the design of the components of training and
the interventions used by the trainer in directing the experiences. There must be
complete harmony between what is being communicated to the participants and
how the exercise is being conducted. Since the training is directed towards training
individuals to make free choices on the basis of data, to be open and authentic, to
be aware of the feelings and relationships, and to experiment, the trainer should act
openly and authentically, talk straight, be willing to accept and use feedback, search
for data and support the process of making choices. Out of this value position, she
should avoid being manipulative or controlling, or setting herself up as authority
figure or advocating a dogma.
z One of the special tasks for a trainer is to create, with the help of the participants, a
special learning climate that within itself models values of human relations. By con-
firming individuals as unique, self-respecting people, a sense of trust is developed.
This is furthered by the trainer’s commitment to training inquiries, to supporting
the individual’s right to choice and to experiment with new behaviour. Much of the
criticism levelled at human relations training is the result of trainers unprofessionally
violating these values by using their authority to force the participants into activities
that militate against the objectives and spirit of the exercise either overtly or covertly.
Coercion of any kind has no place in human relations training. The quality of the rela-
tionship between the trainer and the participants has a great influence on the success
of the experience.
6.8 INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENTS
In training programmes where development of skills/competencies in the participants is a

key objective, individual or group assignments constitute a significant part of the training
strategy. Assignments constitute a highly active form of learning. The main focus, though, in
practical assignments is on development of skills and competencies in the participants. These
skills could either be physical or be mental. A participant may, for instance, learn how to run
a machine or how to prepare a tool. For developing mental skills, the participants may be
given exercises like planning a project or a survey, preparing an action plan for the organ-
isation. The nature of assignments may vary from a simple to a more complex one, like
planning and conducting a survey. Sometimes, the exercise may include practical work.
The participants may work on the task individually or in small, manageable groups. Obvi-
ously, the groups should have not more than three to four persons, to enable each member
of the group to get fully involved in the assignment and contribute to the accomplishment of
the task. Each member of the group must get first-hand experience of working on a project
and become fully conversant with all dimensions of working on that project.
As the exercise demands a high level of involvement from the participants, it is necessary
to ensure their personal commitment to it. This is not always easy as some of the participants
may not be prepared or even willing to undertake the exercise that involves heavy-duty re-
sponsibilities. As these activities consume a lot of time and require considerable effort on
the part of the participants, it is necessary to plan them properly and with clearly specified
details. Depending on the nature of the assignment, the exercise may be arranged within the
programme itself or the participants may be sent out on specially selected projects, away from
the venue.
6.8.1 Role of the Trainer
z In using this training method in a training programme, you can follow two ap-
proaches. You may decide to provide comprehensive instructions to the participants,
necessary for carrying out the task. In such cases, the assignment may be preceded
by a session in which the group is fully briefed about the work it has to carry out
and the responsibilities the participants should share. The trainers may even arrange
a demonstration or an audio-visual presentation to familiarise them with various as-
pects of the assignment. In brief, the group is prepared to carry out the task in the
prescribed manner.
In the other approach, the participants receive very little input before taking up
the assignment. They are given only its broad features and then left free to determine
their course of action. They may draw on the knowledge acquired earlier or make use
of their previous experience. In such cases, the process of working on the assigned
tasks is observed, either by the trainers or by specially deputed observers. The results
are then appraised and the approach adopted by the participants is reviewed, either
in the larger group or in one-on-one discussion. It is, however, necessary that after
this review, the participant should be given another opportunity to carry out the task
in the manner outlined by the trainers. Only then will it be possible to develop the
skills/competencies for which the exercise was organised.
z In any case, the briefing should also focus on mutual objectives, planning cooperation
and working in a team, reinforcing each other’s efforts.
z The method presupposes the trainer’s trust in the capacity and initiative of the par-
ticipants to carry out the task without her direct and substantive intervention.
6.8.2 Advantages of the Method
z Although in the pre-assignment briefing or instructions the trainer lays down what
is expected of the efforts of the participants or specifies the end product, the route to
be followed in reaching it is generally left to them. Thus, they have a lot of oppor-
tunities to display initiative and creativity. There is also an element of exploration
and discovery in completing the assignment. The participants have to deal with the
situations arising during the exercise themselves although assistance and guidance is
at hand through the trainer. Therefore, besides the working skills, they also enhance
their coping and problem-solving skills.
z The learning activity is devised to enable the participants to control their own learn-
ing process and learn at their own pace. This aspect is particularly valid in the case
of individual assignments.
z There is an element of ‘experience’ in practical assignment. It is closer to reality
although the environment is risk free and non-threatening. The conditions are con-
trolled and simulated. As the consequences are monitored and corrected, the learning
is substantial. In individual assignments, singularity of a participant is marked even
more sharply.
z There is a great deal of involvement among the participants in their own learning
and all their senses are called into play. As a result, the motivational level in the as-
signment is generally very high. This makes the learning much more enduring.
z It is also a good method to assess the performance of the participants, provide feed-
back on a number of their personal attributes such as attitude to work and range of
skills.
z This method also provides a useful basis for developing performance tests to ap-
praise how much the participants have assimilated through prior learning activities
in the training programme.
6.8.3 Writing Assignments
Individual or group assignments can also take the form of written tasks on a particular topic
or on issues related to a training area. In this form, they aim to enhance the cognitive learn-
ing of the participants, help them consider the topic or issues from different standpoints
or develop their skills in systematic thinking and in presenting their thoughts in a succinct
manner. The trainer may decide to provide a broad framework and leave them free to engage
in reading, research, exploration or discussion in completing the task.
6.9 GROUP DISCUSSION AS A METHOD OF TRAINING
This is a popular method with most of the trainers because of its adaptability and wider
application. It can be used as a stand-alone method or in combination with other training
methods. It can take the form of the whole group sitting together and discussing a topic or
the larger group divided into subgroups or syndicates. Group discussion aims at a structured
but informal exchange of knowledge, ideas and perceptions among the participants on any
issue, topic or sub-topic. Contributions are pooled together and examined in terms of their
relevance and validity to the discussion objectives. If group discussion is planned and or-
ganised in a structured way and certain essential conditions are met, it can provide a highly
enriching and stimulating experience to the participants. Misconceptions can be identified
and corrected. They can develop new insights into various issues under discussion within the
group. Group discussion induces a high level of participation, enhancing the involvement of
the group in the learning process. This can result in changes in behaviour and actions if the
participants are willing to learn from their interaction with others and change. The learning
process in this case is also concrete and observable.
There are some conditions under which a group functions more effectively to realise its
objectives. On the other hand, there are certain behaviours in the group that can impede
the group process and limit its ability to accomplish the assigned tasks. The training team
should be aware of these and take appropriate steps to ensure that the group stays on course
to realise its objectives. In a group discussion, there is a sense of equal status that improves
self-worth and self-image.
6.9.1 Objectives of Group Discussion
Broadly speaking, group discussion can be organised with two ends in view. It can be process-
oriented where the emphasis is on promoting interaction among the participants, encouraging
them to open up and express themselves freely and frankly; or result oriented where the stress
is on concrete and specific outcomes or results. These two objectives, however, are not ex-
clusive to each other and in most cases the trainers set up small groups with these dual pur-
poses. Specifically, a group discussion may be organised with one or more of the following
objectives:
z Produce a range of options or solutions, addressing a particular problem or an issue.

z Generate a pile of ideas by examining issues in greater depth, looking at different
dimensions of these issues.
z Broaden the outlook of the participants through cross-fertilisation and exposure to
new and different experiences and ideas and enrich their understanding of the issues
under discussion. The participants are in a position to compare their experiences with
those of others and examine their validity.
z Develop their skills in interpersonal communication and in expressing their views in
a clear and concise manner. Group discussion provides opportunities to the partici-
pants to share their views in a comparatively secure and non-threatening environ-
ment. Some participants feel safer and more comfortable interacting in smaller
groups than in a large group. Through participation in smaller groups they may
acquire confidence and, later, feel encouraged to participate more freely and with
fewer inhibitions in larger groups. Participation in smaller groups, therefore, can
provide some participants a stepping stone to more substantive contribution in the
big group.
z It is also an effective means of changing attitudes through the influence of peers in
the group. The participants can be encouraged to develop greater respect for the
points of view and opinions of others and become more tolerant.
z It is also a valuable means of obtaining feedback for the training team on self-
expression, motivation level and personal traits of the participants and characteristics
of the group. Thus, it helps in generating personal data on individuals in a training
group.
6.9.2 Guidelines for Organising Group Discussion
The trainer is the scene setter and sets up the group. Specifically, you should look into the fol-
lowing aspects:
Setting up the Groups
z Group discussions can be both exciting and lively or uncomfortable and deadly.
As the fear of speaking in front of the group is widespread, it is important that the
discussions can be held in syndicates. Most people feel more comfortable participating
in discussion in smaller groups. One variation can be that the group is first divided
into smaller groups and then they report to the total group. The process can also be
discussed. This will also help in better bonding among the participants.
z In setting up simultaneous groups, you have three broad options. All the groups may
be given similar tasks or assignments. The purpose is to generate a wide range of
ideas, views and opinions on a topic, thus enhancing the scope of discussion or arrive
at an array of solutions to a problem. Each group may have its own outlook and way
of approaching the problem or the issue. The group reports may reinforce views of
one another or present different, sometimes even contradictory, views. In any case,
the sharing is very enriching and productive. The groups may also be given tasks
that are related and, in fact, complementary—for instance, aspects of an issue or
sub-topics of a bigger topic. The aim is to provide for in-depth discussion on a
smaller, more focused area within a relatively shorter time. The group reports are
presented in the plenary and consolidated to provide a comprehensive, wholesome
perspective. The third possibility is that the groups are given different unrelated
tasks, for later sharing in the plenary.
z Your next task is to set out specifically and explicitly the intended outcomes from
the exercise. It is important that all members should be clear about these. It is often
helpful to post a written statement of the objectives in the room where all can see it as
they work together. This provides direction to the group work and keeps the mem-
bers on track. The discussion is also more focused.
z The composition of the groups also needs attention. Each group should be properly
balanced if you want them to be equally productive, with the right proportion and
combination of strong contributors, shy introverts, logical thinkers, analysts and
happy followers. The size of the group is also crucial to a good and effective discus-
sion. It will not be advisable to use this method for large groups. Eight or nine par-
ticipants could be considered a good functioning group.
z The group should select its own discussion leader but once this has been done, your
task is to brief the leader on her/his role to lead the group to the desired objectives.
Planning a Group Discussion
z It is necessary that the group discussion should be planned in a proper way for maxi-
mum productivity and for realising the learning outcomes.
z You may give specific guidelines for the discussion or the group may be left free to
decide on the way it wants to discuss the topic or the issues.
z Open-ended and carefully worded questions from you can generate an interesting
discussion. When the group functions together and reaches a conclusion or decides
on a solution, the learning is generally more powerful than when the same things are
conveyed by the trainer.
z You also have the option of either establishing the procedures and ground rules for
the conduct of the exercise or leaving this task to the group to decide. This provides
the frame of reference to the members and the discussion leader.
z Good group discussions do not just happen. Either the trainer must build a climate
that allows participants to feel comfortable enough to participate or the topic must
be so compelling that they cannot remain silent and are fired by an urge to share
and contribute. It is important to structure the situation in such a way that as many
individuals as possible are able to participate. People who speak early in the exercise
can get so involved in the discussion that they continue to speak, oblivious of the fact
that others are not getting an opportunity to share their views. This may discourage a
few participants. On the other hand, those who wait for their turn may become self-
conscious and start censoring their contributions in the light of earlier interventions
by the most articulate. You should set out norms that will prevent such situations.
z The subgroups should also receive guidelines for preparing the report for presenta-
tion in the plenary. This is important because if the reports are prepared and pre-
sented in different styles, comparison or consolidation becomes difficult.
z Physical arrangements for the syndicate groups to meet should be such that the par-
ticipants feel comfortable. This, inevitably, will provide an environment where the
members of group will feel encouraged to share their views.
Dynamics of a Discussion Group
z A few individuals who are more articulate and can communicate well may dominate
the discussion and succeed in imposing their views on the group. Therefore, their
ideas may be reflected as the views of the entire group. There are numerous situations
when some individuals take over the discussion to the extent that they practically
tell the group what should go into the report without giving consideration to the
views of others or the contents of the discussion. Some participants who are either
not interested in the proceedings of the group discussion or too lazy to participate
are happy to go along with this approach. This defeats the very purpose of using this
method.
z The group may not fully perceive the objectives and meaning of the deliberations or
comprehend the issues that need to be focused upon. Therefore, the task may not be
carried out on the desired lines. It is also easy for the group or at least for some indi-
viduals to get carried away from the main objectives by something that appears to
be of greater interest and importance.
z The group may be so overwhelmed by the desire to complete the task in double quick
time and to achieve results, that the group process that is central to this method may
get ignored or sidelined. Sometimes, when simultaneous groups get the same or
similar tasks, an element of competition may be introduced among them. This has
positive as well as negative implications. This may motivate the members for better
performance, thus enhancing the quality of the discussion. However, if the results or
the output become the overriding consideration in the group, the process suffers.
z A group discussion can turn into an endless debate unless it is properly organised
and controlled. It can turn into a slinging match of arguments and counterarguments
between some individuals, with other members reduced to the role of spectators.
Some members may come with hidden agenda but a properly organised and moni-
tored discussion can frustrate their efforts to use the group for realising their ulterior
motives. Some members may display entrenched attitudes and use the forum for
settling personal scores.
Role of the Discussion Leader
It is important that in evolving her/his role and determining the degree of control that s/he
should exercise during the discussion, the leader should fully comprehend the dynamics of
the group, referred to in the earlier paragraphs. Some of the key tasks that a discussion leader
will be expected to carry out in relation to her/his role are indicated below.
z The discussion leader’s main task is to ensure that the objectives of the discussion, set
out earlier, are met and the exercise provides a meaningful and fulfilling experience
for the members of the group.
z The leader’s role is to stimulate the members, ensure that the focus of the discussion
remains on the issues or the topic and encourage participation by most members of
the group. All participants should be persuaded to express themselves freely. And
for this she needs to generate and sustain an appropriate environment.
z The leader should not control the discussion but guide it in a way that it remains on
course. The ownership of the process and the contents should be devolved to the
group. This will enhance the interest and motivation of the members. She must also
make sure that the members remain persistently committed to the group task and its
objectives.
z As mentioned earlier, in any discussion group, some members are inclined to control
or dominate the discussion. The leader must skilfully restrain the more aggressive
and dominant elements. She needs to determine what stimulus, assistance or support
is required to make the silent and the reluctant assert and participate more actively in
the deliberations.
z The leader should make certain that the discussion stays on course and the focus
remains on the agreed agenda. She is the first to notice digressions, if any, from the
key issues and the discussion format and should take appropriate corrective mea-
sures, when needed. Useful contributions should be optimised and inappropriate
comments and interventions limited, without discouraging the concerned members.
This suggests a sensitive approach and tactful handling of the group. There will be
occasions when she may be called upon to clarify issues and remind the group of the
objectives for which it was meeting.
z It is a huge help to the group if the discussion leader, periodically, highlights and
summarises key points of discussion. This keeps the focus on the main issues and
facilitates the finalisation of the group report.
z The discussion leader needs to guarantee that the discussion remains as close to
reality as possible. Sometimes, the group may be tempted to move into an unreal
world and get away from practical solutions or decisions. The discussion leader has
an important role here.
z The group may also require the assistance of the discussion leader in the preparation
of the group report.
Preparation of Group Reports
z Group reports are prepared in accordance with the objectives for which the discussion
was set up.
z You should provide guidelines to the groups for preparing the group reports. If the
reports are prepared in an agreed format, it facilitates presentation and consolidation.
The report should be a sincere and correct record of the deliberations. If there are
conflicting views in the group on any issue or there is lack of consensus on solutions
and decisions, these points should be properly reflected in the report.
z In most cases, the group reports are not expected to be in the form of a narrative, ex-
plaining the process of discussion. They are developed around the core points, bring-
ing out the main substance of the discussion. In accordance with the guidelines, the
key points may be posted on a flip chart to facilitate discussion in the plenary.
z However, if the objectives of setting up discussion groups are to promote interper-
sonal communication among the participants and encourage them to open up and
share, reports will focus on these aspects.
Presentation and Consolidation of Group Reports
If group discussion has been held in the subgroups or syndicates, the next step would be to
ask these subgroups to present their reports to the total group. The trainer should set out a
procedure for presentation and discussion of these reports to make it interesting, less time-
consuming and productive. Several variations are possible. In cases where the subgroups have
discussed the same topic or issues, it is desirable that each group is asked to display the key
points on a flipchart. This can be followed by brief presentation. Thus, each group gets an
opportunity to report the essence of its discussion without the fear of getting overshadowed
by the group having the first chance for the presentation. It has generally been seen that in
such cases, after the first report is presented, the participants lose interest in subsequent pre-
sentations, as some of the points may be common. Therefore, it is important that you adopt
a strategy that avoids this situation. If the groups have discussed different topics or issues, you
have a number of options. You may adopt any procedure, appropriate to your requirements.
6.9.3 Limitations of the Method
z If the group is large, all the members may not get the opportunity to participate and
contribute to the discussion.
z If the task is not clearly defined, the discussion may lack focus and, as a result, it may
be unproductive.
z Difficulties can arise if the leader is unskilled in guiding the discussion and/or not
familiar with the topic or the issues.
z Some members may dominate and, in a way, hijack the discussion.
z As this is a group task, some members may take it easy and not feel constrained to
participate.
6.10 PANEL DISCUSSION
A panel discussion represents a variation on the structured discussion format. Sometimes,

it is also referred to as colloquium or symposium. This format is used to present, before the
group, views and opinions on a specific topic or issue through a panel of experts or specialists.
In an effective panel, each speaker concentrates on a single sub-topic or an aspect of the issue
under discussion. The presentations are short lectures rather than a long one by a single
speaker. Each presentation has to be distinct but complementing other presentations so that
the participants get the complete picture of the topic or the issue. Some overlap may also
become unavoidable although the speakers should take care to keep it to the minimum. The
method can also be used for presenting divergent or even conflicting views on an issue or
topic, exposing the participants to a range of views.
6.10.1 Suitability of the Method
Generally, this method is most appropriate if the outcome is related to development of par-
ticipants’ knowledge on a specific issue or topic, or the objective is to expose them to a wide
range of views and opinions of different experts or specialists in the area.
6.10.2 Selection of the Panellists
The next step is to select panellists, who are experienced and well versed with the topic. This
is an important decision. You may be keen to bring in high-level experts or well-known
specialists in the area or the field. It is, however, important that the level of the panellists
should be consistent with the requirements of the group, its level and standards. Sometimes,
the high credentials of the panellists and their lack of rapport with the participants can create
mental blocks and barriers in effective two-way communication. It may inhibit the partici-
pants’ involvement in the discussion. One possibility is that all the panellists should not be
from outside and at least one of them should be an in-house trainer. Another variation can be
that some of the participants may be invited to be on the panel. Here, it is necessary to sound
a word of caution. The selected participants may consider themselves to be more know-
ledgeable than others and this can, sometimes, create a problem within the group, and even
affect the larger training process.
6.10.3 Contents of the Presentation
It is recommended that the training team should decide on the sub-topics and assign them
to the panellists, keeping in view areas of their special expertise. It is also useful to know in
advance the key points of their presentations. It is not unusual to see the panellists dealing with
issues in a manner that is not in keeping with the learning needs of the group. Therefore, you
must make sure that the presentations are within the parameters of the topic and consistent
with the learning objectives. To the extent possible, overlapping should be avoided.
6.10.4 Physical Arrangements
The physical arrangements for the sessions are also significant. The panellists are generally
seated, facing the group with the moderator (or the chair) of the discussion seated in the
middle. It is important to establish the format and rules for presentations before the discussion
gets under way. This will minimise interventions by the moderator or chair of the panel.
6.10.5 Role of the Moderator
The moderator has a key role in the panel discussion. She must ensure that the presentations
lead to the realisation of the learning objectives. Although she is not responsible for the
contents, she has the responsibility to control the process, including the discussion. If the pro-
cess is also handed over to the panellists, there is no assurance of the outcome of the exercise
and once it is over there is no scope for retrieval. The moderator should also be in a position
to stimulate the group for participation. She should not hesitate to intervene if the exercise
is not going in accordance with the procedures set out earlier. But this should be done in a
discreet and subtle manner so as not to offend the panellists. It is important that the role of
the moderator should be clear to the panellists and the group to avoid any misunderstanding
between the panellists and the moderator.
6.10.6 Inadequacies of the Method
z One major problem with many panels is that they tend to be so structured that the
learner participation is minimal. As a consequence, the panel discussion can end up
as a very formal method of training.
z The control of the contents and the process rests heavily with the panellists or the
moderator. If there are slip-ups, it is often very difficult to salvage the situation.
z If the panellists are not effective communicators, the session can be boring and dull.
z Group participation is minimal. You can, however, enhance the involvement of the
group by providing for a question–answer session at the end of the presentations.
The group may also be permitted to seek clarifications from the speaker as soon as
she finishes her/his presentation. This will open up a channel of communication and
lend a degree of informality to the whole exercise. It will be helpful if the group is
provided with core points that the panellists are likely to present. They will be able
to follow the presentation better and also prepare well for the discussion.
z If the sub-topics or the contents overlap beyond reasonable limits, the presentations
can be very boring for the audience and, possibly, even a waste of time.
6.11 BRAINSTORMING
Brainstorming is a specialised form of discussion method that can be used in a training situa-
tion. Many trainers believe that brainstorming means a random and unstructured way of
generating ideas and solutions. This is far from the truth. Brainstorming is certainly not a
straightforward method of decision making or problem solving. At the heart of this method is
the principle that as ideas or solutions are proposed, comments and evaluation are suspended
until the time this step is completed and the group is ready to move on to the next step of
analysis. It is also based on the premise that it is not good to shoot down an idea or proposal
without properly considering its merits and demerits in an unbiased manner. Another posit
on which this method is based is the principle of synergy. It is possible to generate more
ideas collectively than the sum of the ideas that would be produced individually.
6.11.1 Objectives of the Method
In the context of a training programme, this method may have any of the following objectives.
z Generating a wide range of solutions or options in solving a problem, addressing an

issue/situation or in taking a decision, thus stimulating creativity in the group.
z Developing a positive attitude among the participants by encouraging them to listen
carefully to others, suspend judgement and outright rejection of their ideas and refrain
from negative comments without considering carefully their merits and demerits.
z Encouraging shy and reluctant participants to share their ideas and views without the
fear of getting an immediate negative reaction from other colleagues. The members
can become open about their thoughts and viewpoints.
z Promoting attitudes that will help the participants work more effectively in groups.
6.11.2 Steps in Organising a Brainstorming Session
Learning in this exercise occurs because participants discipline their inputs to the discussion.
Control occurs through instructions and through the discussion leader. The following are the
steps in organising the session.
Generation of Ideas
The starting point is to generate a large number of ideas within a short span of time. Thus,
there is a comparatively greater emphasis on quantity and encouraging members to think and
be creative in generating new ideas, proposals or options. Quality or merit is assessed later lest
it should inhibit or even stifle the process of generation of ideas. It is the task of the discus-
sion leader to ensure that this basic principle is not violated. No discussion should be per-
mitted, except to clarify a thought or statement. It is likely that some of the ideas put forward
by the members may be totally outlandish. But, sometimes, a sound solution may emerge
from proposals that, at the outset, may appear to be impractical or inappropriate. These
ideas may be further worked upon by the group and refined to make them more relevant, in
line with the criteria set out by the group and acceptable to it.
Amending Ideas
The discussion leader can intervene if the ideas expressed need to be amended through elab-
oration, editing or consolidation. She also has the task to assist those who are not in a posi-
tion to appropriately articulate their views. If certain ideas are repeated, the discussion leader
can bring this to the attention of the participant and ask for another option. She should,
however, avoid any analysis at this stage. The leader should also ensure that ideas expressed
earlier should not be opposed or repudiated.
Posting All the Ideas on a Flip Chart
It will be helpful to post all the ideas generated through this exercise on a flip chart. This
will reinforce the contributions of those who have provided their views earlier and serve as
a point of reference and an encouragement for those who follow.
Analysing Ideas
Once all the ideas are posted, the discussion leader should proceed to analyse them, going in
chronological order. It is necessary that until this step, the discussion leader should make it
clear that judgement is suspended and the merits and demerits are not expressed. The an-
alysis takes place in light of the objectives of the exercise and the criteria set by the group.
All factors, which could have any bearing on the final decision of the group, should be duly
considered.
Consolidation of Ideas or Action Planning
Once all the views and ideas put forward by the participants have been analysed, assessed and
accepted, it is time to consolidate them and arrive at conclusions. In case the objective was
to generate suggestions and proposals as part of decision-making process, now is the time
to short list those that have received broad acceptance of the group. Once again members’
views are considered for finalising the decision through consensus. The group is now ready
to undertake the task of formulating the plan of action for implementing the decision.
6.12 PREPARING AND USING TRAINING SUPPORT MATERIALS
As the term suggests, training support materials are usually used in combination or in sup-
port of other training methods. The main objective for using these materials is to enrich the
presentation or promote the learning process. These materials add variety to the presenta-
tion, making it interesting and easy to comprehend. Learning becomes easy. By employing
a variety of materials you are also able to respond to the diverse learning styles of the par-
ticipants. While certain types of support materials can be used in advance, others are used as
part of the training method or the activity.
Essentially, training support materials are resources and, if used properly, they assist a
trainer in accomplishing specific training objectives. This section discusses the use and appli-
cation of these materials in training. It also provides you with general guidelines and sug-
gestions for developing some of the most important types of materials.
Training support materials can vary greatly from simple, trainer-constructed aids to com-
plex, commercially produced materials. Trainers should be aware of both and should use
what meet their needs best. Therefore, a trainer should also be aware of the criteria that are
used to appraise training support materials in the light of her needs, to ensure high quality.
It has, however, been observed that in many extension training situations, commercially
produced materials that meet the specific training needs are not readily available. Therefore,
it is necessary that you plan the session well in advance. Training support materials may be
of different types and forms. These can be classified into two broad categories:
z Audio-visual materials
z Printed materials
6.12.1 Audio-visual Materials
Use of audio-visual materials as a method of training or instruction is well known in the train-
ing world. They are important tools for trainers, either in conjunction with other methods,
such as lecture, or as a stand-alone method for a variety of purposes. These materials provide
an important channel of communication between the trainers and the training group. Audio-
visual aids represent another key element in the transaction between the trainers and the
training group, through a situation, objects, a graph or a diagram. This provides a multi-
sensory approach to training and instruction that can bring a refreshing change in the learn-
ing environment, enhance interest and raise the attention level of the participants.
(For cross-reference see opening paragraphs of Chapter 8 that briefly discuss the relative role of the
trainer in using new technology as training aid.)
What Constitutes Audio-visual Materials?
Audio-visual materials refer to all non-print materials and equipment that are used to produce
visuals and sound that aid in the process of learning and education. For the purpose of this
discussion, we will include commercially produced and printed charts, graphics, and so on.
Some of the commonly used materials are as follows:
z Images, pictures, graphics, diagrams, and so on, presented through black or white
boards, flip charts, cards, printed charts or computer monitors. Transparencies pro-
jected through overhead projector, slides projected through slide projector.
z Motion visuals including films, digital video discs (DVDs), videocassettes, filmstrips
or other materials projected through monitor or screen.
z Models or objects for three-dimensional presentations.
z Audio materials played through cassettes or tapes.
They can be used either individually or in combination with one another.
Advantages of Audio-visual Aids
z These days, DVDs, videos and films are being increasingly used for enhancing the
performance levels of the participants, by stimulating work environment and focusing
attention on the manner in which a task is to be approached or by highlighting the

factors that influence the performance of an individual.
z The participants can relate directly to the visual images and the real sound and it
becomes possible to store this in one’s memory and retrieve it when required. It
makes the construction of events and situations, and perceptions arising out of them,
relatively easier. This assists in comprehension and understanding, thus enhancing
learning. There is specificity about everything that is presented in this manner to the
participants. If they are exposed to a variety of images and sound for longer periods
and in a variety of forms, these become etched in their memory. Through films and
videos, they can be visually transported to a variety of locales over different periods
of time making them more capable of comprehending situations. This process can
be further reinforced by using real sound. This may not be possible with other
methods like field trips or simulations.
z In some cases, presenting audio-visual materials can become a one-way communica-
tion and the participants may not have the benefit of questioning and participating
in the presentation. However, you can promote participation through interaction
during presentation and after it is completed. Make sure that these interruptions do
not affect the momentum and pace of the presentation.
z An advantage, though, is that the materials can always be revisited for clarifying a
point, responding to the queries of the participants and for further reinforcement of
learning. There is, however, the question of time in the programme. Where there
are subsequent sessions to follow, reviewing of the materials may not be a feasible
proposition.
z The use of audio aids adds variety to the presentation. These media may be used as aids
to the lecture, to add content to the programme or may be used to present an audio
or visual case study.
z A well-selected film can vary the pace of the presentation, capture attention more
readily, offer entertainment, provide comic relief, drive home a point better and illus-
trate concepts that cannot readily be observed, as well as provide opportunity for
learning from an expert.
Disadvantages of Audio-visual Materials
z Audio-visual materials are costly and require time, expertise and production resources
for their preparation.
z Many forms of audio-visual materials require equipment for their use and presen-
tation. Overhead projectors, DVD player, computer and monitor, slide projectors,
videotape players and other devices may be necessary. Unavailability of electric
power supply may limit the use of the equipment.
z Most audio-visual equipment requires specific skills to handle them for effective pre-
sentation. All trainers may not possess them.
z Field settings may not be suited for the use of audio-visual materials.
Principles of Using Audio-visual Materials
z The use of audio-visual materials requires a lot of planning and preparation on the
part of a trainer, well in advance of the actual presentation. You must draw up a clear
plan of presentation, decide on how the materials will be used and the manner in
which these will be blended or combined with verbal communication. More sophis-
ticated and complex the materials, more critical it is to plan well in advance.
z Before deciding on the use of these materials, try answering the following questions:
Does the topic or the module lend itself to a presentation using audio-visual
materials?
To what extent will these materials add to the value of my presentation?
Will the use help me realise the objectives in a more effective and learner-friendly
manner?
Is the use of these materials consistent with the overall training methodology and
strategy?
Does it in any way interfere with the training process?
Does it present the information and knowledge in a novel or particularly exciting
way?
Will it provide useful variety?
z Some trainers may be tempted to use these materials just to generate or sustain the
interest of the participants, to do something out of the routine or to take the focus
away from them. These reasons will not justify their application. The prime concern
should be their relevance. Remember, they are aids to your presentation and not a
tool to provide a break to the group. This method cannot be treated as a gimmick.
z The selection of appropriate materials requires your careful consideration. These
should be related to the learning objectives for the training activity and the partici-
pants should be able to see the justification for use of these materials.
z An important consideration in selecting audio-visual materials is your own ability
and skills in handling them. Some trainers take the plunge without bothering to as-
sess their own competence. In these cases, there is a distinct possibility of the presen-
tation going haywire. Some participants will enjoy this discomfiture of the trainer
and her credibility will take a knock. Confidence level of the trainer will be eroded.
Therefore, before deciding on the use of certain materials, take the call on your own
proficiency.
z You must also be convinced that the use of the materials justify the resources—financial,
time and efforts—spent on their preparation. Will the presentation contribute to new
perspectives?
z The materials should also be appropriate to the general level of the group. They
should be able to relate to them in a meaningful way. The use should comply with the
basic principles of adult training and consistent with the overall environment of the
programme. The choice of the visuals or the films should take into consideration
the sensitivities of the group. This is particularly important in multicultural groups.

Avoid courting controversies.
z Much of the success of the presentation depends on how it is integrated into a train-
ing activity. Some products generate excellent discussions but some others require
a lot of direction and assistance from the trainer. The message in a film or a video
presentation may be so subtle that the participants may take time to understand and
digest it. A meaningful discussion can take place only after they comprehend the
message.
z Maintain a consistent format rather than mixing several different ones.
z Another caution relates to the use of a wide range or a large number of visual aids. An
important principle is that this should not be overdone, otherwise it defeats the
very purpose of using visual aids. If a variety of media or aids are used, the trainer
must ensure that it is an integrated presentation that has consistency and a running
thread. Many trainers use so many aids that, sometimes, it becomes difficult for the
participants to follow the presentation. It is important that the visuals should be
simple and used in a way that they do not become cluttered and complex.
z It will be helpful to consider carefully how to introduce the presentation and initiate
discussion. You may take the option of providing a synopsis of the presentation to
the participants.
z Preview all audio-visual aids before presentation. Try out the equipment as well.
6.12.2 Printed Materials
Printed training support materials are materials that are printed on paper. They usually
deal with the issues that either have been covered in a session or are likely to be emphasised
during a training activity that follows. In most cases, printed materials aim at providing
information or enhancing the knowledge of the participants. Before you opt for printed
materials, you should determine in what ways they support the training. These can be used
to brief the participants prior to a training activity or provide background information. They
prepare the participants for a more productive contribution to the training programme.
On the other hand, the materials can also be used to reinforce what has been discussed in
previous sessions, through a different medium. They provide needed details or a summary
of what has been covered earlier. In this sense, the printed materials augment or add to the
value of the presentation, indeed of the training itself.
What Constitutes Printed Materials
Essentially, there are a number of prominent types of printed training materials. These in-
clude the following.
z Handouts
z Learning aids
z Workbooks
z Instructional modules
z Assignment sheets
z Manuals
z Pamphlets
z Study guides
This list is not exhaustive, but it contains the most common types of printed training sup-
port materials available.
Advantages of Printed Materials
z Printed training materials provide an alternative mode for transmitting information

to the participants. This can be in addition to a lecture, discussion or any other train-
ing activity.
z Printed materials can be easily reproduced within a short time period. They can also
be distributed to a large number of participants at a relatively cheap cost.
z These materials can be used in the future, beyond the training session. The materials
can serve as a review or reference materials not only for the participants but also for
the training agency for future training programmes.
z Printed materials can communicate information in far more detail than could be done
in the session. This can be useful for study before or after the session.
z Printed materials can guide learning activities. Handouts and assignment sheets can
focus the participants on important content and learning experiences, thus improving
the effectiveness and usefulness of the training experience.
z Some print materials can be used in self- or independent learning. Self-instruction
modules or instructional pamphlets can be good learning tools.
Disadvantages of Printed Materials
z Preparing high quality and relevant print materials requires a systematic and time-
consuming process. Often, as much time and expertise is necessary for preparing
training materials as in the delivery of training.
z A lot of materials that could be converted into training materials are available but
these are of generic nature. To adapt these to your specific training situation and the
objectives being pursued is not an easy task.
z The reading level of the printed training support materials is often inappropriate.
Pamphlets, technical references and textbooks are often written at a high level de-
signed for scientists or subject matter specialists. These materials may not be ap-
propriate for those working at lower levels.
z The materials may not correspond with the learning styles of some participants.
Some participants have poor reading habits or a different learning style. Therefore,
they may not take interest in reading assignments. They may treat it casually.
z Printed materials may be difficult to locate in many parts of the world. In developed
nations, it may be easier to locate materials than in developing countries. Even if
they are available, they have to be adapted and translated into the local language,
and this takes time and a lot of effort.
6.12.3 Developing Training Support Materials
The development of training support materials is a complex process. Each type of material
has its own characteristics and procedure for development. However, it is possible to set out
a general procedure for the development of print and audio-visual materials. These are as
follows:
z The first task for you is to decide whether the training activity or the presentation
that you are planning requires support materials.
z Once you have established the need for using support materials, the purpose will also
become clear. The purpose should be directly related to the learning objectives for
the training activity or a presentation for which the materials will provide support.
If the objectives are not evident, it is possible that the materials are not needed.
z The decision regarding what type of materials to produce should be directly related
to the purpose of the materials and the training objectives being addressed. Each type
of material will have its own purpose. If these are needed to orient or prepare the par-
ticipants for a training programme, then these may take the form of a package that
has been prepared to give the participants an overview. These may take the form of
an audio cassette tape, brochure, booklet or a small book.
z Another important aspect of your presentation that deserves attention is to know
the training group that you wish to reach. You need to prepare the materials keeping
in view the reading habits of the participants, the levels of their knowledge and skills.
z Usually the purpose of print or audio-visual materials is to provide background in-
formation detailed explanation or a guide for practice or performance. Background
information may be needed to provide the participants with the proper context or
setting, prior to a training activity. This allows them to prepare themselves for the
activity, thus ensuring efficient use of the training time. The materials that you wish
to use should correspond with this requirement.
z Providing detailed information to support training is often a purpose of print ma-
terials. Training sessions are usually limited to the amount of time available. Con-
sequently, a trainer cannot cover every point of information that the participants
should receive. These materials can also be used for providing additional information
to the participants. Thus, you need to prepare the materials accordingly.
z Training support materials can also have the purpose of providing guidance to the
participants in trying out or practising something that is being imparted in the train-
ing. Assignment sheets and learning guides are examples. The participant can use
this list to guide practice.
z Materials for a training activity may take the form of handouts and learning guides.
Handouts are usually short documents that relate to a specific topic being covered
in the training programme. They are given to the participants so that they can follow
the text during training or use them for more in-depth inquiry. These might be
useful in reviewing what has been learnt.
z Materials can also take the form of an aid for learning or carrying out a task. These
are designed to provide guidelines to a participant to perform the task. They may
list steps, ask questions to make her more focused or provide instructions on how to
carry out a particular task.
z Keeping in mind the aforementioned points, prepare an outline of the contents. It
should specify what would be included in the materials. Additionally, it specifies the
order in which topics or major segments of content will be covered.
z Attention should be paid to making the materials attractive to the users of the mater-
ials. An attractive document makes the participant feel more interested in using it.
6.13 TRAINING THROUGH PLACEMENTS
As part of a formal training programme, sometimes, the participants are placed with ap-
propriate organisations or in field settings for a specified period. Training institutes or agen-
cies offering professional or technical courses consider agency or field placements as an
integral component of the training. In fact, these placements are viewed as complementary
to or an extension of the training process. Students studying for a degree in medicine are
expected to work as an intern after completing the formal course before they are considered
for the award of the degree. As part of the training, management trainees are often placed in
actual job settings before they are appointed to specific positions in the organisation. Those
undergoing training in technical trades are placed with appropriate units for on-the-job
experience.
When placement is organised as part of in-service training programme, the objective is
to either reinforce the experience—field practice, working methods, coping competencies,
decision making, team work, and so on—through placements in similar settings or further
enrich (or develop) it by providing opportunities to the participants to work in diverse
settings, with different people and handling a range of unfamiliar problems. In many cases,
the trainers exercise this option to test out the practical aspects of the training delivered
through the sessions.
Such placements may be organised either in the midst of a training programme or at the
end of it. In the former case, it is possible to feed the experiences of the placement back to
the training. This provides the opportunity to discuss the relevance or otherwise of the place-
ment and examine in what ways it has added to the value of those aspects of the training
that were related to the placement. Thus, the placement not only enhances learning but also
assists the training agency in identifying the inadequacies or gaps in training. It may not be
able to bring about the necessary changes immediately, but it can address these concerns
in future training, tuning it to respond more to the requirements of the field. Thus, these
placements have the potential of establishing a linkage between theory and practice. If the
placement is organised at the end of the training, the agency may ask the participants to send
it a report on their experiences, especially with regard to the application of the learning gained
through the training.
When placements are organised as a pre-service exercise, the objective is to expose the par-
ticipants to the rigours and complexities of the job and familiarise them with the environ-
ment that they are likely to encounter when they take up the job, later. The participants carry
out the tasks similar to those that they are expected to perform when they enter a full-time
job. The placements provide the participants opportunities to reinforce and enhance their
knowledge and competencies, acquired during the training. This consolidates the learning.
The training agency and the trainers have their own agenda. They seek to validate the train-
ing contents or the curriculum and locate the gaps. This helps in making the training pro-
gramme more tuned to the requirements in the field.
(For cross-reference see Chapter 1, section on ‘On-the-job training’.)
6.13.1 Preparing for the Placement
From the training agency’s point of view, the placements are a very challenging exercise,
demanding the commitment of a lot of resources in time and personnel. The aim is to pro-
vide scope for action and initiative to the participants and ensure that they have access not
only to various processes relevant to the functioning of the organisation but also to infor-
mation and data that will make the placement a meaningful and productive experience for
them. Some of the specific tasks that an agency should attend to before the placement are
indicated below.
z Perhaps, the most crucial task is the selection of the organisation or identification of
the location for the placement. The selection involves a series of difficult and time-
consuming steps for the training agency. The main aim, of course, is to ensure that
it offers a lot of scope for learning. If it is a big and successful organisation, the par-
ticipants may feel excited about it, but it is possible that they may not get proper
opportunities for the learning and guidance required for making the placement a
worthwhile experience. Sometimes, the personnel of such organisations consider it
an encroachment on their time and routine. This could result in a lot of frustration
for all concerned. On the other hand, if the organisation is small and not too suc-
cessful, the placement may not be very useful for the participant. The participants
may find it difficult to cope with the dynamics of the organisation. Therefore, the
agency has to strike a balance between these two possibilities.
z The agency must ensure that the training covers the full range of dimensions of the
job of the participant. The job could be broken up into specific and identifiable tasks
that the participants are able to grasp and practise. The placement should provide op-
portunities to the participants to acquire sufficient expertise in each of them. At a
later stage of the placement, when the time is suitable, the person responsible for
overseeing the placement should assist the participants in integrating these different
competencies and putting together a composite and inclusive representation of the
job.
z Another important decision is regarding the extent of structure that needs to be
provided for the placement. Should the participants be left to learn on their own
with the possibility of discussing the training-related matters with those in the organ-
isation who are conversant with the responsibilities? Or, should a proper frame-
work be worked out in consultation with the organisation and the participant? It
is, however, important that the time and resources of the organisation should be
committed in a measure that the participant is able to convert the placement into a
useful and productive experience for her. The person responsible for supervising the
placement should possess the necessary skills that are to be transmitted and have the
ability to do so without appearing to be intimidating or overwhelming.
z The participant should be familiar with the learning process established in the place-
ment. She should be able to step back from the day-to-day activities and tasks and
reflect on the learning that has accrued from her participation in these activities and
interaction with related people. She should be in a position to perceive how the job
relates to the working environment and vice versa. She should also be in a position to
make necessary adjustments in dealing with new situations as they arise, ensuring
that the learning process is not interrupted.
z There should be sufficient protection for the participant against errors committed
because of lack of knowledge and skills. It is necessary to get the agreement of the
organisation on this issue. However, as the training process progresses and the par-
ticipant acquires the necessary skills and is ready to work under normal working con-
ditions, this protection should be gradually reduced. In the process, the participant
should be made fully aware of the working conditions that exist in organisations
outside the placement.
z To prepare the participant for exigencies in job, she must be exposed to ideas and
methods beyond the immediate concern of the job.
z There should also be scope for the participant to venture into new territory and take
initiative, where necessary.
z It will be helpful to establish a network of people with similar assignments in other
organisations. The sharing and interaction can foster new ideas and methods for
further enrichment of the experience.
When a participant is placed in a community, the aim is to increase her awareness of the
conditions under which she will be expected to work. This is a method that is used extensively
in training in social development work. The participant is able to observe the functioning
of the community from close quarters and get fully acquainted with its dynamics. She also
acquires the skill of interacting and working with different groups and power centres. For
this placement, the preparations will include introducing the participant to the community
through documents, slides, films or through briefing by those who are familiar with it.
6.14 FIELD TRIP AS A METHOD OF TRAINING
A field trip is a carefully planned and organised visit to an organisation or a field project, ap-
propriate to the learning objectives of the training programme that the participants are
attending. It is not just an observation visit or a ‘tour’ but a training activity designed to
enhance learning. The objective is to provide a first-hand opportunity to the participants to
observe and study certain aspects of functioning of an organisation and relating it to practice.
It provides an understanding of the activities, the working procedures or the management
processes of an organisation, depending on the objectives set out for the trip. It enables the
participant to interact with a real field setting or situation, leading to direct learning. The
experience may stimulate or reinforce classroom learning or inputs, through visual stimulus
and exposure.
A field trip permits learners to experience sensory impressions that could never occur in
classrooms or conference halls. The trip thus assists the generalisation process, permitting
behaviour acquired in an isolated or unnatural environment. It effectively lets people, who
work in a particular setting, comprehend how things work in similar or different settings
and how those working in these organisations are coping with the problems/situations faced
by them. This helps them to appreciate better the working conditions and problems within
their own organisations and helps them to develop a positive attitude towards their job and
people working with them. The participants exposed to this exercise may in the process
realise that they are not the only ones experiencing such difficulties. A field trip may or may
not be a participatory learning experience, depending on how well it is organised. A lot
depends on the nature and extent of preparations that precede the field trip. Expectations
from the trip should be spelled out and the learning objectives established. A mechanism
should be developed to ensure that desired learning takes place.
6.14.1 Organising a Field Trip
For drawing maximum benefits from the field trip, the following steps for organising the
trip are recommended:
z Before the trip is undertaken, the training team should consider its justification and
rationale. The questions that need to be answered are: is the trip necessary at all? If
so, how will it contribute to the realisation of programme objectives? Sometimes,
in incorporating a field trip in the programme, the trainers or the training agency
have a hidden agenda. It may be just a public relations exercise for the agency (in
relation to the organisation to be visited). The training team may introduce this
simply as a different training method or as a change of activity or venue. It could also
be considered an outing for the group or an activity to respond to some expressed
interests of the group. It is also possible that the training team has to catch up with
some backlog of work or needs time to prepare for later sessions.
z As this is a time-consuming activity, the benefits need to be carefully determined.
Only if the training team is satisfied with the usefulness and relevance of the activity,
should it be deemed as an integral part of the programme. The group is entitled to
receive the explanation from the training team on the need and relevance of the trip.
Remember that if the group is not convinced of the objectives of this activity, some
participants would regard it as an excursion, while a few others may even question
the decision to undertake the trip, considering it a waste of time and effort.
z The timing of the visit is of crucial importance. If the learning outcomes from the trip
or the benefits accruing out of it are to be related to certain specific topics or modules,
the visit has to be organised close to the classroom activity. However, if the objective
of the trip is orientation, to provide a basis for later discussions, it could take place in
the earlier stages of the programme. Obviously, it should not be organised in the midst
of a module or a vigorous training activity, requiring high-level involvement of the
participants. It can then disrupt the learning process.
z In deciding the time of the trip, the convenience of the visiting organisation should
also be considered. Sometimes, the trip is organised at a time when the officials of
the organisation who are best equipped to provide the required information and
details on its work are committed elsewhere. As a result, some other official may be
asked to stand in. In such situations, the trip will not yield the desired results.
z If the training team is convinced of the desirability and relevance of the trip, the
next step will be to set out its objectives. The group members should be allowed to
determine, in a mutual exchange, how the trip will contribute to the announced ob-
jectives. They should be clear about what they are expected to get out of it. They
must also be informed that the visit would be evaluated in terms of its benefits,
integrating them with the contents of the pertinent module or topic.
z To facilitate this, the group should be asked to prepare questions and identify areas
around which information must be sought during the trip.
z The participants should be provided with proper information on the organisation to
be visited, especially on the aspects relevant to the learning objectives. Advisedly,
this information should be available to the group well in advance so that it is in a
position to go through it and identify areas and issues for discussion with the offi-
cials of the organisation.
z Preferably, the larger group should be divided into smaller, more functional sub-
groups. Each subgroup should be given a specific task within the overall assignment
for the group to study in a more intense manner. It should prepare a set of questions
to which answers should be provided by the officials of the organisation. If the
areas of inquiry are not decided in advance of the trip, the members of the group
may ask questions that occur to them at the spur of the moment and these may
not be relevant or even appropriate to the objective of the visit. Many a time, the
visiting group faces embarrassment because some members ask questions that are
irrelevant or they are on trivial or extraneous matters. The information gathered by
the subgroups should then be shared during the post-visit session and collated to
bring out the learning points.
z It is also important that after the field trip is over there should be a thorough discus-
sion on the benefits accruing out of the exercise and the learning points emerging.
If the subgroups have been used to gather information, the reports should be shared
so that everyone is fully informed on all aspects of the study.
6.15 DEMONSTRATIONS
A demonstration is an illustrated presentation that requires a trainer to demonstrate to the

participants how to do a thing. She carries out a task or a process through a series of actions
or steps to enable the participants to observe and understand the procedure, principle or
the entire phenomenon. To reinforce the presentation, one or two participants may be
asked to carry out the same activity under her guidance. It is a visual, practical presentation
accompanied by proper inputs and discussion.
This method will suit a wide range of objectives with specific procedure, skill or reflex
behaviour.
6.15.1 Advantages of a Demonstration
z Demonstration has verbal as well as visual components. Therefore, by watching care-

fully, the participants have the opportunity of learning key points.
z The trainer can stimulate participants’ interest by including such elements that
will appeal to their learning faculties. During interaction, they are in a position to
clarify their own learning needs, raise queries and clear their doubts. If properly pre-
sented the demonstration can also motivate people.
z The trainer can control the pace and easily alter it to meet the needs of the group.
The demonstration can be repeated, if necessary.
z It enables the trainer to relate the principles and theories to real-world situations.
The trainer has the option of using the real object.
6.15.2 Disadvantages of a Demonstration
z Required equipment may not always be available or may be too sophisticated to be

used in a real-life situation.
z A demonstration must be properly prepared and organised carefully. If things are

not done correctly, the effect is lost.
z If it is a large group, it may be difficult for all to observe the demonstration. It is,
therefore, necessary to keep the group to a limited number.
6.15.3 Characteristics of a Quality Demonstration
z Provide relevant information to the participants prior to the demonstration, includ-

ing its purpose.
z Carry out the demonstration slowly so that the participants do not miss any key
points. Emphasise special techniques for doing a good job.
z You must ensure that you talk to the group and not to the object or equipment in
front of you.
z Make sure that the demonstration is visible to all members of the group.
z You must maintain communication with the participants, periodically asking them
whether they are following the demonstration and your presentation. You must
make them not only to observe but also to think. You should keep them focused on
the demonstration. Watch out for non-verbal clues from the participants for a feed-
back on how well the demonstration is being received by the participants.
z Summarise the activities of the session.
z Evaluate the learning exercise.
6.15.4 Preparing for a Demonstration
z Plan to keep it short and simple with as few key points as possible. If the demonstration
moves fast and the points are not explained properly it can become boring and the
participants may become disinterested.
z Ensure that the steps are not only logical but also appear to be so to the participants.
z Start from basic concepts and build on this to include difficult steps that the partici-
pants must understand and follow.
z You must double check on your objectives. Is it simply to explain how or also why
and when? Before you start the demonstration, clarify the objectives enabling the
participants to know and focus.
z Plan your introduction carefully. Use the questions to check that the participants
know the concept, the skills and the context before the demonstration begins.
z A training method is a technique or a tool a trainer employs for delivering a

particular topic or module of the training content. The key objective of using a
training method is to facilitate learning by enhancing participation and promoting

interaction and sharing among the participants.
z In selecting a particular training method, the prime considerations are the
intended learning outcomes; ability of the group to make optimum use of the
method, expertise of the trainer in using the method and the facilities available
with the train-ing team.
z Lecture method is perhaps the most conventional and widely accepted method
for transmitting information and knowledge. Although it relies mainly on spoken
words but with advancement in training technology, the trainers now use a range
of audiovisual aids as support materials. The effectiveness of the method can be
enhanced by encouraging participation from the group and making it a two-way
communication. Trainers, the world over, use this method as complementary to
training activities and other interactive methods, for introducing the topic and for
providing inputs.
z The case study method is a popular training method used for transmitting
knowledge through analysis and discussion by sampling a real-life situation with
which the participants are able to identify.
z The data included in the case should be realistic. Before writing a case, it is
important to set out the purpose of using this method. The learning outcomes
from the exercise should be specified and the issues and problems that would
form the core of the case need to be identified. The case should be written in a
language that is understood by all members of the training group.
z The way the case is presented to the group and the manner in which the discussion
is guided are crucial elements for meaningful and productive outcomes from the
exercise.
z The conduct of a role-play is based on simulation of a situation or circumstances
that are relevant to the work of the participants. Therefore, role-play is not
theoretical but a ‘live’ experience. The emphasis is on developing skills of the
participants in the areas of problem solving and decision making. They are enabled
to develop insights into the problems that they are likely to confront in their job
situations and related processes.
z To generate participants’ interest in the exercise, the situation around which it
is developed should be of concern to them. It should be challenging enough to
stimulate action. For successful conduct of the exercise, considerable preparations
are required on the part of the trainers and the group. It is extremely important to
create an appropriate climate in which the uninitiated are also encouraged to partici-
pate actively.
z The discussion at the conclusion of the exercise is crucial. To obtain the desired
results from the role-play, a proper framework should be outlined for conducting
the discussion.
z A management game is a simulated exercise that attempts to familiarise the par-
ticipants with functional dynamics of an organisation through focus on specific
situations in business or administration. Its objective is also to help them relate

the organisational principles, concepts and methods of working to the real-life
environment.
z The role of a trainer is very crucial to the exercise as she guides the subgroups in
actions and activities and extends help in bringing out the learning outcomes of
the exercise.
z Laboratory training is an intensive, inclusive experience that aims to bring about
enduring changes in the participants through a process of self-analysis, sharing
and participation in a series of exercises and training activities. It may focus on
individuals, groups or organisations.
z Laboratory training deals with here-and-now situations. The success of this
method depends on an objective and honest approach of the participants in
giving and receiving feedback from others in the group, and in accepting and
assimilating it, with a view to bring about the desired behavioural changes.
z Practical assignments are used for developing skills and competencies in the
participants. They can be carried out either individually or in small working
groups. The trainers may decide to provide suitable inputs to the group before
it undertakes the assignment, or conversely, the work assigned to them may be left
largely unstructured.
z A group discussion aims at a structured but informal exchange of knowledge,
ideas and perceptions among the participants on topics and issues relevant to the
programme contents. In process-oriented group discussions, the emphasis is on
promoting interaction among the participants and encouraging sharing. In result-
oriented discussions, the stress is on specific outcomes. In a group discussion, the
trainer may prescribe specific parameters for the discussion or leave the group
free to set out the framework on its own. The role of the discussion leader is to
stimulate the members to participate, facilitate free exchange of views and ideas
and ensure that the group does not deviate from its objectives.
z Training support materials are usually used in combination or in support of other
training methods. The main objective is to enrich the presentation and enhance
the learning process. While certain types of support materials can be used in
advance of a training method or training activity, others are used as part of it.
z Training support materials can be classified into two broad categories—printed
materials and audio-visual materials. The use of support materials will involve a
lot of planning and preparation, well in advance of the presentation.
z The main objective of training through placement is to familiarise the participants
with the environment they are likely to encounter in an actual job situation, with
its rigours and complexities. The placement can be organised either during a
programme or at the end of it.
z A field trip is a carefully planned and organised visit to an organisation or a field
project. It effectively lets people, who work in a particular setting, comprehend
how things work in similar or different settings, and how others are coping with
various organisational problems and situations.
7
Training Group and Its Dynamics
Training group plays a decisive and central role in the success of the programme, regardless
of its level, composition and characteristics. It is both a recipient and a contributor—a direct
beneficiary of the learning that accrues through the training and a promoter of the learning
process. It is a key tool for the delivery of the programme. It can be your useful ally but can
also pose a challenge to you. In a training group, you will find some participants who will be
supportive of your efforts and some who may even want you not to succeed. It is, therefore,
important for you to be fully familiar with different aspects of its functioning in the context
of the delivery of the training. This chapter is a description of my experiences of working
with a variety of training groups. Specifically, the chapter deals with the following areas:
Special Features of Training Group

Functional Behaviour in Training Group
Dysfunctional Behaviour in Training Group
Types of Participants
Stages of Development of Training Group
Learning Outcomes
Describe some typical functional and dysfunctional behaviour in a training group

that may assist or inhibit the work of a trainer.
Identify the types of participants that are generally found in any training programme
and list their specific attributes.
Explain the stages through which training group passes and learn about the action that
a trainer can take in respect of each stage, to ensure smooth running of the programme.
7.1 SPECIAL FEATURES OF TRAINING GROUP

A training group is very different from other groups. It neither enjoys the comparability
and level of communication of a peer group nor the common pursuit or cohesion of a
social group. The participants come from diverse backgrounds. They assemble for a definite
purpose and for a specific activity. And once that objective appears to have been achieved or
the activity completed, they disperse, perhaps, never to meet again. Each training group has
its distinct features and each of them impacts the programme in its own special way. It is,
therefore, necessary that you keep these characteristics in view while evolving your training
strategy for a particular group. Some of them are indicated in the following paragraphs.
There can be a wide diversity in age, qualifications and nature of experience of the
participants. These differentials have considerable implications for the learning pro-
cess and the programme, in general. You can make productive use of these disparities
if you adopt a strategy that fully utilises the range of experiences that the participants
bring with them. The group has an opportunity to look at issues from different
standpoints. Sharing becomes an enriching and engaging experience. If you are less
than ingenious in your approach in handling the group, heterogeneity can become
an inhibiting factor.
In a training programme, the group environment has varied elements—relation-
ships among the participants, nature of interaction among them, level of their
motivation and general functioning of the training group. The dynamics of these
elements are complex and, sometimes, unpredictable. Thus, the mood of the group
and the environment can change significantly during a programme. At a given point
in time, a training activity or a presentation by a trainer can raise the group to a high
level of action and enthusiasm. But on another occasion, the group may appear to
be sluggish or indifferent. Thus, a trainer has to cope with the group on the basis of
the here-and-now situation and be prepared to contend with its changing conditions
and different dispositions.
Leadership in a training group has unique and varying dimensions. In the initial
stages, the trainer assumes the role of an informal leader of the group and the partici-
pants generally accept this position. Unlike other social groups, leadership in a training
group does not emerge through a normal group process. As the programme
Training Group and Its Dynamics 279
progresses, a few dominant individuals may assume the role of a leader of the group
or of subgroups but this arrangement does not have a formal endorsement or ap-
proval of the group. It is also not always enduring as perceivable leadership can
change hands. However, the structures established by the trainers to promote par-
ticipation of the group in the management of the programme could be considered
as the accredited leadership of the group. Those nominated to positions on these
structures have the endorsement of the group. They are authorised to present the
group’s views on programme-related matters and take decisions on its behalf.
Participants of a particular training group bring with them varying sets of behav-
iour patterns and values that could be substantially different from those of others
in the group. If it is a multicultural group, the diversity is more conspicuous. The
group then becomes a melting pot for the differing behaviour patterns, values and
attitudes. As the programme begins, through a process of exchange and give-and-
take, the group develops its distinct subculture. And this is what distinguishes a
particular training group from others. This subculture has its own impact on the
group environment and the training process.
Unlike other groups, in a training group, there is an element of compulsion as all
the participants may not come of their own volition. Some of them are not there
because they want to be there but they are expected to be there. They have been
asked to be there. This can introduce a sense of diffidence and apathy among these
participants. Their attitude towards the programme affects not only their partici-
pation and behaviour but has adverse implications for the group as a whole. The
strategy you choose to adopt should take this situation into account. Your task is to
ensure that all participants, regardless of whether they have been nominated in
accordance with their wish or not, become equally important and active members
of the group.
Being a member of a training group requires a change of role and behaviour in
accordance with the norms of the new group and demands of the programme. This
is not easy for many participants, especially in a short-term schedule. Some of them
are reluctant to assume the role of a participant and adopt group norms as they feel
that by doing so they would lose their identity and mortgage their position and status
to the group. Some others consider it not worthwhile to change their behaviour
for a short period and for a limited purpose. They argue that when they return to
their organisations or other social groups, they would be expected to revert to their
original behaviour. You should be mindful of these undercurrents and attitude in
the group.
Although the participants come together on the basis of agreed objectives of the pro-
gramme, each has personal learning objectives and an agenda that she endeavours
to realise through her participation in training activities and interaction with other
participants. For some, personal objectives may supersede everything else but for
some others, personal objectives subsume in the broader training objectives. You
should be aware of these thought processes as they impact the learning process.
The participants have come together for a specified time and all of them are aware
of this. This has its own impact on their attitude and disposition towards the
programme, co-participants and the trainers. Some take it as an opportunity to get

acquainted with another set of people, some feel that it is not worth the effort. This
attitude, however, varies, depending on the duration.
Subgroups are formed on the basis of shared interests, with short-term objectives
in mind. Initially, subgroups could be established on the basis of interpersonal skills,
for closer social interaction. But as the programme progresses, the group dynamics
change and new relationships could be forged because some participants have similar
learning objectives or agenda. Some consider the group as a social system, while others
consider it a source of new learning, depending on the predominance of their needs.
The extent to which a participant becomes accessible to other members of the group
is, generally, consistent with the demands of the programme. For instance, if a train-
ing activity focuses on knowledge and competencies, the participant is inclined to
present and share only that segment of her experience and expertise that is relevant
to the needs of that specific activity. Therefore, the exchange is more at the cognitive
level. In training on personal development, the training activities probe deeper and
reach out to the behaviour, values and attitudes of a participant. In such cases, there
could be communication at the emotional plane as well, impacting affective level as
well. In a long-term programme, when the participants have the opportunity and
time to get to know one another more closely, socially and in the context of the
training, other aspects of the personality, beyond the scope of the programme, may
also be unveiled.
Some participants arrive for a programme with very little prior information about
it. The executives or the senior management of the nominating organisation might
not have provided them with all the relevant information and materials. The par-
ticipants, therefore, suffer from a lot of uncertainty and have mixed (even confused)
feelings about the training, the trainers, the agency and the group. The task for the
trainers, therefore, is to bring these participants into the mainstream by clarifying
their areas of confusion and legitimising their mixed feelings.
7.2 FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR IN TRAINING GROUP

Functional behaviour refers to those actions and behaviour of the participants that assist
in the tasks of the trainers and help in the promotion of the training process. As will be
apparent from the following discussion, some of these actions and behaviour are conspicuous
as they generally occur during a session or a training activity but some take place behind the
scenes, outside the sessions. Some specific aspects of functional behaviour are indicated in
the following paragraphs, by way of illustration. However, there could be many more ways
in which the participants can make a meaningful contribution to the effective running of the
programme through their conduct, thus making them useful ally of the training team.
7.2.1 Willingness and Ability to Provide Feedback

Providing objective feedback to the trainers can be a very helpful behaviour on the part
of the participants. This can help to improve the quality of the programme and make
it more responsive to the needs of the group. However, it is necessary that the partici-
pants should be willing to undertake this task and also possess the ability to do it effectively.
A trainer usually requires feedback on the way it is progressing and her own performance as
a trainer. Her task becomes a lot easier if she is assured that some participants are capable
of providing objective feedback to help improve the training activities or the presentations.
It is, however, necessary that this feedback reflects the views and opinions of the majority,
rather than the reactions of an individual or a small subgroup.
7.2.2 Interventions during a Session or Presentation
During a presentation or discussion, a participant can make an intervention if she finds

that the majority of the participants are not following the discussion or the trainer is not
able to connect with the group. A statement, a query, a suggestion, a small note passed dis-
creetly to the trainer or even a physical gesture could achieve the purpose. Some examples
of this intercession are ‘Is it possible for you to restate your position on the issues under discussion?’;
‘It will be helpful to us if you elaborate on your statement’; ‘I think it will be worthwhile for the
group to spend more time on this issue as some points are still not clear’; ‘Will you please repeat this
to enable us to take it down?’ or ‘After this interesting discussion can we now return to the main
issue?’ Compare these with some other statements: ‘Some participants are not able to follow
the discussion, so why not do something about it’; ‘Why are we wasting our time on irrelevant
matters, why don’t you get back to the main issue?’ The difference is clear. In the first set of
statements, the participant intervenes on behalf of the group, including herself in it. But in
one of the statements in the second set, it is an implied criticism of the comprehension level
of some participants. Further, in the latter set of statements, there is an implied challenge to
the trainer.
From the aforesaid examples, it is apparent that certain conditions should be met for an
intervention to be regarded as functional behaviour—the manner in which it is made, its
timing, choice of the words and the way the participant expresses herself. The intervention
is purposive, positive and helpful. In functional behaviour, there is no challenge or criticism
of anyone in the group or the trainer.
7.2.3 Assisting the Trainers in Organising Training Activities
While primarily, it is the responsibility of the trainers to organise the training activities, some
participants are often keen to assist. This support could be in the form of actual organis-
ation of the activity, arranging tables and chairs for the group discussion, volunteering to
carry out distribution of materials, assisting in demonstrations or handling of training equip-
ment, such as film projector and video recorder; or simply a shout for the group to get
together for an activity. These little helpful gestures make the task of the trainers less exacting.
This initiative is also indicative of the participants’ attitude and commitment. Remember it is
not done with an eye on leadership position in the group or for getting some favours later.
7.2.4 Giving Support and Encouragement to Other Participants
Encouraging and enabling other participants, especially those who are somewhat inhibited
and reluctant to express their views and share their experience freely is another illustration
of functional behaviour. Through this action, these participants recognise the potential of
all members of the group to contribute to the activities and demonstrate their respect for
others’ views and opinions. They may even create an opportunity to convey some reassuring
words to these participants on a one-on-one basis without appearing to be condescending.
These actions are supportive of the trainers.
7.2.5 Helping in Maintaining Discipline in the Group
Some participants assist in establishing procedures for efficient running of the programme
and offer helpful suggestions about the best way to proceed. Their actions and behaviour
are aimed at strengthening and reinforcing the work of the trainer to ensure conformity to
the group norms and ground rules. By their personal example, they canvass for compliance
of the code of conduct by the participants. They disapprove of disregard or violation. They
keep to the timings. Being punctual and willing to work beyond the normal working hours,
in accordance with the exigencies of the situation, are instances of programme-friendly
behaviour.
7.2.6 Assisting in Maintaining Group Harmony
Group cohesion and harmony are important ingredients for a healthy learning environ-
ment. Trainers make an all-out endeavour to promote it. A similar effort from the partici-
pants is a welcome gesture. As the participants are privy to the inner dynamics of the group,
they are, perhaps, in a better position to make a more meaningful contribution in fostering
healthy relationships among the participants. Functional behaviour in this area will include
promoting communication among the participants, dissuading them from exaggerating
their differences and restraining some self-seeking elements from exploiting these disagree-
ments to their benefit. These do-gooders also assist the group in settling group differences
and disagreements in a constructive way. Where it is not possible to resolve them, they at-
tempt to bring about a compromise or suggest intervention by the trainer.
7.2.7 Completing Assignments and Projects
Timely completion and submission of assignments and reports also send positive signals to
other members of the group. Coming prepared for the session or other training activities,
especially when it requires going through some reading materials, is another example of
functional behaviour. It facilitates the job of the trainers and helps in making the discussion
more meaningful and productive. If a working group is sluggish in completing an assignment
or report, some members demonstrate a high sense of responsibility by undertaking to

complete the task within the specified period. Sometimes, this may require putting in extra
hours of work and giving up leisure time.
7.3 DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR IN TRAINING GROUP
It is always a painful and anxiety-producing experience when a participant behaves in a

manner that is not helpful either to her own learning or in maintaining a healthy group
environment. The group itself or the trainers can usually handle milder forms of dysfunctional
behaviour, by providing support and assistance without allowing an individual to immo-
bilise the group or disrupt the programme. Those who continue to indulge in dysfunc-
tional behaviour despite advice and caution may have to be dealt with firmly lest they should
affect the entire group and undermine the programme.
Some of the dysfunctional behaviour and actions are conspicuous as they take place in
the sessions or during training activities. However, what makes the task of a trainer difficult
is the fact that some facets of this behaviour are imperceptible. The participants who get in-
volved in inappropriate conduct do it surreptitiously and may even use proxy participants to
give expression to their unhealthy agenda. They may engage in such behaviour outside the
sessions or within the confines of their rooms. So a trainer has to be alert to the goings-on in
the group and ensure that no participant is allowed to vitiate the training environment and
take the group away from its established goal.
7.3.1 Dysfunctional Behaviour during a Training Activity
Some participants engage in actions and behaviour in a training session or when a training
activity is in progress. This behaviour is, in the least, distracting and, at its worst, disrupting.
By way of illustration, some typical examples of dysfunctional behaviour during a session are
given later. You must, however, remember that what makes these acts qualify as dysfunc-
tional behaviour is their recurrence. In other words, when a participant engages in behaviour
of this kind that endures beyond a reasonable limit, we can say that she is indulging in dys-
functional behaviour. A few incidents here and there will not qualify these behaviours or
actions as dysfunctional.
Engaging in one-upmanship with the trainers for no apparent reason or without
provocation. Or, engaging in frivolous arguments with other participants or the
trainers.
Interrupting the session or a training activity by constantly raising questions or mak-
ing comments about the programme, contents, other participants or on some other
trivial issues.
Attempting to dominate the discussion or a training activity, thereby blocking wider
participation by members of the group. The participant ignores reminders from the
trainer for allowing others to have a chance to share their thoughts and views.
Resisting active participation, by refusing to take part in training activities. Or,

showing no interest in the sessions. Even resisting learning on one or the other pre-
text or reason. If certain role or job has been assigned as part of the training activity,
the participant shows no interest in carrying it out knowing fully that this could
undermine the activity.
Ridiculing or embarrassing other participants. Or, adopting an arrogant attitude or
demonstrating a condescending behaviour towards the participants, especially those
who are from smaller organisations or hold lower positions or have less experience.
This prevents other participants from participating freely and vitiates the training
environment.
Clowning with participants when a training activity is under way. Making funny
comments or gestures. This betrays a sense of lack of commitment to the pro-
gramme or even callousness.
Disconcerting behaviour, such as engaging in conversation, indulging in distract-
ing gestures, being preoccupied with other activities when the presentation or an
activity is in progress or making meaningless comments.
Missing sessions without proper reason.
Arriving late for sessions or returning late after the break, thus disrupting the session
that is already in progress.
7.3.2 Undermining the Group Process or the Learning Environment
As mentioned earlier, some participants engage in behaviour that is designed to under-

mine the group process and vitiate the training environment. Sometimes, it is calculated
to target a particular trainer. Generally, this kind of behaviour is observable in long-term
programmes because short-term training has little scope or opportunity for it. In a short-
term programme, the stakes in group life are substantially lower and participants will be less
inclined to engage in behaviour that undermines the group or adversely affects the training
environment. Such acts of dysfunctional behaviour constitute a more serious challenge to
the trainers, as they could be a part of a plan to damage the programme. The effects of such
behaviour may not be immediately discernible but manifest after some time. Things can
simmer within the group but have the potential of turning into a volatile situation any time.
This type of behaviour can be infective if the perpetrators of this plan aim to influence others
as well. Therefore, you need to adopt a strategy that takes into account these possibilities. If
not properly handled by the trainers, this behaviour can be highly detrimental for the pro-
gramme. Some areas in which dysfunctional behaviour can become more perceptible are
summarised here.
Manipulating the Group for Realising Personal Agenda
Every participant comes to the programme with a personal agenda. But what distinguishes a
dysfunctional behaviour is the manner in which a participant seeks to realise it, disregarding
the group or the programme interests. The agenda may consist of getting leadership pos-
itions in the group or dominating the group. Sometimes, it is simply a desire on the part
of a participant to assert her presence and be recognised. The participant may be so avidly
involved in achieving her objectives that she may even manipulate other participants for it. In
doing so, the participant may, knowingly or unknowingly, undermine the learning process
or adversely affect the training environment. Generally, these participants are self-seekers
although they may maintain a facade of being helpful to other participants or demonstrate
their desire to intervene on their behalf, if a need arises. This is done to get the support of
other members of the group.
Promoting Disagreements or Discord in the Group
In pursuance of their agenda, if they find that group cohesion or harmony is an obstacle,
some participants have no compunction in promoting disagreements or creating dissen-
sions in the group, as this suits their design. Sometimes, it is not their agenda, but an
urge to settle personal scores with some other participants drives them towards dysfunc-
tional behaviour. If they perceive anyone posing a threat to their domination or their efforts
for leadership positions that they assume they merit, they can set up subgroups with the sole
purpose of asserting their position or challenging the rivals. In most cases, this action leads
to the formation of cliques that affects the interpersonal relationships in the group adversely,
having an impact on the group process and the learning environment in the process.
Creating Opinion in the Group against the Programme or Trainers
If some participants are not happy with the running of the programme or the perform-
ance of the trainers, instead of communicating their views through the available channels,
they tend to highlight them by lobbying among other participants. They pick the more
gullible among the participants and create an opinion supportive of their way of thinking.
This behaviour is not aimed at assisting the trainers to improve the running of the programme
by addressing the problems, if any, but to embarrass them or the organisers of the training.
To express their resentment, they, sometimes, engage in dysfunctional behaviour in the
session or during a training activity or encourage others for doing so. The objective is to
assert their viewpoint, often with little concern for the programme or the interests of the
training group.
Non-participation in Training Activities
Some participants resist participation in training activities, regardless of their nature or learn-
ing value. They are very casual and unresponsive in their approach to the programme and
remain uninvolved in a discussion. They make no secret of their apathy and, sometimes, may
even make an effort to let others notice their aversion to participation. This attitude is reflected
in their disinclination to submit the assignments on time or work on programme-related
projects or activities. They may even encourage others to follow them. This behaviour not
only affects the morale and motivation of the group but can also, sometimes, be obstructive.
This makes the task of the trainers more difficult.
Refusing to Respond to the Exigencies of the Programme
If there is a need for putting in extra hours of work to deal with exigencies in the programme,
some participants may be disinclined to comply. They do not hesitate to even mobilise opin-
ion in support of their view. Although they could be aware that the exigency has arisen
because of the emergence of new issues or for reasons beyond the control of the trainers,
they try to convince other participants that the extra liability has been imposed on them be-
cause of faulty planning or the trainers’ incompetence. They consider it an intrusion on their
leisure hours and against the contract of the programme to conform to the schedule of work.
If they are not able to have their way, they take little interest in the activity. This could affect
the working of the group.
7.3.3 Strategy to Deal with Dysfunctional Behaviour
If dysfunctional behaviour persists and threatens to undermine the learning process or the
programme itself, it is time for you to intervene and take action you deem necessary. It is,
however, important that any strategy you adopt for resolving the problem should have the
support of the major section of the group and should not bring you into direct confronta-
tion with the participants or affect the group processes.
The first step, inevitably, is the correct and objective perception of the dysfunctional
behaviour. As mentioned earlier, a behaviour qualifies as dysfunctional behaviour if
it is repetitive and tends to adversely affect the learning process. If the dysfunctional
behaviour occurs during a session, be sure that you are not overreacting. Sometimes,
a trainer tends to go overboard even when the behaviour is an aberration and may
not be repeated. You must also check on your bias towards the person whom you
suspect is engaging in such behaviour. It is also possible that your reaction is, in fact,
a cover for your own inadequacy in your presentation or lack of training skills.
However, if the behaviour is taking place behind the scenes, such as disrupting
the group processes, it is often difficult to identify the participants responsible for
the act. Therefore, it is advisable to defer action until the time you are absolutely
sure about the nature of the behaviour and the person responsible for it. Any hasty
action can put you in an embarrassing situation later.
Once you are absolutely sure of the behaviour and the identity of the participant/s,
you should develop your strategy to deal with the situation promptly. Perhaps, as a
first response to the situation, a general reminder to the group will be in order. You
must recall their contract to conduct themselves in a manner that is responsible and
consistent with the role of a participant.
If the dysfunctional behaviour persists, the next step will be to invite the person
concerned for an informal chat. This will give you an opportunity to ask for an
explanation for the behaviour and get the other side of the story. Do not be judge-
mental or ascribe motives to the behaviour hastily. Instead, try to get the reason for
the behaviour from the participant. If you begin by accusing her, in all probabil-
ity, she will immediately become defensive and this will shut the door to further
conversation. There could be bitterness and the session may even end abruptly. It is
possible that the participant will go back to her/his supporters in the group and turn
it into a confrontation between the trainers and the participants. This is not what
you want and is not in the interest of the programme.
Express your concern and explain how this is affecting the group and the programme.
Be concrete and specific. Do not speak in general terms. Indicate firmly but politely
that this is an unacceptable situation and cannot be allowed to continue. Do not lose
your temper or composure.
Ask the person to take specific steps to see that this behaviour is not repeated and
she behaves in a way that is consistent with the norms of participants’ conduct.
7.4 TYPES OF PARTICIPANTS
Participants in a training programme come in all shapes and sizes. Each has a different
motivation to attend it and an agenda to pursue. And each adopts her own strategy to realise
the objective. While some may do it staying well within the norms and framework of the
programme, some others may not hesitate to step out of them. A participant’s motivation
and response to various learning stimuli is not always predictable. Many a time, it is guided
by the situations and events that unfold during a programme. For instance, a participant
may get actively involved in a particular training activity but, in another, she may hold
herself back. The behaviour and mood of some participants may also change, depending
on the circumstances or situations they confront during the programme. This is not an
unexpected phenomenon. However, when we attempt to classify the participants we do it
on the basis of behaviour and attitude that are more consistent and enduring, sometimes
even dominant, regardless of the training environment or nature of training activities. These
could be because of their personal agenda, individual interests, their predispositions or their
penchant for pursuing certain activities during the programme. As will be evident from
the following discussion, this behaviour can have varied impact on the programme and the
training group. Sometimes, it can be helpful to the programme, while, on other occasions,
it can have an adverse influence. It is, however, also possible that the behaviour has no
observable effect on the group or the training. Nevertheless, you have to keep a watch on
these tendencies so that you can take timely and suitable action in the interest of the pro-
gramme, of course, within its spirit.
(For cross-reference see section on ‘Functional and Dysfunctional Behaviour’.)
You may not encounter all these elements in one group, but it will be helpful to know
about their traits so that you are in a position to identify them. This is not to suggest that
you should be looking for them as soon as the group arrives, but just be perceptive and alert.
While there are many traits on the basis of which the participants can be classified but
we can discuss only the key ones. Some of the others may be a combination of these or a
variation with certain individual flavour added to it. There can be a number of variations
within these key traits or attributes.
7.4.1 Learner
For these participants, the priority is personal growth and professional development. Re-
gardless of their own level of knowledge and experience, they want to make full use of the
learning opportunity that the training programme presents to them. They are driven by
intrinsic motivation, not dependent on environmental factors. They are keen to participate
in all programme-related activities and are zealous in following the presentations and dis-
cussions and make meaningful contributions. They are punctual and are generally seen to
be taking notes. They have a focused approach and are willing to ignore minor aberrations
with regard to any aspects of the programme. While some of them may prefer to keep a
low profile, others may choose to be friendly to those who share their interests. They are
generally courteous to the trainers and are prepared to extend help and support to them,
whenever needed.
Role of the Trainer

These are the participants on whom you can rely for support and help. They can
become catalysts in promoting the learning process and help you in bringing into
the mainstream those who are either shy or disinterested in the activities. They can
become role model for other participants. You can make them your trusted allies.
However, you cannot appear to be giving them special attention or favouring them
because your attitude can make them targets of those whose agenda is to bring more
and more participants under their influence.
7.4.2 Self-seeker
Self-seeking participants come with a strong personal agenda and motives to the programme.
This agenda may include self-aggrandisement or a compelling urge to get recognition from
members of the group and the trainers. What distinguishes them, however, from other
participants who also come with a personal agenda, is the manner in which they go about
seeking fulfilment of their interests and aim. For them, their personal ambitions override
all other considerations, including the interest of the programme or other participants. They
are willing to go to any extent to realise their objectives. Even their participation in the
training activities is also guided by this ulterior motive. It is more for effect and attention
than honest and meaningful contribution. Their efforts are directed at acquiring a position
of control and influence in the group. Manipulating the group or even the trainers is part
of their grand plan to achieve their goal. They may even form and nurture subgroups solely
with a purpose of using them as a tool for accomplishing their mission. Their actions and
attitude can result in dysfunctional behaviour.
Role of the Trainer

You need to be immensely careful in dealing with these elements. They generally
have high self-image and can become aggressive and scheming when they realise the
possibility of getting exposed. In such cases, they will try to lobby for support from
the participants. You should handle them in a subtle and discreet manner, using the
group. If you find that they are persisting with their behaviour and attitude, you have
the option of having a one-on-one conversation with them.
7.4.3 Detached or Disinterested
Some participants are not only indifferent to the training process but remain distant from
the participants as well. They do not want to be a part of the social process. The reasons for
this behaviour can be varied. Some of them may be unwilling participants; a few lack faith
in training and they show no interest in what is happening around them. Some others feel
disillusioned, as their pre-training expectations appear to turn sour. It may be that they are
not good in their social skills. These participants may maintain a facade of participating in the
training activities but their body language conveys their disinterest in the programme. They
appear to be going through the motions of participation without being in the programme.
In most cases, their behaviour does not interfere with the programme or the learning process
though, sometimes, their indifference may bear upon those who are vulnerable to these
influences.
Role of the Trainer

You cannot ignore these elements. You should attempt to establish communication
with them, find out the reasons for their apathy and make an effort to bring them into
the programme. Some understanding and empathetic attitude may help them come
out of their misconceptions or social isolation and help them become active part of
the group.
7.4.4 Socialiser
These participants regard their participation in the programme as an opportunity to cultivate

new relationships and make new friends. Generally, they possess sound interpersonal
skills and you will find them all over the place even before the programme commences.
They reach out to other participants and the trainers as soon as they arrive for the pro-
gramme. If it is an international group, their activeness gets multiplied many times over.
Their interest in the training activities is incidental, serving as a means to promote relation-
ships. These participants prefer working in groups rather than on individual assignments,
though their zeal to build new relationships is not confined to the formal sessions. It extends to
informal settings as well—coffee breaks, lunch table or other informal situations. Although
they follow their own agenda of satisfying their social needs, their actions and behaviour do
not undermine the programme or, in any way, hurt other participants.
Role of the Trainer

You must recognise their social needs and even appreciate their efforts to establish
healthy relationships with the participants. However, you must remind them of their
responsibility towards their organisation and the training team, and emphasise the
need for taking active interest in training activities as well and enhance their learning.
Either this can be done as a general refrain to the group or speak to these participants
individually. You may also attempt to mobilise their interpersonal skills for enhancing
interaction among the participants, bringing the shy and the uninitiated into the social
process. These participants have the potential of becoming part of support system for
promoting group processes.
7.4.5 Tourist
It is not unusual for the participants wanting to visit places of interest at the venue of the
training and nearby, but what distinguishes these participants from others is their over-
whelming urge to look for the first opportunity to go sightseeing. For these participants,
the major attraction for their coming to the programme is not the training but possibil-
ity of visiting tourist spots. This satisfies their desire to travel and visit places. And with the
costs for the visit being picked up either by the training agency or by their organisation, the
benefits are multiplied. If the venue is in another country or even in a big city, not visited
earlier by them, it is an added bonus. This eagerness can bring them into conflict with their
responsibilities as a participant and a nominee of the organisation, established group norms
and ground rules, and even with the programme schedule itself. They resist any attempt on
the part of the trainers to make the group work beyond the normal working hours because
this may interfere with their schedule. Evidently, their interest in the training activities is
minimal. They may also attempt to rope in other participants to form a subgroup.
Role of the Trainer

These participants are not inclined to disrupt the programme or affect group pro-
cesses. Therefore, your role is limited. As mentioned earlier, you must provide for
some free time to the participants to pursue their personal activities or attend to their
social engagements. This is not unusual and you should make it part of the schedule.
If this is done, these participants will be able to organise their leisure hours for visiting
places of interest in the city or in the vicinity. You may even extend help to them.
However, to ensure that this pastime activity does not affect the programme, a general
refrain to the group emphasising the need to give priority to the programme activities
may convey the necessary message. Remind the group of the participants’ responsibil-
ity towards their organisation and commitment to the programme.
7.4.6 Critic or Fault-finder
For the purpose of this discussion, by a critic or fault-finder, we mean a participant who
has the compulsive urge to criticise almost everything connected with the programme—
contents, methodology, physical arrangements, trainers, and so on. For these participants,
there is nothing good about it. They question the process of training from time to time, and
raise queries and express doubts about the programme and even about the competence of
the training team. The issues they pick up can, sometimes, be very trivial, having no bearing
on the effectiveness of the programme. They may also make suggestions that they know
cannot be accepted. Thus, it is this motive and the manner in which the criticism is expressed
that distinguish these critics from other participants who give their comments on the pro-
gramme, and offer suggestions with a genuine desire to improve the quality of training or
help the trainers. The objective of the critics is to embarrass the trainers or the agency and
put them in an awkward position with the participants and, at the same time, get for them-
selves attention from the group.
Role of the Trainer

To the extent possible you should attempt to handle such elements through the group.
As a general exhortation to the group, you may suggest to the participants to be more
positive in their approach and if they have any specific proposals to improve the pro-
gramme, they should not hesitate to put it across to the trainers. However, if the
problem persists and the participant refuses to take corrective measure, you should
intervene directly and have a one-on-one conversation with her. Make sure that you
do not put her in a defence mode, otherwise your effort will come to naught. You
must indicate how this behaviour is affecting the programme and the group.
7.4.7 Know-all
These are participants who are not inclined to accept the need for training and feel that
they know almost everything that the training programme intends to focus on. They flaunt
either their long years of experience or their status to indicate that they know a lot more
than others. They are likely to engage the trainers in a game of one-upmanship and mount
challenges to them just to demonstrate to the group that they are more knowledgeable than
other participants, and, therefore, this training is not useful for them. While some of them
may assume a condescending attitude towards other participants, others may try to em-
phasise their position through control and influence. Their body language is generally very
different from others because there is certain arrogance in their demeanour. They are bad
listeners as they feel that others cannot have better ideas than them.
Role of the Trainer

Here also you should bring into play the group to make the participant realise the
folly of her irrational behaviour. You may again refer the group back to your earlier
comments that ‘regardless of one’s status and experience, there is always something for
everyone to take home by way of learning if she is willing to do that’. If you still find no
improvement in the demeanour or behaviour, have a dialogue with the concerned
participant.
(For cross-reference see Chapter 5, section on ‘Overcoming resistance to learning’.)
7.4.8 Hesitant or Shy
These participants are generally low on self-esteem. As a result, they get easily overwhelmed
by others—participants or even trainers. They just want to be part of the group but are
reluctant to carry or accept any responsibilities that may force them to come out of their
shell. They seek relationships with those who may have similar attributes. It is their way
of securing emotional security as they fear that the trainer or other participants may not
attempt to bring them out of their self-defined ‘comfort zone’. Though they are not keen
to take part in training activities, their behaviour does not create a negative impact on the
group. They are easy followers and as a result they become more vulnerable to those who
have the skill of manipulating participants to their advantage.
Role of the Trainer

You should not leave them alone. Instead, you should make an earnest attempt to help
them shed their reluctance or hesitancy. Besides a general persuasion to the partici-
pants to actively participate in all training activities, where necessary, you should
consider the possibility of meeting these participants as individuals or in a subgroup
and counsel them. Assure them of your support.
7.4.9 Monopolist or Dominator
These are the participants who have a strong urge to dominate or monopolise the time of
the group whether in an activity or in a discussion. The purpose of this domination may be
to demonstrate their knowledge or wisdom or to seek attention from the trainers or other
participants. Some of them may also be seeking positions of influence and control for
themselves, and this is the way that they want to make their presence felt in the group and
with the trainers. They would always want to intervene in any discussion and take charge
whenever a subgroup is engaged in a training activity.
Role of the Trainer

During the first few sessions, when you raise issues of participation, group relation-
ships and the commitment of the participants, you can use the opportunity to caution
the group about the presence of these elements in any training group. This way you
alert the participants and also send a message to these elements that they should
refrain from behaviour that could be considered as inconsistent with the interests of
the programme. While on the one hand, you should extend your full support to the
elements that work for the group and the programme and reinforce the efforts of the
positive elements, on the other hand, you must take due care to dissuade the deviants
from engaging in dysfunctional behaviour. However, it will not be proper for you to
disregard these participants or adopt a negative attitude towards them simply because
their conduct is not what is expected of an ideal participant. Your aim should be to
bring all participants into the mainstream of the group process.
7.5 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF TRAINING GROUP
All ongoing groups go through certain stages of development, regardless of the objectives
for which they have been constituted. However, the dynamics of a group and the path it
follows in its development depend on a number of factors. Among these factors are the objec-
tives for which the group has been constituted, membership and composition, nature of
activities it organises to realise its objectives, expected life span and the manner in which it is
supervised or guided. In view of these determining factors, it is apparent that the function-
ing of a training group will be substantially different from that of other ongoing groups.
As the participants arrive for a training programme, they are individuals with their own
identities, personal agenda and traits. Your task is to develop them into a cohesive, function-
ing unit. The strategy you need to adopt and the action you take in achieving this task has
been discussed in detail in Chapter 5. In this section, we will confine our discussion to the
stages of development of a training group, the varied dimensions of its functioning and their
implications for the learning process. The discussion will also include defining your role
as the group moves from one stage to the other, and suggesting action to guide you through
these stages. It is important for you to understand the nature of your interventions, their
timing and the likely impact these may have on the group process.
Group processes in a short-term programme (say less than a week) are somewhat dif-
ferent from that in a medium- or long-term programme. In short-term programmes, the
emphasis, often, is on training activities and tasks. Consequently, it is possible that the group
processes get relegated to a relatively less important position. It may also be argued that in
view of the short duration of a programme, the participants may not be willing to invest
much effort in establishing or cultivating relationships. On the other hand, in a long-term
programme, the group processes and relationship patterns among the participants acquire
considerable significance for its delivery and the learning process. Nevertheless, though the
psychological and social undercurrents in all training groups are similar, in a long-term
programme they are more conspicuous as they manifest for an extended period.
If a training programme has participants from one organisation, regardless of whether it is
a short- or medium-term training, the group dynamics are different. The group may not go
through these stages as the participants are expected to be familiar with one another. There
are already established relationships. Therefore, in such cases, generally, the social dynamics
reflect the pattern existent in the organisation. So, in a way, it is a transfer from the organ-
isation to the training room. This can act as a supportive or as an inhibitive factor for the
training process. You should, therefore, be careful in handling the situation.
7.5.1 Key Elements in the Group Process
In order to understand the process of group development or the stages through which a
training group passes in its journey to realise the programme objectives, it is necessary to
identify the constituents that are associated with the delivery of a training programme. The
interplay of these constituents activates or unleashes a number of forces and factors that in-
fluence this process. Specific attributes that characterise various stages of development of a
training group are, in fact, the manifestations or the consequences of this interplay. These
constituents are as follows:
Participants: their learning objectives, behaviour patterns, preferences and attitudes,

personal agenda, and so on.
Training programme: objectives and its contents, programme schedule, training
methods and techniques, and so on.
Training team: the ability of the trainers to deliver the programme in an effective
and proficient manner, level of their commitment, their attitude towards the partici-
pants, their interpersonal relationship, and so on.
Training agency: special norms and values of the agency, attitude of support staff
towards the participants and their role in the delivery of the programme, and so on.
Venue of the training programme: ambience of the training venue, living arrange-
ments, facilities for training activities, facilities for evening activities, and so on.
The significance of each of these constituents in the life of a training group varies from
time to time. For instance, in the initial stage of the programme, there is considerable inter-
action between all these constituents. The participants have just arrived for the programme
and they are curious to know about everyone and everything associated with the programme.
Their initial reactions and attitudes are based on what they see, hear or perceive. As the pro-
gramme progresses, the focus shifts to the participants, the trainers and the training activities.
The significance of the training agency progressively diminishes. If it is a residential training,

living facilities for the participants where the participants spend their leisure time can as-
sume heightened importance. But, sometimes, the intensity of training activities and active
engagement of the participants with programme-related assignments can push this into the
background.
7.5.2 Stages of Development in a Training Group
Let us turn our attention to the dynamics in the group as it moves from the commence-
ment of the programme to its conclusion. The discussion will relate more to training pro-
grammes that have participants from different organisations but have come together for a
common purpose, i.e. training. However, in some measure, this discussion may be of use to
you for handling other training groups as well.
Broadly, the process of group development can be divided into three major stages—
preliminary, development and concluding. To facilitate our discussion and provide a better
focus to it, each of these three categories is further divided into two sub-stages, as indicated
in figure given below.
Preliminary Development Concluding

Acquainting Cohesion or End
Bartering Consolidation Finale
Dynamic
You must, however, remember that these stages are not compartmentalised, exclusive
phases. They are connected and, often, one stage merges into the next one smoothly. Also,
there is no clearly defined cut-off point that signals the termination of one stage or the com-
mencement of the following. Sometimes, the training team or the group may not even
perceive the changes that have come about in behaviour patterns, interpersonal relationship
and nature of participation as the group moves from one stage to the other. Therefore, to
some extent, this is a hypothetical but, nevertheless, helpful categorisation. It not only helps
you in understanding the undercurrents and atmosphere in the group but also assists you in
deciding the nature of your interventions. However, you need to be watchful and develop
a keen eye to notice the changes and decide on the course of action accordingly. It should
also be remembered that these stages are categorised on the basis of the dynamics of the
group as a whole, the events that take place during a particular stage and the focus of activities
by the trainers. It is, however, possible that all the participants (or even subgroups) may not
move forward with the same pace and in a similar manner. Thus, some degree of overlap is
inevitable, though it will differ from group to group. Regardless of the stage through which
the group is passing, your task is to ensure that the momentum of the programme and
energy level of the group are maintained. And for that you will have to determine your role
and change your focus in accordance with the demands of the stage the group is passing
through. The training methodology also changes and you have to constantly fine-tune the
training strategy as well. In your own way, you must also make sure that all the participants
are able to adapt themselves to the changing dynamics of the group so that the learning pro-
cess is not adversely affected. It is likely that some participants may require your support and
assistance for keeping pace with the group.
It is not practical to indicate the span of each of these stages. It depends on the size and
composition of the group and may also vary in accordance with the total duration of a pro-
gramme. For instance, in a short-term programme of one week’s duration, the first stage
may not extend beyond one day. Accordingly, this stage will get extended for programme
of longer duration. You must, however, remember that every group will pass through each
of these stages, even though the spell (of each) may vary and manifestations of some of the
characteristics may not be so conspicuous. As you are likely to be involved with programmes
of varying durations, it is necessary that you should become familiar with the whole range of
features of different stages of development of a training group.
Preliminary Stage
Acquainting
The specific features of this stage are listed here.
As the participants assemble for the programme, some are curious, some enthusi-
astic and some others anxious. But, generally, none of the participants is indifferent.
Most of them are eager to get acquainted with other members of the training group.
They might have received some basic information about the participants before they
left for the programme but now they want to know them, put faces to the names.
Some participants take initiative and reach out to others in the group. They want to
gather as much information on them as possible within a short span of time. With
some others, however, there is initial reluctance and they wait for others to make
the first move. There is little or no effort on their part to initiate the process of com-
municating with others or of establishing contact. Some participants wait for the
formal introduction as that makes it relatively easy for them to foster contacts.
The participants want to get familiar with the physical environment of the venue
of the programme, the facilities available and the general surroundings of the place.
If it is a residential programme, one of their prime concerns is about the living ar-
rangements. They also want to know about the training facilities.
The participants are generally keen to be introduced to the training team. They want
to find out what kind of persons they are, assess their competence in the context
of their responsibility of delivering the programme and know about their social skills
and general style of functioning. On the basis of the information they gather directly
or from other sources, they formulate their views about the team.
Role of the Trainer

Your role in this stage of group development is very crucial. The participants have
just arrived. It is yet only an assembly of individuals. The group has yet to evolve.
Your first task is to stimulate communication and activate the process of interaction
among the participants and to help establish their contact with the training team. As
the group is still in a state of exploration, trying to find its way, you are expected to
assume the role of a leader. The participants expect you to provide them direction and
guidance to move on. They are very much dependent on the trainers. Your body lan-
guage and verbal communication should convey the message that you are fully pre-
pared to handle the situation.
The scope of the exercises and activities that you plan to use in promoting the pro-
cess of getting to know one another should not be limited to mundane information
like name, organisation and job background. Include aspects of personal life, for
instance, family background, likes and dislikes, and so on, in it. It should be some-
thing that helps a participant get acquainted with others on a more personal level.
You must, however, ensure that this process remains informal, non-threatening and
relaxing for the participants. In fact, the objective is to assure them and set at rest
some of their initial concerns and anxieties. It is necessary to choose exercises taking
into consideration the composition of the group level of the participants, nature of
the programme, and so on.
It is suggested that these exercises and activities should encourage physical move-
ment and active mixing. This intensifies interaction. Reduction of physical distance
helps in minimising the emotional gap. If the activities permit the participants to
keep sitting comfortably in their seats, the objectives of conducting these exercises
may not be fully achieved.
Depending on the venue of the programme, take them around and familiarise
them with the physical surroundings and the facilities, especially the living arrange-
ments. Introduce them to the back-up staff that will be associated with the delivery
of the programme.
Introduce the participant to key features of the programme, going over the con-
tent, the methodology and the work schedule. If some social events are planned,
give them the necessary information.
Bartering
The specific features of this stage are as follows:
During this stage, there is heightened activity in the group. The importance of
knowing others is recognised. The process of exploration gets intensified and interest
298
Stages of Group Development
Relationships are Training activities

Period of intense
consolidated. are concluded.
activity in the
Participants
Exploring similarities programme and Trainers clarify the
Roles of the prepare for
of views and interests. learning. doubts, queries, etc.
participant and the departure.
Process of accepting trainers are defined. Heightened Consolidation
Emotions,
Introduction with and getting accepted interaction, of learning. feelings are
Participants gets
other participants, gets under way. sharing of ideas expressed.
mentally settled in Participants
training team. the programme. and experiences.
Sharing of engage in a process
Finale
Getting familiar expectations between Emergence of of self-appraisal.
Ownership of the
with the physical participants subgroups and
programme is End
environment, and trainers. leadership patterns.
devolved to the
facilities participants.
Concerns and anxieties Dynamic
Introduced to the are expressed.
Consolidation
programme.
Bartering
Acquainting
Preliminary Development Concluding

in the group, or at least in some participants, grows. But there is a purpose to this
interaction. Every participant attempts to find the areas of similarity of interests and
views with others, searching for a basis for establishing a meaningful and suppor-
tive relationship. Information is sought and volunteered on the background of one
another. The process of give-and-take gets promoted. There are trade-offs. The
participants are also keen to find out their position and status in the group in rela-
tion to others.
As rules for behaviour during the programme are being established, there are un-
certainties about desirable and acceptable behaviour. The process of accepting others
and getting accepted by others, including the trainers, gets under way though most
of the participants want to follow a cautious path. They are cordial and polite. There
is a display of camaraderie and warmth. Everyone is keen to present the more favour-
able side of her personality. The overriding purpose is to avoid acting in a way that
could put off other participants. There is, therefore, a degree of superficiality about
the behaviour of the participants.
The group endeavours to move to a more cohesive and enduring state, establishing
its distinct identity. In arriving at that stage, the group must resolve a number of
interpersonal issues. The group, therefore, feels the need for evolving a structure, set-
ting the agenda and initiating action. It also expects the trainer to take the lead in
some of these tasks.
This is the time when the participants would like their concerns and anxieties to be
addressed.
The participants seek more details on the programme during this stage—the topics,
the modules and the methodology. Expectations are shared—participants express-
ing what they hope to get from the training and the trainers want assurance of
commitment to the programme and productive participation. This exercise helps
some participants in formulating their personal learning objectives while for some
others, it signifies the need to modify their predetermined learning objectives, making
them more in tune with what is on offer in the programme. It is an opportunity for
the participants to check whether their expectations are included in the programme
contents.
Role of the Trainer

Organise activities that promote interaction among the participants. Those
who have not yet become part of the group should be encouraged to shed their
inhibitions, remove mental blocks and become more articulate. They need your
active support to get assimilated into the group. If this is not done at this stage of
group development, these participants may remain holed up in their own shell and
thus fall behind in the group process.
Create an environment of confidence and positive attitude in which the partici-
pants feel comfortable to share their concerns and anxieties about all aspects of
the programme. Take appropriate steps to deal with these concerns and assure the
participants of your continuing support.
Connect with the participants at a personal level. Gather as much information about
them as possible. Find out about their learning styles, their background, their attitude
towards the programme, level of their self-esteem and their personal agenda, if
any. This information will be of immense use to you in putting together the group
profile, in planning your presentations and other training activities, and for com-
municating with the participants.
Help the group become active and functional. It is necessary that the training team
assists in establishing a suitable structure and mechanism for the purpose. The
group is still maturing and, therefore, needs your guidance. You are still expected
to play an active leadership role. You should also extend necessary support to the
group in setting out standards of behaviour and ground rules at this stage of the
programme.
This is the time for creating appropriate learning environment. Initiate action to
raise the level of participant’s interest and curiosity. Stimulate their motivation. They
should look forward to days of activity and their participation. Find opportunities
to remind the participants of their commitment to the programme and emphasise
the need for their active involvement in all training activities. Articulate your expect-
ations clearly. The group should be told explicitly what needs to be done and how.
Assist the participants in setting their personal learning objectives, consistent with
the overall programme objectives.
Development Stage
As the description denotes, this is the stage where the training process gets under way and
substantive changes occur in the participants as a result of the training. It is during this stage
that the learning process commences, reaches its zenith and moves towards conclusion. If
all factors and constituents associated with the group processes remain in active and fun-
ctional mode, favourable to the running of the programme, its success is assured.
Consolidation or Cohesion Stage
During this stage, efforts and action initiated by the trainers or the participants in the pre-
ceding stages start producing results and culminate in concrete outcomes. The group is
blended into a cohesive unit and the stage is set for the programme to take off. The specific
features of this stage are as follows:
After a busy programme of activities and an intense process of exploration and

interaction, the participants are now mentally and physically prepared to settle down
for substantive training activities. Notwithstanding their earlier views and percep-
tions, they now reconcile to physical surroundings and administrative and living
arrangements. If the concerns and anxieties of some of them have not been fully
addressed, they may agree to put them aside for the time or decide to work through
them. It is, however, possible that some of these participants may continue to be
nagged by their concerns.
After adoption by the group, the training programme becomes its plan of action.
On the basis of the programme contents and their learning objectives, the partici-
pants decide on specific topics and modules on which they will focus their efforts
and attention. They chart a course of action for their participation. The stage is set
for initiating training activities.
This is the stage when the participants’ commitment to the programme gets af-
firmed and they formulate their attitude towards other members of the group and
the trainers. This commitment, however, remains under constant review of the par-
ticipants. They continue to closely monitor the approach that the trainers follow in
organising training activities and the way the learning environment is nurtured. This
shapes the future perceptions of the participants with regard to the programme and
the trainers. And, perhaps, their motivation as well.
Although interaction continues unabated in a training programme, during this
stage particularly, relationships between the participants get consolidated. There
is better cohesion in the group. It develops its own identity and subculture. There
is, therefore, a degree of enduringness to the relationships. It does not, however, mean
that the relationships will not undergo changes as the programme moves forward.
Closer and sustained relationships among some participants usually result in the
emergence of subgroups. This is also the stage where group leadership starts emerging.
The respective roles and responsibilities of the participants and the trainers are
defined and accepted. A participant becomes aware of the parameters within which
she is expected to operate as an individual and as a member of the group. Standards
of performance for the participants and the trainers are established and criteria
and procedures for appraisal are also set out, where necessary. This emphasises the
earnestness and commitment of the participants to the programme and conveys a
message that they would be required to put in a sincere and diligent effort. This
promotes better bonding between the two key stakeholders of the programme—the
participants and the trainers. The process also sets the stage for a collaborative ef-
fort in realising the programme objectives.
Ground rules for behaviour and participation, established during the preceding
phase, are acknowledged as the code of conduct for all and implemented within the
framework of the programme. The participants adopt behaviour patterns that are
acceptable to the group.
Those who come with their personal agenda also explore ways through which they
will be able to realise it. This is an area in which you should remain ever vigilant, as
it is possible that the manner in which some participants set their agenda and seek
to carry it out may not be in the best interest of the group or the programme.
Role of the Trainer

This is the stage when the group is on the threshold of commencing its journey to
realise programme objectives. Therefore, your task is to continue to ensure that the
group environment facilitates forward movement of the programme. You have to
set its momentum. You must ensure that there are no bottlenecks once the learn-
ing process gets under way. Check on your own preparations for carrying out the
planned training activities.
Recognise the pattern of relationships that has developed during the early stages
of the group life. You should also continue to work to strengthen communication
among the participants and also between you and the group. You must also acknow-
ledge the role that the subgroups are capable of playing in the programme. Some
trainers consider the emergence of subgroups as unhealthy and harmful for the
programme. They view them as an expression of participant’s power, with potential
for trouble and assertive behaviour. But remember that with a proper strategy and
right attitude these subgroups can be used productively, assisting in promoting the
learning process.
The group has now settled down and developed into a functioning unit. The pro-
gramme has been discussed and adopted by the group. The group has affirmed
its commitment to the programme. The structure and mechanism established to
oversee the training process have become functional. Ground rules are in place.
Recognising the changed dynamics of the groups, you should modify your role
vis-à-vis the group. The need for you, at this point, is to relax your control and
change the manner in which you have been functioning in the earlier stages of the
programme. Recognise the emerging leadership in the group and provide necessary
support to strengthen the process.
Dynamic Stage
This is the most important stage in the life of a training group. This stage covers the major
part of the programme time—perhaps, anything between two-thirds to three-fourths of
its total duration. The trainers are fully engaged with their key task of organising training
activities in accordance with the plan of action. This is the stage where the bulk of the
learning takes place as the participants get actively involved with these activities and other
programme-related assignments. The characteristics of this stage are as follows:
This is the stage of intense action both for the trainers and for the participants. The
trainers reinforce their efforts to maintain the momentum and vigour of the pro-
gramme, crucial to sustaining a climate that is conducive for learning. They also
redouble their efforts to ensure that the participants’ interest in the programme and
contribution to training activities continue to increase progressively. It is during this
period that the programme attains its high point. It is, however, possible that the
participants’ motivation to participate may undergo wide swings, depending on the
nature of activities, the quality of presentations, learners’ styles, trainers’ styles and
the way the participants perceive the training environment.
During this period, the dynamics of the group is complex and, sometimes, even
intriguing. Positive as well as negative elements coexist. Actions and behaviour of
some participants enhance the group’s productivity and promote the learning pro-
cess. At the same time, the demeanour of some other participants may be a cause
of concern to the trainers as it has the potential of undermining their efforts and
vitiating the group atmosphere. You can not only notice cooperation and mutual
support but also unhealthy competition and blatant rivalry. Disagreements and
conflicts could surface. And at the same time forces will be at work to ensure group
harmony and cohesion.
This is also a period when some participants emerge as leaders of the group, some
through contrived means, and some others by way of a genuine process of inter-
action and in recognition of their contribution to the training activities and the
group environment. On the other hand, some prefer to keep a low profile while still
making substantive contribution to the training activities and the group process.
Enhanced interaction promotes sharing of ideas, information and experiences. This
is an important method of learning in any training programme. The process of in-
fluencing others and getting influenced by others’ ideas and viewpoints, as part
of the learning process, gets intensified. There is, however, another aspect of this
phenomenon. Some self-indulgent participants may hold on to their views, regard-
less of the quality of others’ experiences or the validity of their points of view. They
resist changes and they may even attempt to impose their ideas on unsuspecting
participants.
During this stage, subgroups play a crucial role. They act as a key source of learning,
infusing confidence in the participants and providing a supportive environment.
The interpersonal relationship in a subgroup has a strong emotional content and can
be very satisfying for its members. Subgroups formed initially on the basis of simi-
larities or shared interests may undergo changes. There could be regrouping on the
basis of tasks, learning and emotional compatibility.
As the programme progresses, the need for its effective monitoring is felt both by
the participants and by the trainers. There is also a desire to receive and give feed-
back. The two stakeholders engage in evaluating the relevance and usefulness of the
training activities. On the basis of this appraisal, the participants may modify their
learning objectives and redefine their priorities. This influences their interest in the
programme and motivation for participation.
It is possible that some participants may not be able to move with the pace of the
programme or their learning style is not consistent with the training methods used
in delivering the programme. As a result, they may become somewhat apathetic.
Their participation may be irregular or half hearted.
Role of the Trainer

You must make sure that the participants continue to perform the tasks assigned
to them and are actively involved in all training activities. Encourage them to raise
issues, ask questions and seek clarifications. As the participants demonstrate their
willingness and commitment to carry out tasks, engage in supportive behaviour.
Appreciate and acknowledge their contribution. The group has a lot of energy
and this should be channelled towards constructive action, otherwise it is likely to
get diverted to activities and behaviour that may not be consistent with the pro-
gramme objectives. Develop the group as a self-motivating and self-directing unit.
Use a variety of training methods to stimulate participant’s interests and facilitate
learning. Make sure that the training methods and your training style take into ac-
count the diverse learning styles of the participants.
Aim to widen participation, bringing more and more participants within the fold
of the training activities. Remember every participant has something to offer to
the group and the programme. Take special care of those who are still not fully
absorbed in the programme.
As the participants are enabled to direct their learning process, you should further
scale down your directive behaviour. Encourage them to assume more responsibility
for their learning and training activities. Clarify their tasks and set out expectations.
If at all the control has to be exercised, do it subtly, with a lot of care. Reflect on
your own style and personal needs and bring in changes where necessary.
Make full use of the mechanism established to facilitate participants’ active in-
volvement with the running of the programme. Wherever necessary, take remedial
measures on the basis of the feedback received through this mechanism.
Closely monitor the group processes. Provide prompt and active support to those
who engage in functional behaviour and demonstrate their commitment to the
programme. Be watchful of those whose motives are suspect and who are primarily
concerned with realising their personal agenda. Take pre-emptive action to smother
such actions.
Be prompt in locating potential areas and issues that can engender disagreements
and even conflicts among the participants. Sometimes, conflicts arise without warn-
ing and you do not have enough time to plan your response. In any case, do not
ignore these conflicts or allow them to simmer. This can be detrimental to the pro-
gramme. Summon your conflict management skills and ensure that the smooth
passage of the group process is not disrupted. You must also develop your skills to
make constructive use of the conflicts.
As a trainer, you need to be aware of the underlying currents in the group. As some
participants vie for leadership positions, they may engage in one-upmanship with
some other influential participants or even with you. Some may even challenge
you as part of their scheme to dominate and control. This can create unsavoury
situations. Prepare yourself well for handling such situations. Modify your style and
approach, accordingly.
Use your feedback skills to gather information and data on your presentations
and role as a member of the training team. At the same time, you should be willing
to evaluate your own inputs to the training activities, the training style and your
efforts to work with other trainers as a cohesive team. Take corrective action where
required.
Reinforce cooperative and collaborative behaviour and attitudes and continue
to strengthen group identity.
You must ensure that the participant’s behaviour and actions conform to the
established ground rules and group norms.
Watch out for the emergence of opinion leaders who work either through indi-
vidual participants or through subgroups. They lobby to promote their views and
may succeed in creating opinions in the group about the programme or the trainer/s
that could be contrary to the perceptions and assessment of the majority of the
participants.
Concluding Stage
End Stage
In the last stage of the life of a training group, some participants may appear to
be somewhat despondent. The reasons are varied. It is likely that during the pro-
gramme, some participants would have developed strong social relationships. Now
as the programme comes to a close, the prospect of impending termination of this
relationship can be unsettling.
Some participants are not happy at the prospect of returning to their work envir-
onment as this means going back to the same set of problems and situations that
they faced before they left for the training programme. Possibly, training provided
them with a temporary relief from the organisational routine and insulation from its
environment. The prospect of facing the situation all over again can be discouraging
for some.
As the programme nears conclusion, the participants start contemplating transfer
of training to their work and the organisation. If they feel that their working envir-
onment or the attitude of their immediate superiors would not make application of
their new learning possible, their interest in the programme declines further as the
day of reckoning draws closer.
On the other hand, if the organisational environment is compatible for working
and supportive of its staff, the participants will continue to demonstrate interest in
the programme.
As the participants prepare to return to their families, especially after a long-term

residential programme, their interest in the activities could decline. Their thoughts
would be with their families, friends and home.
Some participants experience mixed feelings at this point. There is the pull of the
family, the organisation and return to familiar environment together with the un-
happiness of leaving new friends and relationships behind. For some, it could also
mean leaving behind the excitement and intensity of action and participation.
The participants also go through a process of self-appraisal and self-reflection. They
evaluate their performance, conduct and attitude. Now is the time when they are
truthful to themselves. It is not inconceivable that they may discover new meaning
in the training programme.
Those who did not participate actively or demonstrated very little interest in the
training programme could now be concerned of facing some embarrassing queries
on the programme and their performance. Some fear that their organisation may
even request for a report on their performance in the programme. This can create a
stressful situation. Some resolve their predicament by blaming the training and the
trainers for their lack of interest. Thus, they pass the buck to the training agency. Their
evaluation of the programme or the trainers sometimes reflects this thinking.
If the programme was conducted in the luxury of five-star facilities, some participants
may not be happy to leave the nice, comfortable surroundings and return to their
modest living conditions.
As the programme is about to conclude, the participants see the futility of their
disagreements and conflicts. They realise that the reasons that instigated these
conflicts are no longer valid. Group life is coming to an end. The group may witness
a renewal of the spirit of cooperation and friendliness.
The trainers also go through a process of disengagement, although in a different
way. The programme was a mission for them. Some of them may feel relieved that
the task has been accomplished. But some of them may experience a feeling of void.
As the emotional bond with the group is about to be severed, some may feel a bit
disturbed.
The training team or the trainers also go through a period of unease and concern.
They are somewhat uncertain and even apprehensive of the assessment or evalu-
ation by the participants. They do not know how the participants will evaluate
the programme, especially their sessions. There could be tension among the train-
ers as some of them may have a lot at stake. There could be competition and a
feeling of viewing one another with a certain degree of suspicion and apprehension.
Some trainers may make an extra effort to ensure that the participants evaluate
the programme favourably by lobbying with the so-called opinion makers in the
group.
Role of the Trainer

You must ensure that the programme is not allowed to drift during the concluding
stage. It is important that a state of activity and motivation is maintained, otherwise
some of the gains of the programme could be frittered away. The participants should
leave the venue with their spirits and enthusiasm at a high level. They should be
eager to return to their organisation and make the best use of training in their work
and personal life.
This is also a period of consolidation and reinforcement of learning. It will be useful
to prepare learning packages that bring together the learning of the entire period.
It is a sound practice to take the participants through the events and happenings of
the preceding days (or weeks) and refresh their memory. This will revitalise them
and act as a motive force.
Trainers should assist the participants in the process of termination of the tasks and
disengagement from relationships.
They should prepare them for returning to their homes and counsel those who may
be going through a period of anxiety and disquiet.
Finale
The special characteristics of this final stage are the following:
This is the time to say goodbye to other participants. Some get very emotional about
the situation, especially if it is a long-term programme, and they do not hesitate to
put their feelings into words, but some others are somewhat inhibited.
There are expressions of apology, regret and remorse for behaviour during the
programme. Some are generous in conveying their gratitude with a promise of
maintaining contacts.
Some participants, though, remain detached from the proceedings and go through
it in a casual way.
Role of the Trainer

Organise activities that facilitates the expression of emotions and feelings.
Assist the group to disperse.
A training group is different from other social groups in many ways. The
participants come together in pursuance of established objectives and for a limited
period. Once the objectives are achieved, the group disperses.
All participants do not come to the programme of their own volition. There is
an element of compulsion in some cases. This affects their motivation for partici-
pation and commitment to the group.
The participants in a programme engage in functional or dysfunctional behaviour.
Functional behaviour includes providing support and assistance to the trainers in
carrying forward the training process, encouraging other members of the group
for more productive participation in training activities and assisting in maintaining
group harmony.
Dysfunctional behaviour can range from engaging in actions that disrupt the
sessions or interfere with the training activities to undermining the group processes
by manipulating the group or creating discord among the participants.
It is possible to categorise the participants in a training group on the basis of
their specific attributes and objectives with which they come to the programme.
Among the types generally found in a training programme are learners, self-
seekers, detached or disinterested, socialisers, tourists, critics or fault-finders,
know-alls, hesitant or shy, and monopolist or dominator.
Programme constituents that play key roles in the group process are participants,
programme contents, training team, training agency and the physical environment.
Group process in a training programme can be divided into three main stages:
preliminary, development and concluding. There is, however, no specific cut-off
point that signals the end of one stage and commencement of the next. Sometimes,
one stage merges into another.
The preliminary stage can be further divided into two sub-stages: acquainting and
bartering. During these sub-stages, the participants attempt to know one another
and establish a relationship by exploring and finding out commonalities.
The development stage can also be subdivided into consolidation and dynamic
sub-stages. This is the main phase of the programme where the bulk of action
and learning takes place. There is a lot of activity and the participants are actively
involved in the programme.
The concluding stage can also be subdivided into two sub-stages: end and finale.
As the nomenclatures suggest, during, these sub-stages, the programme draws to
a close and the participants prepare to return to their organisations and families.
8
The Trainer—Roles and Functions
This chapter affirms your position as the key player in the delivery of the training. The
purpose in not just to familiarise you with various facets of the functions and responsibilities
of a trainer and suggest how you can carry them out effectively but also to provide you an
opportunity to undertake an honest and sincere appraisal of your own competence, attri-
butes and values in the context of your role as a professional trainer. This will help to identify
areas in which you need to put in more efforts to realise your mission of becoming a more
proficient trainer. On the basis of your experience, you may add new perspectives to the dis-
cussions. Specifically, the chapter focuses on the following areas:
Trainer—The Person
Portrait of a Trainer—Four Key Dimensions
Training Styles of a Trainer
Dilemmas of a Trainer
Handling Problem Situations
Preparing and Conducting a Presentation or Training Activity
Working in a Training Team—Some Key Elements
Learning Outcomes
List and discuss the roles, skills, qualities and values of an effective trainer.
Discuss the four key training styles of a trainer.
Identify and discuss the major dilemmas of a trainer in carrying out a training
programme.
Understand some of the difficult and challenging situations that a trainer confronts
during training programme and become aware of some possible responses.
List out the key points that a trainer has to keep in view in preparing and carrying
out a training activity or making a presentation in a session.
The trainer is the kingpin in any training programme, perhaps, the most important ele-
ment in the process of training, especially in its delivery. She is also a key stakeholder in the
programme. Her assignment of delivering the programme effectively to the training group
is the culmination of all the efforts that have gone into the planning of the programme and
making it happen. If a training agency is involved in organising the training, its training team
represents the commitment, potential and assurance of the agency. The work of the agency
is often assessed by the funding or the sponsoring agency, and the nominating organisations
by the ability of its training team to successfully deliver the training. Thus, the training
agency is as good as its training team.
The training team or the trainer is the first formal and logical contact for the participants
when they come for attending the training. Even before they arrive, there is a lot of anticipation
and conjectures about the training team—the ability of the trainers, their general demeanour,
attitude towards the participants, and so on. The participants look to the trainers as the
persons who will make their experience during the programme an interesting and useful
one, helping them realise their personal objectives. Some regard them with misgivings and
concern and some with confidence and assurance. Nevertheless, the trainers occupy centre
stage throughout the programme. The participants connect with the agency or the organisers
of the training through the trainer.
In recent times, due to rapid strides in educational technology and its widespread use in
training, the importance of the position of a trainer has to some extent been diluted. The
human factor is at risk of getting relegated to a secondary position with multimedia, audio-
visual materials, computer software, and so on, moving towards occupying a prime place
in training. In cases, where the training has to be made accessible to a very large number
of potential trainees disconnected from one another through distance and physical settings,
perhaps, the extensive use of technology as an integral part of training may be justified.
However, in conventional training, by allowing technology to push the human factor into
background, we will not only deprive training of its distinctive feature of interactive learning
(participant–participant and trainer–participant) but also weaken the functional and more
realistic aspects of training. The face and mind (of the trainer) that guide the learning process
may gradually get blurred. Undoubtedly, training without the human factor will lose its
The Trainer—Roles and Functions 311
appeal and essence for the participants as well as the organisations that send nominees. It
will be increasingly driven by technology and training materials generated through its wide-
ranging use.
It is, therefore, important that the training fraternity should take up the challenge and
ensure that technology does not usurp the role of a trainer. It needs to be acknowledged
that technology has a substantial role in training. It has the potential of not only enhancing
the value of a presentation but also in making the learning process learner-friendly and
interesting. The fatigue factor can be reduced. However, it cannot replace the trainer.
Unfortunately, some trainers themselves are responsible for conceding their role to tech-
nology and the training materials. For personal as well as professional reasons, they take
the easy option of letting the audio-visual materials and computer software, prepared well
in advance of the presentation, take over the session or the training activity. Perhaps, this
is their ‘comfort zone’ with regard to their role as trainer. However, this is tantamount to
abdicating their responsibility as a professional trainer. As the visuals are scrolled up and
down the screen at the flick of the remote, the interaction is more between the participants
and the materials that are being presented. Communication between the participants and
the trainer is minimal. Consequently, there is less scope for the participants to interact with
the trainer at the cognitive level, raise queries, clear doubts, present their views or chal-
lenge the trainer. Besides missing out on knowledgeable and informed dialogue with the par-
ticipants, the trainers lose the opportunity to establish and nurture the trainer–participant
bonding that is crucial to the learning process.
It is, therefore, necessary that you, as a trainer, should decide on the role the training aids
and technology will play in your assignments with the training group. Regardless of the
extent of the use of these materials, it is important that you should always remain in control
of action or proceedings during a training activity. You should not relinquish your charge.
Remember that even when the group (or a subgroup) is given greater responsibility in
controlling the training contents and the process in any training activity, that decision
comes from the trainer as part of the training strategy and her role as a facilitator. A trainer,
therefore, is the prime mover of the learning process in the training programme.
8.1 TRAINER—THE PERSON
In setting out expectations from a trainer, it is important to remember that she cannot be
viewed only as a professional responsible for transmitting knowledge and skills to the par-
ticipants or as an instrument in realising programme objectives. She is also a human being
with a distinct identity and a unique personality. She has normal sensitivities, emotions
and personal needs; her own preferences, biases, strengths and weaknesses. If these two
distinct facets of the trainer are understood by the agency and the participants, there will be
better appreciation of her behaviour and actions. However, the primacy of her position as a
professional cannot be discounted and requires greater focus and attention.
If the competencies, behaviour patterns and values of a trainer are consistent with her
professional role and commitments, she is better placed to effectively fulfil her obligations as
a trainer. If there is a mismatch, it is bound to create difficulties for the trainer and for all those
associated with the delivery of the programme. It must, however, be acknowledged that it is
not always possible for a trainer to break away completely from her biases, sensitivities and
other personal attributes. No attempt should be made to suppress them either. What should
be done is to first become aware of them and then to devise a strategy that will enable you
to manage them in a way that allows you to carry out your professional responsibilities with
sincerity and efficiency. It does not, however, mean that you should create a facade. Your
behaviour and conduct should not betray superficiality. If you aim to become an effective
and successful trainer, you need to be continuously involved in the task of bringing about the
necessary changes in your whole persona in the light of your professional responsibilities.
A trainer grows through her regular engagements with various training groups and situ-
ations. These experiences, pleasant or unpleasant, continuously shape her attitude towards
people, in general, and participants, in particular. Her responses to situations in a training
programme are guided by what she has learnt through these encounters. These experiences
can either reinforce or undermine her faith in people. In the latter case, however, the
trainer should make an honest assessment whether her mindset is affecting her professional
obligations. You have to be accountable to your own self.
There is another factor that has considerable bearing on the work and frame of the mind
of a trainer. Many of them have families with the usual domestic problems and stresses. The
domestic situations have the potential of influencing the moods, perceptions and level of
motivation of a trainer at a given point in time. You need to be conscious of these factors
and keep a close watch on how they affect your behaviour during the programme and your
interaction with the participants. You must learn to manage your stress.
8.1.1 Trainer’s Needs vs Participants’ Needs
Now let us identify the needs of a trainer that influence her attitude and actions in the context
of a training programme. You can become aware of these through a constant process of self-
awareness and self-reflection. You need to be in regular contact with yourself. You must also
have an objective perception of environmental realities and your professional obligations.
Some of the prominent needs of a trainer are listed as follows:
The desire to put up an excellent and effective performance in the programme

is basic to all trainers. However, the strategy or the approach that a trainer adopts
in realising this goal could differ. This need to excel acts as a strong motivating
factor that helps a trainer use her full potential and abilities in carrying out her
responsibilities.
Another prime need is to get recognition from the group and co-trainers for her
efforts and performance. A trainer is keen to be accepted by the group as a trainer
and as a human being. She wants to be respected by the members of the group. In
realising this objective, it is likely that a trainer engages in behaviour and actions
that help her to cover up or minimise her shortcomings and highlight or project her
strengths and competence before the group. This, in fact, is a natural inclination of
most human beings and trainers are no exception. Though in the case of a trainer,
this propensity can be more conspicuous as she has to constantly interact with the
participants and confront situations that test her competence and mettle. In a training
programme, she is continually on trial and under the scrutiny of the participants and
her colleagues in the training team.
Some trainers have a strong underlying desire for power and control. They wish to
be always in command of the situation, whether in the session or outside it. They
may not make it too apparent and even attempt to camouflage this tendency by
pretending to be more receptive and amenable to the participants’ suggestions and
views. The truth, however, can be very different. These trainers will be inclined to use
every opportunity to exercise their authority and leave no one in doubt as to who is
in charge of the proceedings. To some extent this desire to exercise control is under-
standable given your role as a trainer, but better watch out and find out whether
this emanates from a feeling of inadequacy and betrays a lack of confidence in your
abilities.
Some trainers, especially from developing countries, may be used to a culture where
the participants (students) treat a trainer (teacher) with a good deal of deference,
and even, awe. They, therefore, expect the same from the training group, regardless
of the level of the group and nature of the programme. Sometimes, this attitude can
bring them in conflict with the group or the co-trainers.
Keeping in view these needs, you should attempt to maintain a harmonious balance
between your personal needs and the professional demands. It is also necessary that you are
concerned with how others perceive your behaviour and actions. In this task, colleagues on
the training team can be of immense assistance. They can provide you useful feedback but
only if you are willing to take the unsavoury with the savoury.
Perhaps, it is not right to assume that if a trainer endeavours to satisfy her personal needs,
it, necessarily, leads to situations where the needs of the training group will be disregarded
or undermined. When the needs of a trainer are in concord with her commitments to the
training and expectations of other stakeholders, the programme will benefit. For instance,
the desire to excel and to put up a worthy performance can be a strong motivating factor
for a trainer. It spurs her to be innovative, resourceful and to prepare zealously for her
sessions. This, undoubtedly, helps the delivery of the programme and makes the trainer
more effective. Similarly, the need to get recognition and approval of the training group
can persuade a trainer to make a conscious effort to understand the learning requirements
of the participants and adopt a strategy and style of training that help in the realisation of
these needs. This action will, undoubtedly, help the programme.
On the other hand, if the personal needs of a trainer are at variance with either those of
the participants or the demands of the programme, the training suffers. If the desire to excel
is overwhelming, it can force a trainer to engage in one-upmanship with the colleagues,
manipulate the participants for her personal ends or demonstrate intellectual arrogance.
A trainer seeking to satisfy her need to control and exercise authority, contrary to the
requirements of the programme can lead to unpleasant situations and even confrontation
with some participants.
In view of the above, it will be helpful if you undertake a critical self-analysis of your
personal wants and wishes and determine which of them are likely to be supportive in the
realisation of programme objectives and in carrying out your responsibilities and which of
them could act as impediments. This consistent self-reflection goes a long way in helping
you acquire professional maturity. It also helps you adopt a strategy and training style that is
in harmony with the requirements of your role. Your personal necessities should not become
the basis of your functioning in a training programme and interaction with the participants.
What is required is a discreet approach in managing personal demands in relation to those
of your work as a trainer.
8.2 PORTRAIT OF A TRAINER—FOUR KEY DIMENSIONS
When we conjure up a mental sketch of a trainer, many facets and traits of her personality
come to life before us. Her actions, behaviour, attitude and temperament are the pieces that
help us put together a comprehensive picture and provide us with an understanding of the
professional that she is expected to be. In order to perform the roles envisaged of her with
regard to the programme and the training group in an effective manner, a trainer requires a
range of matching skills and competencies, as well as qualities that facilitate her tasks.
In the ‘Introduction’ to the first edition of this Handbook, it was emphasised that training
acquires greater meaning and essence if it has an ideological foundation—a coalition of some
basic social, human and professional values. It was also mentioned that for the purpose of
this Handbook, democratic norms and values are considered key cornerstones of training. It
is important that these values should not only be fully reflected in the training process but
you should also aim to foster them in the participants.
Thus, the ideal portrait of a trainer could be considered to be a configuration of her roles,
skills, qualities and values. These four elements, operating singly or in concert, will govern all
her actions and behaviour in the context of a training programme or the training group.
These are interactive elements and are not exclusive to one another. They influence one an-
other in a significant way. However, a discussion on the roles of a trainer will be more useful
if it takes place in the light of those social and human values that underpin all her actions and
behaviour. Therefore, let us first discuss the particular values of a trainer.
8.2.1 Values of a Trainer
A trainer carries some values historically as an individual, assimilated through the socialisation
process and through involvement in other social processes. But when she starts on her pro-
fessional journey, it is possible that she may have to undergo a metamorphosis to adapt to
the professional requirements and obligations. During this process, she works to suitably
modify her values.
It is possible to identify five overarching values that provide the framework for all actions
and behaviour of a trainer. These values could also provide the necessary motive force to a
trainer for fulfilling her responsibilities in an efficient manner. Some key human values may
be deemed to be subsumed within these overarching values or even contribute to the growth
of these values. However, we will confine our discussion on the values appropriate to the
roles and responsibilities of a trainer. It is suggested that you examine which of these values
you possess and in what degree. In case there are deficient areas, you could decide on taking
the necessary corrective action. These values are discussed in the following paragraphs.
Faith in Training as a Tool for Growth and Development
If you wish to acquire the status of a professional trainer, the first prerequisite is
that you should have an abiding belief in training as an instrument for growth and
change. Your commitment has to be complete. There are no halfway measures, re-
gardless of whether you are a full-time or a part-time trainer. You have to get fully
involved in training. If your thought process and actions do not reflect this, you
should engage in some serious introspection to find out whether you are in the right
profession.
If you are assured of the value of training in the life of an individual, you should
communicate your conviction through words and actions to the participants. It
reinforces their commitment to the training and motivates them for more vigorous
efforts. If on the other hand, you even unwittingly convey a different viewpoint,
your own position as a trainer will be under question. This will also affect the pro-
gramme for which you are responsible.
Some trainers, especially from developing countries, are in the field of training not
out of their own volition but due to the compulsion of circumstances or for other
extraneous reasons. It is, therefore, not surprising if some of them have no faith in
training but yet they continue in the job. It is, therefore, important that the agency
or the co-trainers should discuss this issue with the concerned trainer and make an
effort to transmit appropriate values that help bring her into the mainstream of
training.
Firm Belief in Humanistic Approach in Training
You should remember that a participant has two identities—a learner and an
individual or a human being. And the humanistic approach that we wish to advocate
covers both these facets. This humanistic approach should be central to all your
interactions with them. It should be reflected in the manner you manage training
activities, handle your sessions or conduct your informal out-of-session contacts
with them.
Human dignity should be an article of faith with you. You should respect and
love your participants, regardless of their position in their organisations, their social
status or the level of their intellect. And you should make this known to them
through your communication and actions.
You should be supportive of the efforts of a participant aimed at realising her per-
sonal learning objectives and becoming emotionally adjusted in the group. You
should also be concerned with her development as an individual and willing to
extend encouragement and support if a participant is despondent or feeling low
due to a personal problem. This will strengthen the ‘feel-good’ factor in the pro-
gramme, foster self-esteem and self-confidence in the participants, and stimulate
their participation. An experienced trainer is aware that, in most cases, this positive
attitude and respect is reciprocated and becomes the basis of a harmonious and
functional relationship with the participants. This is a key factor in the effective
delivery of the programme.
As a professional trainer, you should keep your personal preferences aside and adopt
a non-partisan approach with the training group. If, for no valid reason, you are
perceived to be partisan, you will miss out on the support of the entire group. And
if your biased approach is based on religion, nationality, ethnicity, education or
background of the participants, the situation can be worse. It is necessary to put
this point across to you because in cross-cultural groups, the sensitivities of the par-
ticipants are considerably higher.
Commitment to the Programme and Its Objectives
You have planned the programme and now it is your responsibility to deliver it in
accordance with its objectives and the plan of action. As a trainer, you should pledge
your unqualified commitment and interest in the programme, its objectives and the
contents. You should identify fully with it. This, however, does not mean that you
should be rigid about it and consider its contents sacred. It only suggests that no
attempt, direct or indirect, should be made to run it down. If the participants even
get a hint of this attitude through your formal or informal interaction with them,
their faith in the training will be eroded. Their commitment will decline. In the
process, the credibility of the training agency will also suffer.
To further demonstrate your obligation to the programme and its success, you
should be willing to modify its contents, its methodology or your own style of func-
tioning. Under all circumstances, your efforts should be directed at ensuring that its
objectives are realised, leading to success. You should be willing to put in your best
to accomplish your mission.
You should also indicate through your communication that you hold the training
group in high esteem and are enjoying your training assignment and work with the
group. This will also enable you to connect with the participants better.
Professional Commitment and Discipline
A key aspect of your professional commitment is your desire to perform well. You
should endeavour to make optimum use of your abilities and skills. You must con-
stantly strive to improve your performance and grow as a trainer through hard work
and regular self-appraisal. This helps you to become aware of your strengths and
shortcomings. You know what you can deliver effectively and what you cannot. You
should then direct your efforts towards reinforcing your strengths and removing
your shortcomings.
You should abide by the professional ethics and they should provide the frame-
work for your overall conduct and interaction with the participants. You need to be
fully aware of your personal needs that could be in discord with your professional
obligations and ensure that they do not inhibit your actions or impair your capacity
to carry out your responsibilities with earnestness. Plan your strategy accordingly.
As a trainer you often have to work in a team. Therefore, a key professional value
relates to your attitude to teamwork. You should have full faith in your colleagues’
abilities to carry out their assignments in an effective manner. You should be a
reliable member of the team. It is important that your allegiance to the agency for
which you work should not be suspected.
Faith in Participatory Training
Your faith in participatory training is crucial for the success of the programme. As an
extension of your dedication to democratic values and norms, you need to promote
participation of the learners in all training activities and your presentations. You
should have trust in the innate capacity and urge of an individual to contribute to
her own development and growth. The learning or the changes brought about in the
behaviour patterns of an individual with her concurrence and participation are more
enduring.
You should embark upon your assignment with a firm belief that all participants have
a vast reservoir of untapped potential and ability and training can help them draw
from it to bring about their growth and progress. You must make the participants
recognise that it is only through an intense desire and a determined effort that they
can hope to realise this objective. And as part of this process, the participants should
be willing to engage in an exercise of self-exploration and self-assessment. You can,
of course, provide a helping hand through a process of facilitation and support and
by offering suitable opportunities.
You should not feel indignant if someone in the group disagrees with your point
of view or analysis. You should not only accept dissent but also recognise that in a
large group there are bound to be differing points of view on issues or topics that are
relevant to the programme and of concern to the participants.
8.2.2 Roles of a Trainer
In the light of our preceding discussion on values of a trainer, it is now appropriate to move
on and examine the multiple roles that an accomplished trainer is expected to perform in
the context of a training programme. However, it must be pointed out that these roles are
not exclusive to one another and, often, overlap. They are common to all training, although
the relative emphasis on a particular role, its scope and dimensions vary with its nature, dur-
ation and the training group. It is not necessary that you have to carry out all these roles at
the same time throughout the schedule. Any particular role may acquire special significance
(or get emphasised) depending on the situation in the group and the demands of the
programme.
These roles are discussed in this section briefly as you will find a good deal of additional
materials in other chapters of this Handbook. It is hoped that this discussion will enable you
to make an objective appraisal of the level of your own proficiency and skills for effective
performance of these roles.
Planner
Planning a programme is primarily the responsibility of the trainer or the training team. The
management of the training agency may also participate in the process. There are a number
of tasks associated with this exercise. The planning process has been described in detail in
Chapter 4.
Facilitator of the Learning Process
In its simplest form, facilitation means providing resources and arranging facilities
for a session or the programme as a whole. However, in the context of the promotion
of the learning process, it has wider scope and implications. It involves creating a
learning environment that stimulates and motivates the participants for meaningful
participation in the training activities; assists them in discovering the meaning and
relevance of the training to them as individuals and their job; and encourages them
to make optimum use of the opportunities for realising their personal learning
objectives. It also means that the participants are stimulated and even helped to take
on more responsibility for their learning. Your basic tools in carrying out this task
are the use of a variety of training methods and techniques, your training style, the
contents and manner of your presentations, your ability to understand and guide the
group processes, and your interpersonal skills.
The extent to which you are able to effectively carry out this role is a measure of your
commitment to participatory training. It also emphasises your faith in the capabil-
ity of the participants to control and direct their own learning. For achieving your
objectives, it is necessary that you are fully aware of the potential of the group and
strengths and deficiencies of the participants. If more than one trainer is associated
with the delivery of the programme, it is important that the team adopts a common
approach for facilitating the learning process. Otherwise, the participants will get
mixed messages, to the detriment of the learning process itself.
(For cross-reference and more details see Chapters 1—section of ‘Facilitative training’—and 5.)
Subject Matter Specialist
It is a general assumption of the participants that the level and range of knowledge
the trainers possess in the topics and areas covered in the programme are higher
than their own levels. You are, therefore, expected to bring in an appropriate level
of competence and a high degree of proficiency in the subjects or the topics that you
are expected to handle. You need to be fully familiar with various aspects of the
topic, relevant to the demands of the programme and the group. Remember that you
cannot substitute this expertise with your skills in presentation or by other favour-
able transactional elements. The participants look for more substantive contribution
from you to the topics or in the training activities.
The participants expect you to be in a position to clarify issues related to your
topic/module and respond to their queries in a convincing and confident man-
ner. This, however, does not mean that you have to know everything about the sub-
ject. It only highlights the need for you to ensure that you come to the session fully
prepared in the concerned topic/module. If you are not able to appropriately respond
to a query from a participant, it is better to say so. In most cases, the participants
understand this situation and even appreciate your candour and sincerity. However,
if this happens once too often, your credibility, indeed even that of the entire training
team, can get undermined. The participants can even lose faith in the programme.
The ability to deal with a topic or an issue from different standpoints, though, comes
from experience, professional commitment, interest in the topic and hard work. Of
course, a strong desire to excel and to perform progressively better provides the
necessary motivation. Therefore, you should engage in a lot of study and research if
you wish to become an accomplished trainer in your chosen subject or field. Interact
with experts. Consult people around you who are familiar with the topics. There are
no short cuts for becoming proficient in topics of your special interest.
(For cross-reference and more material see the section on ‘Preparing and Conducting a
Presentation/Training Activity’ in this chapter.)
Developer of the Individual
A training programme is not a tool just to enhance knowledge and develop competencies of
the participants. It provides a lot of opportunities to the participants to develop themselves
as individuals, as human beings, regardless of the nature of the training. This is particularly
the case in long-term schedules in which, through sustained interaction with other members
of the group, a participant can learn a great deal about human behaviour and its dynamics.
She can also get engaged in a process of self-analysis and self-assessment that opens up new
avenues of personal growth and development. As a trainer, your role is to provide feedback
to the participants on their behaviour and actions and guide them in the process of personal
development. But you can carry out this role effectively only if you look beyond your
responsibility as a subject matter specialist. And if you are an adherent to the core values of
a trainer—love of human beings and faith in their capacity to grow and develop—your task
is facilitated.
Counsellor
Some trainers hold the view that their responsibility in a programme is limited to its effec-
tive and successful delivery. They argue that they are neither qualified nor paid for assisting
the participants with their personal problems. There is some validity in this contention.
However, here we are not considering the role of a trainer as a professional counsellor. We
are envisaging situations or problems that threaten to adversely influence the capacity and
motivation of the concerned participants to participate effectively in the training activities.
Consider a situation when a participant receives some disturbing news from home; someone
has difficulty in comprehending what transpires in the session or another has a problem of
relationship within the group. In a long-term programme, the stress of being away from your
dear ones for a long period can have a telling effect on some participants. These participants
need help from someone with whom they can bond emotionally. Such cases are appropriate
for your intervention. Any attempt on your part to desist from taking cognisance of the
problem and acting on it will tantamount to disregarding your professional responsibilities
and repudiating the core values of a trainer. A sympathetic ear and some words of comfort,
encouragement and advice will go a long way in assisting the participants to come out of the
situation. You will value the time spent in dealing with these problems.
Manager
In some training agencies, the role of a trainer extends beyond the precincts of a specialist.
She is expected to carry out the additional responsibility of overseeing the administrative and
managerial aspects of a programme. In other agencies, this could well be the responsibility of
the administrative staff. Without going into a discussion on the desirability of this situation,
it will be useful to explore what this role suggests in terms of specific tasks for a trainer. In
case the training agency has developed the programme considering the training needs of its
client organisations, you may be required to market it to prospective client organisations.
Mobilising resources—financial, manpower and facilities—could be another important
assignment for you. During the implementation phase, you may be asked to coordinate the
work of the support staff to ensure that the programme runs on expected lines and there
are no hiccups. In some cases, you may be expected to take administrative decisions as well.
Another significant responsibility is to make the training cost-effective, ensuring that the
agency gets full value for the money spent.
Leader of the Group
As a trainer, you are an undesignated and informal leader of the training group, especially in
the initial stages of a programme. Of course, the strategy you adopt and the actions you take
in pursuance of this role depend on the nature of the training group, the kind of situations
you confront and your own training style. Some of the tasks that you could be expected to
perform as the leader of the group, are indicated below.
It is primarily your responsibility to ensure a smooth passage for the programme.

You should monitor it and if it moves off the course, you should be prompt in tak-
ing immediate corrective action.
You should be equipped and willing to take crucial decisions during the implement-
ation phase. You determine what training activities should be organised to realise
the objectives, you assign tasks to subgroups or individuals and you decide when to
intervene in the group process and what action to take.
There are occasions when the participants look to you for direction and support.
Some of them may even want you to exercise some degree of control and authority
to handle undesirable elements in the group or situations.
You also have a responsibility to counsel the group when it faces a crisis situation,
to intervene and sort out disagreements among the participants or help in resolving
intra-group conflicts.
You must also ensure that participants’ behaviour during the training activities and
in out-of-session interaction conforms to the norms, working procedures and ground
rules, adopted by the group at the commencement of the programme.
Trainer as a Learner
An interesting and exciting part of your job as a trainer is that you get unlimited opportun-
ities to learn. Thus, your participation can be a very enriching experience provided you are
willing to make full use of the possibilities that come your way and are open to new learning.
The participants develop a lot more respect for you if they realise that you are not only open
to learning from them and the training situations but are willing to acknowledge it as well.
It is possible to identify three broad areas in which you can enhance your learning.
The participants bring with them a vast reservoir of experience and knowledge.
Remember that the combined knowledge and experience of the participants far
exceed those of any trainer. Thus, in the process of interacting with them you are
likely to come across something new and interesting that, perhaps, you had not
read, heard or experienced before. There is another important aspect of learning.
When the participants ask you to clarify certain issues or challenge you during a
discussion, you are impelled to draw on the full range of your knowledge and ex-
perience. Many a time, the competence and ability with which you are able to re-
spond to the questions of the participants and clarify issues may even surprise you.
You must ensure that this learning and confidence stay with you. Sometimes, it is
useful to record these points for your own reference later.
Handling a training group often means dealing with 20–30 individuals with vary-
ing personalities, behaviour patterns, likes and dislikes. In dealing with them, you
discover a lot about human behaviour. This adds to your repertoire as a trainer. You
also learn to be part of a team.
Even in the management and administration of the programme there are a number
of lessons to be learnt. The programme is planned, keeping in view the circumstances
prevailing at the time of planning the exercise. However, you come across unforeseen
difficulties and problems and, sometimes, the plan goes awry. Perhaps, you will not
repeat these mistakes when planning your next one. In handling various problems
related to the implementation of the programme also, you develop your problem-
solving and decision-making skills. You learn to cope with difficult situations in an
effective way.
Member of the Group
While, on the one hand, you act as an informal leader of the group, on the other hand, you
remain a part of the group. You should identify with the group and its objectives. The train-
ers, individually and collectively, should conform to the norms of behaviour and working
procedures set out in the initial stages of the programme. In this regard, you have no pri-
vileges. If you accept this position, it sends an important message to the group that the
trainers consider them a part of the larger group. As a result, the participants develop a
healthy respect for you. An attitude of cooperation and mutual support replaces one of con-
frontation and disagreement. This benefits the programme immensely.
Without compromising your position as a trainer and affecting the nature of your pro-
fessional relationship with the participants, it is still possible for you to relate to them
socially. The participants would like you to join them over a cup of tea during intervals or
at the end of a long working day. You should not let this opportunity for strengthening the
bonds with the participants slip away. It is suggested that, as a strategy in residential training
programmes, the trainers should take turns to be present with the group at tea and meal
times. You will be able to connect better with the participants in this manner.
8.2.3 Competencies of a Trainer
In order to perform the roles and carry out the tasks, mentioned earlier, in an effective man-
ner, you should possess a wide range of competencies. Therefore, a relationship exists be-
tween the roles and the competencies as will be evident from Table 8.1.
Table 8.1
Roles of a Trainer and Required Competencies
Roles Required competencies (in)

Subject matter specialist Planning and making presentations
Communication
Receiving and giving feedback
Facilitator of the learning Using various training methods
process Communication
Making presentations
Motivating participants
Using group processes for facilitating participation
Interpersonal relations
Receiving and giving feedback
Manager Coordinating work of those associated with the programme
delivery
Decision making
Mobilisation of resources and financial management
Public relations
General administration
Developer of the individual Communication
Giving feedback to the participants
Using group processes for individual development
Coaching
Counselling
Leader of the group Handling difficult situations in the programme
Communication
Crisis intervention
Conflict management
Decision making
Planner Planning
Some of the key skills of a trainer are discussed as follows:
Planning
One of the key skills of a trainer relates to the planning of a training programme. The process
of planning has been described in detail in Chapter 4. It will help you find out what specific
skills you require in designing an appropriate programme and determine to what extent you
possess them.
Selecting and Using Appropriate Training Methods
By itself, a training method cannot achieve much. It becomes an important tool for enhancing
learning only when it is relevant to the learning objectives and used with proper know-how and
skill. If you are familiar with different ways of making presentations and structuring learning
experiences, you increase your ability to deliver a module or carry out a training activity in the
most effective manner. You should, therefore, work hard to develop the necessary expertise
in a wide range of training methods. With the advancement of technology, new methods of
presenting information and communication are being developed. For example, trainers are
now using multimedia to increase the quality of their presentations. You should, therefore,
keep yourself abreast of the latest training methods and techniques. You should also aim
to devise ways and means to energise the traditional training methods and improve their
application in accomplishing programme objectives. You will be required to adapt various
methods to suit the needs of different programmes and training groups. This enhances your
proficiency as a trainer and gives you a lot of confidence.
Interpersonal
Interpersonal competencies are one of your key assets. It reflects your attitude towards peo-
ple in general, and not just those who are close to you for family, job or other personal
reasons. It is a manifestation of your fondness for people and your desire to establish warm
and cordial relationships with them. As mentioned in an earlier chapter, a sound, cordial
and functional trainer–participants relationship is an important factor in taking the learn-
ing process forward. Connecting with the participants soon after the programme begins will
go a long way in helping you in your tasks as a trainer. Remember that participants come
to the training with different levels of knowledge and competencies, behaviour patterns
and attitudes. It is, therefore, possible that all of them may not meet your expectations
or standards. Your test as a professional trainer lies in accepting them as they are and not
betray any bias or unfavourable attitude towards those who fail to fulfil your expectations.
You should know how to manage your personal preferences when interacting with the
participants and carrying out your assignments in the training. You should also have the
ability to get along well even with those who do not agree with you on certain issues or even
challenge you.
Communication
Communication has two important elements. One is about transmitting your message in a
simple, clear and unambiguous way, reaching out to the participants in a sensitive manner,
stimulating and inspiring them, and creating an environment for learning. Therefore, com-
munication does not just mean a good facility with the language, a pleasant voice or a spontan-
eous flow of ideas and words. It means using a language and words that are understood by
the participants. Remember that training is not an exercise in public speaking or a test of
your debating skills.
Many people find it difficult to say what they mean or to express what they feel. Either
they are not able to find appropriate words that can carry their message or they do not have
the skill or the ability to put across to the other person the intended meaning and purport
of their communication. Therefore, you need to work on this competency. You should not
take for granted that as the topic and your inputs are clear to you, the participants should be
able to understand them without any difficulty. There is an underlying assumption to this:
‘If it is clear to me, it must be clear to you as well’. This is one of the most difficult barriers to
successful human communication. So, be cautious.
Listening is an important and active element in communication. It is often a much more
intricate and complicated process than conveying your message. While hearing is primarily
a physical process, listening is much more. It integrates physical, emotional and intellectual
inputs in a search for meaning and understanding. Good and perceptive listening means
understanding the import and substance of the message communicated to you by the par-
ticipants. Thus, effective listening cannot be regarded as a passive process—just receiving
what is being said. Therefore, you should not rely only on spoken words but go beyond
and ‘listen’ to what is being put across to you between sentences and words. Try to decipher
the feelings and thinking of the participant. And remember, communication from the
participants does not always come through words. You should have the ability to read their
body language and interpret the signals that come from their tone, the manner in which the
words are expressed, their gaze and gestures. You have to prepare your response accordingly.
The manner in which you establish the two-way communication with the participants will
also help you receive and give appropriate feedback on your presentation, indeed, on the
programme.
Communication is not just about sharing information, ideas or viewpoints with the train-
ing group. It also provides you with a sound basis and the medium for establishing bonds
with the participants. Removing barriers and overcoming biases are all part of your commu-
nication skills.
Managing Conflicts in the Group
When a sizeable number of individuals are put together in an unfamiliar setting for a con-
siderably long period in training situation, contentious issues emerge and there are differ-
ences and disagreements in the group. This situation is more noticeable in a long-term
programme. Often, the timing of the emergence of conflict situations in a group is not of
your choosing. These situations, if not prevented or properly managed, can lead to some
very adverse consequences for the programme. Therefore, you should possess the skills that
help you prevent discords and squabbles in the group from blowing up into conflicts. You
should be able to intervene in a crisis situation and handle it in accordance with the demands
of the circumstances. As mentioned earlier, a harmonious and cohesive group is a helpful ally
in the enhancement of the learning process. If some participants or subgroups are regularly
involved in these feuds, the learning process can get severely disrupted, as the energy of the
group gets diverted into wrong directions. It is, therefore, necessary that you develop skills
that will equip you to effectively manage conflict situations in the group, judiciously and
tactfully.
Ability to Receive and Give Feedback
The ability to give and receive meaningful feedback is an important competency of a trainer.
Feedback helps the trainer to evaluate the learning process. It is also a tool for motivating
and stimulating participants. You can obtain feedback by asking questions and encourag-
ing participants to pose queries whenever the issues or your communication is not clear to
them. The feedback allows you to go back in time and revisit what they have said and done.
This reinforces positive behaviour and offers suggestions for changes. Undoubtedly, this
benefits the programme. Developing ability of giving feedback to the participants is also an
important part of the behaviour modelling learning process.
Understanding and Using Group Processes
Group processes are activated right from the time the participants assemble for the training
and terminate only when they disperse after it is over. These play a very crucial role in the
training. It is important that as a trainer you should understand the intricacies and im-
plications of these processes and develop the required abilities and competencies in using
them for furthering the learning process. You must ensure that these processes remain
continuously consistent with your training strategy and are supportive of your actions in
the delivery of the programme and your presentations, thus assisting you in realising your
objectives. A working knowledge of human behaviour and competencies in the management
of emotions and feelings are key prerequisites for effective application of the group processes.
In this context, group processes will include the following specific elements:
Promoting and guiding the interactions in a way that fosters and nurtures healthy
and harmonious intra-group relationships.
Developing a mutual support system within the group that encourages free and
frank expression of ideas and viewpoints and infuses confidence in the participants.
Stimulating interest of the participants in the training activities and facilitating their
active participation.
Providing opportunities for self-discovery and self-analysis; engendering behavioural
changes through interaction and sharing.
Directing the group processes in a manner that enhances learning.
Connecting with the participants at social and professional levels.
Organising and Conducting Training Activities
The nature and scope of a training activity differs. Its duration can vary from a session to
several hours and even a few days. The manner in which you organise and conduct a train-
ing activity and its logistics differs not only in accordance with the training method that you
use but also with the training group. Organising a training activity is, therefore, not a simple
matter but requires considerable skill on the part of a trainer. A lot of elements are to be put
in place before an activity gets under way. Often, you are required to even attend to the nuts
and bolts of the activity. As it takes off, you are expected to take a number of decisions and
initiate action that could impact its dynamics and outcomes. Some key aspects of a training
activity that deserve your attention are the following:
Complete grasp of different dimensions and aspects of the activity.

A thorough knowledge of the training method and competencies for its effective use.
Understanding of your role in the conduct of the activity.
Awareness of the requirements of the group in terms of support, guidance and
assistance as it engages itself in the activity.
Ability to handle situations arising out of the implementation of the activity. Some-
times, you can be confronted by very difficult situations.
Deciding on the approach you should follow in leading the group to the learning
outcomes.
Providing appropriate facilities and physical environment.
Preparing and Making Presentations
A key competency of a trainer is to plan and make effective presentations in the assigned topics
or areas of the programme. She should have the ability to appropriately assess the require-
ments of the programme and the training group, and prepare the content of these presenta-
tions accordingly. The presentation itself can be deemed to be the blending of the knowledge
of the trainer about the subject matter of the topic, her training style, communication skills
and apt use of the training method.
(For cross-reference see the section on the topic in this chapter.)
8.2.4 Qualities of a Trainer
Enthusiastic
You should not only appear to be enthusiastic but also radiate liveliness through words,
actions and behaviour, stimulating the participants and reinforcing the learning environment.
Enthusiasm does not mean being excessively demonstrative in actions or being energetic.
It should be reflected in your communication with the group. It gets manifested in the
manner you organise training activities, including your own presentations, and conduct
yourself during a session and outside it. After all, the training process is not just about trans-
mitting knowledge and developing skills in the participants but it also emphasises the action
you take for carrying out the task. The extent to which you are in a position to generate
interest in the activity (or session) and stimulate the participants for increased participation
is a measure of your involvement in the activity, commitment to training and bonding with
the participants. You should appear to be enjoying your work. All these merge to raise the
level of your enthusiasm.
Enthusiasm is not situational but is often part of your training style. It has been seen
that, generally, the participants are more comfortable with a trainer who is full of life and
vigour than with one who appear to be dull and uninspiring. If you create a facade of being
enthusiastic, the participants are able to find what lies behind it and it will not be long before
you lose the support of the participants and your credibility.
Ability to Work under Pressure
During the implementation of the training programme, anxiety, tensions and pressures are all
over the place. The trainer is not insulated from these. As the programme progresses, there
are occasions when the result of your efforts are not on desired lines. Your plan goes awry.
Unforeseen problems emerge almost from nowhere. The administrative staff is not up to
their task and the participants are unhappy. You are often kept busy for long working hours
and do not have enough time for family responsibilities and other social commitments. This
can result in a lot of stress, affecting your motivation and even efficacy. At times, a feeling of
frustration and helplessness can overwhelm you. You may feel low and discouraged.
To compound the situation further, some participants, wittingly or unwittingly, may add
to your woes. Some of them may test you, challenge you on your ideas and views or ask
questions that are not pertinent to the topic/issues under discussion. Or, they may engage in
behaviour or actions that are not consistent with your expectations. There will be some
slow learners in the group and you may not know how to handle them. You could become
aggressive, irritated and lose your confidence and the ability to deal with these situations. So
there are all sorts of pressures working on you, affecting your motivation and enthusiasm,
even disturbing your rhythm as a trainer. They also test your patience. You should know
how to work through these pressures and manage stress.
Sincerity and Openness
You should never underestimate the participants. They are often smarter than you presume
them to be. They can see through you. So do not pretend or try to be what you are not. Be
sincere in what you say and in your actions and behaviour. Remember that you are under
their scrutiny and watchful eyes even in informal situations. They cannot be deceived by your
posturing, appearing to be interested in your tasks or in them. A rule of thumb, regardless
of the nature of the programme and the level of the group, is that participants appreciate
sincerity and openness. They like trainers who are truthful, genuine and transparent. So just
be yourself and things will go well with you. You will have no reason to regret it.
Be open to new ideas or suggestions that come your way when you interact with the
participants, make your presentations or organise training activities. As mentioned earlier,
a trainer should be a good learner and should not hesitate to acknowledge the learning,
notwithstanding its source. But this can happen only when you are open. Remember that
people can have different viewpoints and yours may not be the most informed or accepted
one. It is possible that during the course of discussion, certain dimensions of the issues may
be presented by the participants that you had never considered earlier. Do not get irritated
or become unnecessarily defensive when you receive adverse feedback from the participants
on your presentations or sessions. Try to find out the shortcomings and take steps to remove
them.
Flexibility
In the context of a training programme, flexibility means that a trainer is sensitive to its de-
mands and the needs of the group at a given point in time. She is not rigid and insists on doing
things her way regardless of these requirements or views of the participants. Remember that
flexibility does not mean unpredictability, lack of decisiveness on your part or vulnerability
to pressures. It signifies willingness on the part of a trainer to listen to other stakeholders
and bring about the desired changes in the programme or in her own behaviour, actions,
training style and the strategy. As indicated earlier, you should also take cognizance of the
feedback received from the participants, analyse it and take necessary action.
Good Sense of Humour
This is a desirable quality in a trainer and a good supportive tool for her. A good sense of
humour does not mean that the trainer has a bagful of jokes for all occasions or has the skill
to evoke instant laughter. Humour is not cracking jokes or clowning about. It is the ability
to keep the environment relaxed, informal and learner friendly through your behaviour and
comments. It is also your wit and responsiveness to a training situation. If this attribute
is used to illustrate or explain a point or incorporate an example or anecdote, it can be an
effective aid in making your presentation interesting and stimulating. Remember that your
comments or repartees should not be offensive or derogatory. Your sense of humour is tested
when the learning environment is tense and there is a need to make the group unwind. You
should be in a position to diffuse the situation. You can even stave off challenge, unseemly
comments or behaviour from a participant through pleasantries or wordplay. However, if
this is overdone or used inappropriately, it can misfire and adversely affect your presentation
and even your position in the group.
A word of caution is essential here. Humour or jokes should not be used to fill time or to
bolster weak material or make up for a poor presentation. The danger of relying too much
on humour is that the participants may remember the quips but not the subject matter. They
may find the session interesting but not useful. If you lack this trait, give yourself time to
develop it.
Willingness to Recognise Good Contribution
Do not hesitate to acknowledge and recognise a good contribution of a participant. This

will win you the respect of the group and help you connect with the participants on a
person-to-person level. This quality is put to test when a participant expresses a viewpoint
that is at variance with the one expressed by you. You should be willing to appreciate it if
you find merit and substance in her views and the position she is expounding. You should
have the skill to turn around the situation and use the opportunity for widening the scope of
discussion, thus, enriching it. In the process, you will enhance your credibility as a trainer.
On the other hand, any attempt to run down a participant or deride a comment can back-
fire on you. Even in cases when comments of a participant are not very focused or you feel
they are not helpful to the discussion, you would do well not to put her down. Be supportive
and attempt to find some substance in them. It is part of your role to assist and encourage
the participants in expressing their views in a clear and coherent manner.
Willingness to Accept Mistake and Apologise for It
Another virtue that can endear you to the participants is your willingness to own mistakes
and take responsibility if you goof up. You should not hesitate to apologise. Some trainers
believe that if they accept their follies, they will make a fool of themselves before the par-
ticipants and this may undermine their position. This is not a correct assessment of the
participants’ attitude. On the contrary, by this action you will enhance your stature and get
more respect from the participants. It does not, however, mean that you should go on piling
mistakes and apologies. You should be cautious and discreet in your actions and behaviour
and put your best foot forward in dealing with the participants. If you have gone wrong
somewhere, accept it without a demur.
8.3 TRAINING STYLES OF A TRAINER
In Chapter 2, we have discussed the learning styles of the participants. Corresponding to that
is the training style of a trainer. We will discuss the topic under four key heads:
Training style—meaning, scope and dynamics.

Determinants of a training style.
Constituents of a training style.
Evolving a functional training style.
8.3.1 Training Style—Meaning, Scope and Dynamics
A training style can be understood as a configuration of behaviour, actions and techniques

adopted by a trainer in communicating with the participants—making a presentation, con-
ducting a training activity, establishing bond with the training group and responding to
various training situations. Therefore, when we speak of a trainer’s training style, we are, by
implication, referring to direct transactions, especially in the context of learning, between a
trainer, on the one hand, and the training group, on the other. In many learning situations
in a training programme, the trainer’s style may not be properly perceived or it may not
be functional as some learning transactions take place between the participants due to the
nature of the training activity.
Training style is not an abstract or a notional entity. It is concrete and tangible. A trainer
is conscious of it and the participants perceive it through the actions and behaviour of a
trainer. It does not remain encased in the mind of the trainer but manifests itself in a number
of ways as the training progresses. Some of these are as follows:
The training methods and techniques used by the trainer in the delivery of the
assigned module or the topic. The trainers who are dominated by a desire to exer-
cise greater control over the training process and the training group are inclined to
use the training methods and techniques that help them realise this objective. Those
who have firm faith in the partnership of the training group in training and in the
empowerment of the group will adopt methods that stimulate active involvement of
the group in the learning process.
The nature of relationship the trainer seeks to establish with the participants as part
of the training process and the approach she follows in managing her relations with
the group. Also, the parameters she sets out for promoting interaction among the
participants.
The extent to which she establishes formal structures and procedures in the conduct
of a training activity, the degree to which she encourages initiative and informality
during a training activity and the course she takes in creating and nurturing the
learning environment.
The strategy a trainer adopts in responding to situations of challenge and in hand-
ling queries and comments from the participants, as part of a training activity. Also,
the way she conducts herself in the face of adverse feedback to her presentations,
performance and efforts.
The ways she deals with the day-to-day problems that arise during the programme,
emergent situations or unforeseen exigencies.
The approach she follows in maintaining consistency and harmony between the
contents of the programme and the training process; her relative emphasis on the two
key aspects of training.
The techniques or mechanism she employs in receiving feedback from the partici-
pants on the learning process or in giving feedback to the participants on their per-
formance and contribution.
The way she handles dysfunctional behaviour by the participants.
8.3.2 Determinants of Training Style
There are a number of factors that become the basis or have a major influence on the for-
mulation of a training style. Some of these factors are indicated in the following paragraphs.
It is possible that in the case of a particular trainer each of these factors may not play an
equally important role. It depends on the context and the parameters within which she
locates her responsibilities and work and what she seeks to achieve through her engagement
with training.
One of the important determinants is the way in which the trainer perceives her roles
in the context of training. Some key roles of a trainer are indicated in the preceding
section. On the basis of her perception of her roles as a trainer and the understanding
of her professional responsibilities and commitments, a trainer decides what roles
need to be emphasised more or given primacy. Generally, a trainer would be willing
to put in an extra effort to develop corresponding skills if she considers some roles
as important in carrying out her professional responsibilities. However, it is possible
that a trainer may give precedence to those roles for which she already possesses the
necessary skills and feels confident of performing them with competence and effec-
tiveness. This will influence her training style.
The extent and profoundness of knowledge a trainer has, in training areas and topics
for which she is specifically responsible in the training programme and the range of
skills (mentioned earlier in this section) she possesses, act as key determinants of a
training style. They affect the level of her confidence in making presentations, con-
ducting a training activity and in relating to the participants. A confident trainer is
inclined to be more innovative and flexible in her style. She will not follow a traditional
or structured approach but will be willing to experiment and create avenues for the
participants to get actively engaged in the learning process. Sometimes, she may
even opt for an informal or unstructured approach, as she feels confident of carrying
the activity to the desired objectives. She will encourage participants’ initiative in
their learning. All this will influence her training style.
A trainer comes to the profession carrying some values that she has assimilated his-
torically. Obviously, some of these values have considerable bearing on her work
as a trainer and influences her training style. They guide her interactions with the
participants and shape her attitude towards them. They determine the position and
status a trainer establishes for herself and the training group in the context of the
training programme. However, as an individual assumes the mantle of a trainer, she
may be amenable to modifying or even changing her personal values. Once she is
in the profession, a trainer becomes aware of the values that are central to her job.
If the two sets of values are consistent, the work is facilitated. However, if these
are in conflict with each other, a trainer has to decide what, if any, compromises and
adjustments she is willing to make to be able to fulfil her professional obligations
efficiently. Short of changing her values or making a compromise, she may even
resolve to put them aside to ensure that they do not interfere with her functioning
as a trainer.
As mentioned earlier, a trainer has personal needs and she seeks to fulfil, at least,
some of them, through the group, the programme and the training situations. She
also has her own agenda to pursue. The approach she adopts in realising these per-
sonal objectives influences her training style. It is, therefore, important that you
should be aware of the consequences of your approach, its negative and positive
implications for your training style.
The nature of the group, its level and special attributes are other key determinants
of a training style. For instance, a training style that yields good results with a group
of senior managers may not achieve the desired objectives with another group, say,
newly recruited young executives.
8.3.3 Constituents of Training Style
In the light of the discussion earlier in this section, it is possible to identify four key con-
stituents that are directly connected to the training style of a trainer. They are: participants,
programme contents or the training curriculum, transactional elements and the trainers or
the training team. In fact, the training process itself can be considered to be the interplay of
these constituents. These four constituents can be outlined as follows:
As the person responsible for delivering a particular training programme, a trainer

is the initiator of all action and activities related to the training.
Participants are the ultimate converging points for all the inputs. As they are the dir-
ect beneficiaries of the programme, all efforts, resources and activities are targeted at
them.
Programme contents or the inputs on various topics or programme areas that are to
be transmitted to the participants to bring about the intended learning and behav-
ioural changes.
There are transactional or supportive elements that help carry the learning to the par-
ticipants and assist in trainer’s communication with them. These are the following.
Training activities or methods, including the printed support materials.
Training environment, including the physical facilities.
Entire pattern of participant–participant and trainer–participants relationships.
Norms and procedures established for the conduct of the training activities and
management of the programme.
During the delivery of a programme, all these four constituents play a crucial role, though
their relative importance and emphasis may differ from time to time, depending on the re-
quirements at a given point in time or demands of a training situation.
It is, however, quite likely that a trainer may have specific predilections or biases for or
against one of these constituents, depending on her perception of a trainer’s roles, her train-
ing style and her general pattern of behaviour. For instance, a trainer may have a strong desire
to achieve results (contents-orientation) and most of her efforts may be directed towards
realising this aim. In such cases, productivity of the group becomes the prime concern. Some
trainers may emphasise the importance of transactional elements. They feel convinced that
once these parameters—living and training facilities, training techniques, and so on—are
taken care of everything else will fall into place. Some trainers are inclined to lend greater
focus to the training group. They believe that the training group is the most important
constituent of a programme and, therefore, keeping the participants in a ‘cooperation mode’,
favourably disposed towards the training and the trainers, is their leading priority. They
will not engage in any behaviour or actions that may adversely affect this equation with the
group. There are, of course, a few trainers who are keen to pursue their own agenda and
realise their personal needs.
With some trainers, training style is more enduring and permanent and they may even
be weighed down by a certain degree of inflexibility. Others may be more open and willing
to adapt their style to the demands of the programme and the situation they confront as
they move on in their task. They are willing to learn from experience. As a result, they may
even develop a variable training style that is more effective. Obviously, this has positive
implications for the programme and the training group.
8.3.4 Evolving a Functional Training Style
Before we discuss the process of evolving a functional training style and attendant con-
siderations, it is necessary to point out that any training style will have a certain core element,
typical of a trainer, reflecting her personal attributes, behaviour patterns and general per-
ceptions. In most cases, this core element is more enduring and stays with the trainer.
However, a major segment of the style is open for you to shape it the way you perceive your
role and responsibilities as a trainer in any given training situation. And it is here that you
have to focus your efforts and energy.
Perhaps, the first step that you should take in the process of evolving a functional
training style is to convince yourself of the need to be open and willing to adopt an
approach that is varied. You should recognise the primacy of the requirements of a
programme in evolving a training style rather than of one or the other constituent.
Your endeavour should be to provide a harmonious blend of the four constituents,
giving appropriate emphasis to them in accordance with the demands of the situ-
ations encountered. A training style should also take into account the objectives
of the programme, special characteristics of the group and the overall strategy the
training team adopts for its delivery. The key to choosing a suitable style is a matter
of deciding what style serves the primary objectives of stimulating and reinforcing
the learning process, enhancing the faith of the participants in the training and
strengthening the credibility of the training team and the training agency. These are
the touchstones of a good, functional and effective training style.
You should assess the role of each of these constituents, including your personal
needs in your endeavour to realise the training objectives. You should carefully as-
sess the implications for the success of the programme if you put greater emphasis
on any of the four constituents and adopt a course of action that helps you avoid
situations that can land you in difficult position. Aim to develop a practical and ef-
fective training style.
(For cross-reference see Box 8.1.)
As mentioned earlier, appropriateness or otherwise of a training style is determined
by the extent to which a trainer takes into account the realities of the situation and
responds to the requirements of the programme. On some occasions, the need to
provide quality inputs overrides all other elements, while, during others, the train-
ing process gets precedence. The importance of providing decent physical facilities
cannot be overstated. Similarly, there are situations when the participants are given
primacy, sometimes, even ignoring its cost to the programme. Also, it will be un-
realistic to completely sideline the personal needs of a trainer.
As the programme progresses and it passes through different stages, your style
should also be suitably modified in accordance with its demands. Evidently, the con-
stituents too will receive varied emphasis at different points in time during the
training. For instance, as the training process gets under way, the focus is on ensuring
that the transactional elements, such as living conditions, training facilities, and so
on, are in place as they contribute to creating conducive training environment. It
is also necessary to establish structures and procedures that facilitate the running of
the programme. There is also a need to give considerable importance to establishing
and nurturing good, functional relationships as the participants have to be blended
into a cohesive, working group. Your style should be based on this assessment.
Therefore, in such cases, a more directive style may be more appropriate. However,
as the programme moves into top gear and the group begins to respond well to the
training activities, perhaps, you should progressively adopt the role of a facilitator,
allowing the group to take greater control and initiative. As this is also the period
when learning is heightened, you should have greater focus on providing quality
inputs to the participants and ensuring you move consistently towards achieving its
objectives.
As a trainer, you should work to a position where you are able to adapt your style
to conform to the requirements of the programme, with confidence and ease. You
should be able to switch from one style to another without affecting the rhythm
or the momentum of the learning process. This ability, though, is acquired with
experience. The basic elements of a training style are evolved through a process of
interaction, experience and experimentation. Through active engagement with var-
ious groups and working in a range of training programmes, a trainer confronts
a variety of training situations. This helps in better perception of the work and
responsibilities of a trainer. Roles of a trainer are defined and redefined, behaviour
patterns undergo changes, there is greater self-awareness on the part of a trainer and
even the values are modified. If the training actions and behaviours are considered
appropriate and effective, they are adopted and become a part of the training style.
But if a line of action has not produced the desired results or the experience has
been frustrating, it is discarded. In the formative stage of a style, it is a matter of
trying new things and finding out to what extent and under what circumstances they
succeed. As the trainer grows in experience, more sub-elements or ingredients could
be included in the evolving style. The process continues, making the training style
a more defined and recognisable entity. This also enhances the training skills of a
trainer, enabling her to adapt her style to suit the requirements of her assignment.
There is another aspect of this process. In the beginning of her career and early
years of grooming, a trainer may either feel more comfortable in exercising greater
control over the training process or go to the other extreme and give considerable
latitude to the participants. However, as she gathers useful experience and grows
in confidence in handling groups and training situations, she evolves a style that is
more consistent with her role and responsibilities as a professional trainer.
Box 8.1
Evolving a Functional Training Style
Avoiding Inappropriate Actions
If inappropriate or untimely emphasis is given to any of the constituents mentioned in
this section, it could have adverse implications for the programme and the training group.
In the following paragraphs, an attempt is made to highlight some of the unfavourable
consequences of such actions by the trainer.
Emphasis on participants or the training group

In such cases, all actions and behaviour of a trainer are directed at ensuring that the par-
ticipants, or at least a majority of them, remain favourably disposed towards her and the
programme. Thus, she exercises minimal control on the learning process or the training
activities. Consequently, effective delivery or achievement of the objectives may take a
back seat.
She is keen to secure the endorsement of the training group even if it involves com-
promising her role and responsibilities. She would like to stay in the popularity mode,
disregarding its negative implications for the programme.
She is inclined to be lax with enforcement of group norms and ground rules and may
look the other way when there are violations by the participants. As a result, group dis-
cipline could be affected, making the task of other trainers a lot more difficult.
As the trainer is keen to seek the recognition of the group, she may make a special effort
to be closer to the opinion leaders of the group. Thus, willingly or unwillingly, she can
divide the group, affecting its cohesiveness, essential for the success of the programme.
Some trainers may not even hesitate to run down the colleagues in the team.
Emphasis on trainer’s personal needs

In order to facilitate the realisation of her personal needs and agenda, the trainer may
choose to exercise greater control over the group and the training process. This can
make her dominant and authoritarian in her approach to the programme and in dealing
with the training situations.
The trainer may even be willing to manipulate the group and use her own colleagues
for securing a position of prominence and influence. For instance, she would like
to take responsibility for the modules or topics that are important, regardless of her
competence.
She does not tolerate challenge and dissent and is likely to respond aggressively when
faced with such situations. As a result, she may not be able to establish or nurture a
sound functional relationship with the participants.
(Box 8.1 contd.)
(Box 8.1 contd.)
If she has overwhelming need for establishing sound social relationships, she may give
prime importance to bonding with the participants.
Emphasis on transactional elements

The quality of the inputs gets less than the necessary attention. Even for the success of
her presentations, she relies more on the supportive role of the transactional elements,
for example, ambience of the place and ostentatious arrangements.
Training activities will be structured in a way that generates interest and excitement in
the group, with little regard for the learning outcomes.
The trainer is concerned about the rhythm and the pace of the learning process and does
not tolerate anything that appears to interfere with it.
Although she considers training methods an important transactional element in the
training process, it is likely that she uses them more for effect than for achieving learning
objectives. It is therefore possible that sometimes, the training methods may not be
appropriately used.
Emphasis on programme contents and programme objectives

All efforts and energy of the trainer are directed towards achieving results. Thus, the
realisation of training objectives and the productivity of the group become her main
concerns. As a result, the training process may get relegated to a secondary position.
This can have severe implications for the programme.
As achievement of programme objectives becomes the overriding priority of the trainer,
participants’ learning objectives and their growth may get ignored. This is particularly
true of heterogeneous groups where the participants may have differing objectives. This
will affect their motivation and interest.
The pace that the trainer sets for the learning process and the approach she adopts
may not be consistent with the existent level of the group or the learning styles of the
participants. This could mean that slow learners, less knowledgeable or inexperienced
participants could get alienated from the learning process.
The predominant concern for outcomes could mean an overdose of inputs. This could
result in overtraining, as the participants may not get adequate opportunities for
internalising inputs or for reflecting on their learning, especially with regard to its
application.
Quality of contribution and discussion, rather than wider participation of the members
of the group, becomes the key concern of the trainer. As a result, the inhibited and the
reluctant will not get the desired encouragement and support from the trainer.
It is likely that she develops a closer relationship with those participants who are
more articulate and are in a position to make substantive contribution to the training
activities.
8.4 DILEMMAS OF A TRAINER
You should know that it is not all hunky-dory even if the programme commences on an
encouraging note. During its delivery, you may face some intricate situations from which
there may not be an easy way out. The options for action may be limited and you may find
it difficult to take a decision, one way or the other. In some cases, these dilemmas may result
from a conflict between your training style, personal needs or attitude, on the one hand, and
the demands of the programme and the group, on the other. Sometimes, these dilemmas
could also arise out of unforeseen events or circumstances. Some seasoned trainers are able
to get out of the situation on the basis of their earlier experience but sheer helplessness
may overwhelm new trainers. In this section, certain common situations that a trainer may
confront during the delivery phase are highlighted. These are only sample situations. You
might have encountered other more baffling situations. The prime objective of discussing
these dilemmas is to apprise you of such eventualities and prepare you for facing them. It
is difficult to suggest solutions that are most appropriate or widely applicable in various
training situations. You or the training team will have to take a decision on the basis of
analysis of your specific situation and circumstances.
8.4.1 Popularity with the Participants vs Effectiveness in Training
On the face of it, these two propositions do not appear to be divergent or contradictory.
A widely held view is that an effective trainer is also popular among the participants. But
experience suggests otherwise. All effective trainers are not popular and vice versa. In one
context, the emphasis is on developing and nurturing cordial and warm relationships with
the participants, with less concern for effective delivery of the programme. The predominant
motivation is to be popular with the participants. In pursuance of this approach, the trainers
may even take recourse to populist measures, such as excessive socialising with the participants,
condoning dysfunctional behaviour or readily agreeing to their suggestions or demands even
if they are not in the interest of the programme. In the other approach, the prime concern
is the effective delivery even if it means taking some unpleasant or unpopular decisions
or action. The trainer is willing to risk her popularity if it interferes with her professional
commitments and obligations. It is not unusual for a trainer to be caught between these two
possible approaches both appearing to be equally plausible and attractive. Experience sug-
gests that a nice and friendly trainer, who is not equally effective, may find favour with the
participants during the training programme, but when they return to their organisations, they
would talk of an effective and competent trainer in far more complimentary words. Therefore,
you should attempt to be an effective trainer with an undertone of humaneness. You should
not ignore the social component of a training programme or be oblivious of the emotional
needs of the participants. Your actions and behaviour should represent your concern both
for the programme and for the participants. You need to strike a good balance.
8.4.2 Move with the Rhythm of the Group or Adhere to the Schedule
Although not explicitly stated, most trainers feel that their primary responsibility is to deliver
the programme in accordance with the plan of action. They believe that the participants,
their superiors in the training agency and colleagues in the training team would assess their
performance mainly on this basis.
Now consider a scenario that is not uncommon for many trainers. The programme is
running behind schedule. Probably, the pace of learning of the group is not consistent with
the expectations. The group is slow in responding to the inputs or the level of comprehension
is low. The trainers often have to spend more time than planned to ensure that learning
objectives are met. Or, the group is highly stimulated. The discussions are generally inter-
esting and there is wider participation. New issues emerge during the discussion, demanding
consideration. The trainers are not in a position to apply the guillotine. As a result, the ses-
sions often get extended. Or, some other unforeseen circumstances intervene and affect the
course of the programme. The training team has a problem on hand and it has to take action
to resolve the problem. It has to decide whether the overriding consideration should be to
follow the training plan or to opt for modifying the plan to accommodate the unexpected
new but meaningful demands. And if so, to what extent, this can be done.
A sound option is to give priority to the learning process. However, it is not advisable to
take an arbitrary decision in the matter. The group should be informed of the situation and
its views should be sought on the future course of action. It may not be desirable to curb
or limit participation. If the group is slow in responding to the training stimuli, the pace of
the programme should be accordingly adjusted. Some special training techniques could be
devised to address the problem. Extension of sessions could be another option that could be
considered, of course, with the consent of the group.
8.4.3 Degree of Relative Emphasis on Group or Individual Needs
A programme is planned on the basis of common or shared needs of the participants. Pro-
gramme objectives are also established accordingly. However, there could be some training
needs of the participants that are not adequately reflected in the contents or modules. Some-
times, the participants are so obsessed with their own learning agenda that if nothing is done
to respond to it, they feel frustrated and carry this grievance back to their organisations.
All your efforts and good work may not come to anything. While it is important that due
consideration should be given to the group needs, there are situations when personal training
needs of the participants cannot be completely overlooked, especially when they appear to
be significant. Now here is a dilemma. The training team has to determine to what extent it
is in a position to accommodate these personal training needs within the schedule. It needs
to decide what training activities, if any, could be included to satisfy these training needs. It
should consider the options that are open to it to take care of the individual training needs
of the participants that are not covered by the contents.
8.4.4 Degree of Control of the Training Process to the Participants
As the training team is primarily responsible for planning and delivering the programme,
it is vested with some degree of authority and control of it. The sponsoring organisations
are also assumed to have implicitly devolved this authority to the training agency and the
training team. On the other hand, some participants, if not the entire group, expect that in
recognition of their level of maturity and experience, they would get some control of the
learning process. Of course, the emphasis that the participants may put on this aspect and
the manner in which it is conveyed to the training team differ from group to group.
In confronting the situation, the team has to look into the options available to it, keeping
in view the interests of the programme. And it has to consider several issues before it takes
a decision. It is definitely not a straightforward matter and there are no clear-cut answers.
Giving control to the group could mean domination of a few individuals. And this could
affect the group processes. The capability and level of the group would also influence the
decision. In some cultures, there is greater dependence on the trainers and the idea of sharing
control of the training process is alien to many. The stage of the programme is yet another
factor that should be reckoned with. For instance, the group is not in a position to take
control of the training process in the initial stages when it is coalescing. Another question
is in what areas the group can be given an acceptable degree of control. The trainers should
also examine their own attitude and approach to this issue. It is, therefore, important that
the training team should carefully examine all these factors before taking a decision.
(For cross-reference see Chapter 1—sections on ‘Participatory’ and ‘Facilitative’ training—and Chapter 5.)
8.4.5 Opting for Quality Participation by a Few or Wider Participation

The easy option seems to be to go for participation by a few as this keeps up the momentum
of the programme. It also saves time and energy of the trainers. Obviously, they will have
to demonstrate a lot of patience and put in considerable efforts if they attempt to get the
participation of most of the participants. Some participants require a lot of cajoling, and
even help, before they open up. Not all trainers possess the technique or the skill in stimu-
lating those who are either reluctant or not in a position to express freely and openly. Ex-
perience suggests that some participants do not take active interest in the training activities
because of personal reasons. Therefore, while on the one hand, you do not want to slacken
the momentum, on the other hand, you feel that the involvement of a higher number of
participants would enrich the discussion and this will benefit the group as a whole. Naturally,
the decision is not an easy one. However, the situation in the group at the given point in
time may provide you some clues to resolve the dilemma.
8.4.6 Timing and Nature of Intervention in the Group Processes

While it is not difficult for a trainer to determine when and to what extent she must involve
herself in a training activity or the learning process, it is not easy for her to decide on the
timing and nature of her intervention with regard to the group processes.
Some trainers are of the view that once the programme gets under way and the group pro-
cesses are put on a proper course, a trainer should not get involved in details or trivialities of
group relationships unless the learning process is affected. They argue that getting implicated
in disagreements or squabbles among the participants means investment of considerable
time and effort and this will distract them from their main tasks. As a result, the programme
may suffer. This intervention may also require certain specific skills that all trainers may not
possess. This group of trainers suggests that working methods and procedures should be
established in a manner that a trainer’s interference in the group process is minimal. On the
other hand, some experienced trainers argue that a trainer needs to be constantly on top of
the group processes, guiding them and ensuring that they remain consistently supportive of
the learning. If a trainer ignores unfavourable goings-on in the group, it is possible that they
may get out of hand and even jeopardise the programme, at a later stage.
8.4.7 Nature of Relationship with the Participants
The nature and form of relationship that a trainer should have with the participants is always
a matter of debate and discussion. Opinions on this issue are divided. Some seasoned train-
ers hold the view that the nature of relationship should be essentially professional, with little
space for interaction at the social level. However, there is an equally strong case in favour
of social interaction between the trainers and the participants. It is argued that this relation-
ship will, undoubtedly, reinforce the training process. A word of caution is essential here.
This relationship should not impinge on the capacity of a trainer to fulfil her professional
obligations or act in a fair and non-partisan way. No special favours should be conferred
on those participants who are close to the trainer. A trainer needs to be extra cautious and
judicious in a relationship with a participant of the opposite sex. In most cases, this defines
the nature and parameters of the relationship between a trainer and the participants. But
the ultimate decision rests with an individual trainer, after considering all the implicating
circumstances and factors.
8.5 HANDLING PROBLEM SITUATIONS
It is not unusual for a trainer to get into disagreeable and, sometimes, intimidating situations
during a session or a training activity. Although some of these situations occur due to events
in a session or trainers’ actions and behaviour, in many cases, the genesis can be traced to
the background of the participants, the level of their motivation and interest, personal at-
tributes of the participants, their earlier training experience and existent dynamics of the
training group. One or a combination of these factors can impel a participant to engage in
behaviour that has the potential of interfering with the progress of a training activity or a
session. Whatever the reason is for a particular kind of behaviour of the participant/s, you
have the responsibility to handle the situations in the most appropriate way, ensuring that
the training process is not interrupted. And often you have to act quickly.
(For cross-reference see Chapter 7, section on ‘Dysfunctional behaviour’.)
8.5.1 Some Sample Situations and Trainer’s Response
In the following paragraphs, some typical situations that you may confront in your work
as a trainer are presented. There could be many more, and some even more complicated
and irksome. The ‘possible reasons’ advanced for each of the situations have been derived
from experience but, by no means, it is an inclusive listing. Human behaviour is so complex
and unpredictable that it does not have the same cause–effect relationship across different
settings and involving different people. Therefore, it is quite possible for you to identify
other reasons for a similar or even the same behaviour in your training group. Similarly, the
‘suggested responses’ offered should be regarded as recommended action or helpful guidelines
to deal with the situation. You might have tried another response and succeeded. The more
important thing is to be innovative in your approach in dealing with such situations.
1. A Participant is Monopolising the Discussion

During a training session, a participant is attempting to dominate the discussion and
be in the centre stage. As a result, you are not able to give any opportunity to other
participants to express their views on the topic/issues under discussion. You are keen
to widen participation.
Possible Reasons
The participant has a high level of self-esteem and feels that she is ‘entitled’ to a cer-
tain level of domination in the group.
Her effort to dominate the discussion may be linked to an excessive desire to secure
recognition of the group. She feels that this could help her get leadership positions.
This behaviour could be a manifestation of her intellectual arrogance.
She may consider this as one-on-one encounter with the trainer.
Suggested Response
Do not get impatient or irritated. Keep you cool. Your strategy should be to handle
the situation without getting into a direct confrontation with the participant.
A sound option is to demonstrate your interest in her comments. If considered
appropriate, quickly summarise the comments. You may even express your ap-
preciation of her contribution. This may, to some extent, satisfy her desire to get
recognition. You may follow this by making a statement such as, ‘You have presented
your views in a detailed way. I think others also have something to share on this issue.
Why not give them an opportunity and hear them as well. This will help us look at other
dimensions of the issue, widen the scope of the discussion and the group will benefit. If we
have time, I will come back to you later or you may like to discuss it further with me during
the break.’ You may also remind the participants of the ground rule that lays down
norms for optimum and wider participation. In this way, you speak for the group
without getting into a face-off with the participant.
Then proceed to seek the views of other participants on the issue.
If this behaviour persists, you can consider the option of speaking to the participant
in private and sharing your concern on her behaviour.
2. Repeated Unhelpful Interventions by a Participant

A participant persists in asking questions and making suggestions that are not relevant
to the current discussion. In fact, this behaviour distracts the group and takes it way
from the main topic. The learning process gets impeded. Some participants feel uneasy.
Some other are visibly annoyed and want to get on with the session.
Possible Reasons
The participant has a high level of self-esteem, either due to her position in the
organisation or due to her own perception of her intellectual capabilities.
She is not interested in the programme and it is her way of holding up the training
process.
This behaviour could be directed at you, trying to provoke or embarrass you.
By engaging in this behaviour, she may be seeking the attention of the group and
asserting her position.
Suggested Response
Do not get provoked. Do not get directly involved with the participant at this stage.
Look for signals, through body language, from the participants on their reaction to
this participant.
Without appearing to be confronting her, ask the participant to briefly indicate in
what ways her contribution is helping the discussion.
Widen the extent of the discussion and bring in some other participants. Solicit their
views. Be careful to invite those who appear to be unhappy with the participant’s
undesired intervention and are capable of articulating their views freely.
If considered appropriate, summarise the comments of other participants and
proceed with the session.
3. Verbal Confrontation between Two Participants

During a training session, one participant presents some ideas and another starts
giving counterarguments, not with a view to enrich the discussion or present another
dimension of the issue but to confront the participant. This develops into a dialogue
that distracts the group and affects the learning process.
Possible Reasons
Both the participants are vying for leadership of the group and this exchange is their
way of asserting their position in the group and getting its recognition.
Both suffer from intellectual arrogance.
The confrontation is their way of settling some personal score (out-of-session
happening).
Suggested Response
Do not get excited. Intervene on behalf of the group and let the participants know
that their behaviour and contributions are not helping the discussion. You may say,
‘We have heard both of you. You appear to have differing points of views. This is ok but I
feel that the group has a right to hear other members as well. May be you can continue your
dialogue during the break.’
Do not ascribe motive or judge their behaviour even if you are reasonably sure of
what lies behind this confrontation. They will defend their position and you can get
into an argument with them.
Remind the group of the ground rule that emphasises wider participation of the
members of the group.
4. Participant Talking Totally off the Point

The contribution of a participant is off the point. She is meandering and is unable to
make a substantive point. The group is feeling somewhat uneasy.
Possible Reasons
The participant has genuine difficulty in communicating her views and ideas on the
topic clearly and explicitly.
For some personal reasons, she has not been following the discussion in the session
properly and finds it difficult to make a meaningful contribution.
The participant is not interested in contributing to the discussion. She just wants to
get the attention of the group and draw the focus on to herself.
Perhaps, in this manner, she wants to mark her presence in the session.
Suggested Response
Give a patient and genuine hearing to the participant and if you find that the dif-
ficulty lies in her communication, assist her by paraphrasing or summarising her
comments. Do not deride or belittle the participant. You must, however, ensure
that it does not become a dialogue between the participant and you. You will only
increase the uneasiness of the group.
If you find that the problem is the lack of comprehension on the part of the
participant, give a quick recap of the key points of the preceding discussion. It will
benefit all those who have similar problem.
Do not attempt to ignore the participant. Also, do not labour too hard. Move on.
5. Distractions through Regular Movement of the Participants

A few participants are constantly going out and coming in during the session. This
movement is distracting others and affecting the tempo of the discussion.
Possible Reasons
The topic of the discussion is not relevant to the participants.

The presentation is not stimulating.
These participants are not interested in the discussion or the topic.
Suggested Response
Engage in self-assessment and examine whether your training style or presentation

has contributed to participants’ behaviour. You should be willing to take the respon-
sibility, if the appraisal suggests this.
If so, take appropriate action. Modify your style. Perhaps, a change in the training
method may help. For instance, pick up some key points out of the discussion and
divide the participants into smaller groups. Greater involvement of the participants
is a useful option.
Invite views of other members of the group on the relevance of the topic or the
presentation. Their endorsement will alienate the ‘deviant participants’ and, hope-
fully, the situation will normalise.
Remind the group of the ground rules. Without appearing to be irritated, just tell
the group, ‘I think if we can settle down quickly it will be possible to make progress in our
discussion.’ Or ‘If you suggest we may take a break for five minutes so that some of you can
attend to urgent calls’.
6. Distraction due to Private Conversations.

A few participants are engaged in private conversation while the session is in progress.
Possible Reasons
The topic of discussion and/or the presentation does not interest them.
Perhaps, the participants are sharing a point or two on the topic itself. Or, a par-
ticipant is helping another in following the discussion. Some are reluctant to ask a
question or seek clarification from the trainer and, instead, prefer to get the help of
friends sitting next to them.
These participants are not interested in the training.
Suggested Response
Like in the previous situation, you should assess your own role in causing the par-
ticipants’ behaviour. If so, take necessary corrective action.
Take notice of the situation and good humouredly ask whether you could have the
benefit of the conversation. Do not ascribe motive to the behaviour, as it is quite
likely that they are indeed sharing a point or two related to the discussion.
Ask the participants whether you could be of any help in getting across the discus-
sion points to them.
Use non-verbal communication to indicate that the behaviour has been noticed.
A pause in the middle of making a point can send an effective signal to the
participants.
Ignore the behaviour and continue with the session.
7. Challenge by a Participant
A participant who does not agree with your views and comments expresses her dis-
agreement in the form of a challenge to you.
Possible Reasons
The participant has a point of view that is different from yours and feels that she can
contribute to the discussion.
This is an expression of her underlying hostility towards you. The hidden agenda is
to provoke you or put you in an unpleasant situation and watch the drama.
This behaviour represents an attention-seeking strategy. Perhaps, the participant
is looking for a position of influence and importance. Generally, a participant’s
challenge to a trainer is considered a bold and courageous action and, if successfully
carried through, wins the respect (or awe) of the participants.
Suggested Response
Notwithstanding the motive of the participant, your strategy should be to keep

your composure and remain unruffled. Do not get provoked. This will earn you the
appreciation of the group.
It is prudent not to get involved into a direct argument with the participant. Other-
wise you may play into her hands.
Reflect on the viewpoint of the participant and summarise it. Express your appre-
ciation of the participant’s contribution and explain the points of agreement and
disagreement in the two positions.
Invite other participants to express their views.
You should be willing to accept the participant’s point of view if it has merit and
substance. Otherwise agree to disagree.
8. Lack of Participation
You feel that only a few participants are contributing to the discussion. A majority of
the members are just listening.
Possible Reasons
The participants do not have much to contribute on the topic or issues under dis-
cussion. Perhaps, they are also not sure how their views and contribution will be
judged or valued by other participants and the trainer.
It is likely that the self-conscious and reserved participants do not find the training
environment conducive to their participation.
They are in awe of those who are able to express freely and explicitly and feel that
they lack competing communication skills. They suffer from a sense of inadequacy.
They are not interested in the topic and/or the discussion.
They are showing their indifference to the training or the trainer.
Suggested Response
Remind the group of the ground rules on optimum participation. Make it clear that
you expect participation from most of the members, as this will enrich the discussion.
Check with the group in a subtle way to find out the reasons for lack of participation.
Use your persuasive ability.
Invite one or two silent participants to contribute. Take care that you do not coerce
or embarrass them. You should pick on those who appear to be less inhibited and
their body language suggests that they would be willing to share their views with a
little bit of encouragement and coaxing.
Once the process starts, there is generally a chain reaction and some other participants
also pick up the confidence to share their views.
If some participants are not able to communicate well, you should be prompt in
helping them. Supply a word or two, add a phrase or a sentence or paraphrase their
comments, without appearing to be patronising.
Relax the atmosphere through your actions and words, facilitating participation.
9. Lack of Responses from the Participants

You raise a question or attempt to elicit comments or views of the participants on an
issue, but are met by a stony silence.
Possible Reasons
The participants have not fully understood the issues under discussion or are not
clear about what you expect from them.
The question has not been properly framed.
The training environment does not facilitate participation.
If the session has just started, perhaps, they are in the process of settling down and
getting into a proper frame of mind for the discussion. If you are near a break, the
participants believe that their comments might extend the session. They want to
avoid the situation.
Suggested Response
Rephrase the question or your statement and check with the participants whether
they are comfortable with it.
Summarise the key points of the issue/s under discussion.
Identify someone whose body language suggests that she wants to say something
but is restraining herself, waiting for someone else to break the ice.
Call on your sense of humour, de-freeze the situation and then proceed to continue
the session.
If you are near the break, wind up the session.
8.5.2 General Strategy to Deal with Problem Situations
In the preceding section, some specific situations were taken up to highlight the approach
you can follow to effectively deal with similar situations. In the following paragraphs, some
guidelines are given to further assist you in planning your overall strategy or line of action
to deal with a variety of other situations that you may confront as a trainer. This will enable
you to develop appropriate skills as well.
Engage in an Objective Analysis of the Situation
Before formulating your response to a particular situation, you should engage in its
proper analysis. Perhaps, it will be pertinent to consider it in the light of the state of
the group, its specific attributes, your own training style and other ground realities
of the programme. All this will influence the happenings in the group.
An important factor in an objective analysis of the situation is that you do not

prejudge participants’ behaviour and actions. Some trainers are inclined to rush to
an interpretation about a participant’s behaviour. They shape their response on the
basis of this initial perception. You should be willing to give the benefit of the doubt
to a participant even if you are reasonably sure of the motive or agenda behind a par-
ticular behaviour or intervention. It is not unlikely that your interpretation could be
inaccurate.
Do Not Lose Your Cool or Get Irritated
An old adage says that ‘the moment you lose your temper or raise your voice, you
have lost the argument’. This is equally valid in a training environment, especially
if you find yourself in a combative situation with an individual or a small group
of participants. Do not get unsettled by a challenge. Managing your feelings and
remaining in control of yourself and the training activity is crucial to your position
and credibility as a trainer.
Have faith in your ability to handle situations that may arise in the sessions or during
other training activities. You must remember that it is not always possible to foresee
such situations in a programme and, therefore, you cannot always be prepared for
such eventualities. Your faith in your capability to face up to challenging situations
in the training gives you a lot of confidence. Avoid getting direct help from some
participants in dealing with such situations, as this makes you dependent on them.
This may have unpleasant implications for you.
As indicated elsewhere in this Handbook, as a trainer, you should have monumental
patience and tolerance. If you are inclined to get irritated easily or lose your temper
in a huff, you may ponder over whether you are in the right job. Of course, you have
the option of changing your behaviour patterns to make them consistent with the
requirements of this profession.
Use Your Sense of Humour to Your Advantage
Whenever you are faced with a tense or stressful situation in a training session, summon your
sense of humour to diffuse it, without causing hurt to anyone. This is not to suggest that you
should interrupt the proceedings and crack a joke or tell an anecdote. You should engage the
group in communication or action that helps to release the tension or relaxes the stressful
atmosphere without digressing from your main objective. Some suggested expressions are
as follows:
‘Oh! Come on, let us not generate heat without light. Let us see what the silent majority has to say
on this.’
‘I think we are all tensed up and need a brief break.’
‘It is sometimes good to have a charged atmosphere and a heated argument but not always. We
have had enough of it. Now let us get on with the session.’
‘Since the topic has generated an interesting discussion, we can consider having a special informal
discussion on the issue and sort out the matter.’
‘Come on, let us not get personal in this and keep the focus on substantive issues.’
Periodic Reminder to the Participants of the Ground Rules or Group Norms
One way to keep the potential troublemakers in check and facilitate the functioning of the
group is to periodically remind the group to conform to the norms and ground rules es-
tablished at the beginning of the programme. Experienced trainers make it a point to develop
some typical phrases or styles to prevent problems from occurring or getting out of hand.
Common expressions used by them include the following:
‘Please hold your question/comments. We will come back to you in a few moments. Perhaps, you will
get a better opportunity to express yourself.’
‘I believe that every member of this group is capable of expressing her/his views. So, let
everyone speak for herself/himself.’
‘Let us agree that no one monopolises the discussion. This will allow time for everyone to
contribute. This will, undoubtedly, enrich the discussion as all of us have something sig-
nificant to share.’
‘Before we respond to comments from others, we should make sure that we have fully under-
stood what they are trying to convey. This is the essence of a meaningful discussion and
productive engagement.’
‘We should be careful lest we hurt others when they do not deserve it.’
‘Do not take a pot shot at others. It may come back to you later.’
‘This is not the test of your language and communication skills. The key point is how well
you are able to get your views across to other participants.’
Communicate with the Participants on a One-to-one Basis
As indicated earlier, it is absolutely imperative for you to develop a healthy and positive
person-to-person relationship with the participants, without compromising on your pro-
fessional responsibilities, values and ethics. It is often difficult for an individual or a group
of participants to give you a hard time or remain distant from you if you have shown an
interest in them. This is not to suggest that you should develop special relationship with
some individuals or subgroups of participants.
Avoid Confrontation with a Participant
Never pick up an argument with a participant. Remember that no trainer has ever
won an argument or a confrontation with a participant. Even if you score a point by
making the participant accept or agree to your viewpoint, it is quite conceivable that
in the process you would have lost the group and damaged your relationship with
it. You might have even mortgaged the programme to it.
Whenever one or more participants confront you, broaden the scope of the discus-
sion by inviting others to express their views. If you use smaller groups and other
devices to involve everyone, you are in a better position to deny a position of influ-
ence, domination or power to a few individuals.
Acknowledge the value of a participant’s contribution even when her views are
contrary to those held by you. Show interest in what a participant is trying to convey
and do not hesitate to applaud a good point or comment. This keeps off the potential
instigators.
Identify with the group and remind the members that you are as much a part of it
as they are.
Make an effort to safeguard the interests of those who appear to be in a vulnerable
position. If someone is being targeted or ridiculed, find something positive in
defence of the person or provide an explanation that helps the individual.
Make Use of Body Language
You do not have to always rely on your verbal communication. A lot can be conveyed
through non-verbal communication. So where appropriate, let your body speak for you. A
pause in the midst of your communication, a glance at the participants, a thoughtful posture,
gesture of the hands, or a shift in your physical position could do the needful.
8.6 PREPARING AND CONDUCTING A PRESENTATION OR TRAINING

ACTIVITY
The objective of this section is to provide some basic guidelines and offer a few suggestions
on what action you need to take when planning and conducting a training activity or a
session. These should be taken only as indicative parameters that may be suitably modified
to accommodate your specific requirements with regard to any training activity or method
for the delivery of a module or topic.
8.6.1 Preparing for a Presentation or Training Activity
Compiling Relevant Information on the Training Group
Before you set about preparing for the presentation, it is necessary to know your
group, to the extent it is relevant, for your presentation. They are your addressees;
the focus of your effort and communication. This aspect is particularly important if
the group is heterogeneous—participants are from different nationalities, from rural
and urban areas, with varying educational backgrounds or holding vastly different
positions in their organisations.
You also need to be familiar with the general dynamics of the training group—
participants’ learning styles, patterns of relationship, leadership in the group, the
articulate and the silent elements, the level of self-esteem, and so on.
Part of your task is to identify those who are capable of taking responsibility for
specific tasks in the training activity you propose to organise as part of your pre-
sentation. For instance, if you are planning to use role-play, you need information
on the participants to enable you to allocate suitable roles. And if you wish to use
group discussion or some other group activity, you should have some thoughts on
who could provide the leadership in the subgroups.
You should also make an objective assessment of the general level of comprehension
of the group and participants’ existent knowledge about the topic and related issues,
allowing for personal variations and dissimilarities. Your task is difficult if the par-
ticipants are drawn from different organisations or it is an international group.
But this information not only helps you in developing proper material for your
presentation but also gives you a few clues for determining the standard of your
inputs.
In setting the level of your contents, you need to ensure that the more knowledge-
able and informed do not find it too low and lose interest in the session. At the same
time, some others do not fall behind as they find the level too high for them and
the pace far too much. It is not possible to offer readymade solution to this prob-
lem as the situation could differ from group to group. However, you may consider
the option of pitching the core of the contents (and the degree of the discussion)
somewhere in the middle. This enables you to raise or lower the level of your
presentation or contents of the discussion with relative ease, in accordance with the
feedback you get from the group. Raise it when you find that you could lose the more
informed and the knowledgeable, but help the other group through explanations,
clarification and examples. Lower it a bit if you find that the latter group is not fully
grasping the contents. But make sure that you maintain the tenor and substance of
the presentation or the discussion.
If it is a multicultural group, it is helpful to note the participants’ prejudices or
sensitivities in relation to the topic and related issues. This helps in avoiding any
controversy during the session or the training activity.
Developing Contents for the Topic
It is assumed that the relevance of the topic or the module to the training has been duly
established. You should accept the assignment only if you feel confident of handling the
module in accordance with the requirements of the programme and you are fully conscious
of the length and breadth of your competence and expertise in the topic. Specifically, you
need to attend to the following tasks:
Make an earnest effort to gather information and ideas on related issues through
reading and consultation. You must ensure that the material you develop for your
presentation and/or discussion in the group helps you handle the topic from various
angles and perspectives and enables you to present your viewpoints. The facts and
figures, if needed, should be looked up and confirmed. Remember to bring in an
element of originality in the analysis of the issues related to the topic, your personal
contribution. This gives you more confidence.
Regardless of the training method used for delivering the module, you will be
required to give your inputs, either at the beginning of the session or as closing
comments and summing up. Therefore, you need to prepare suitably for the dis-
cussion, either leading to the training activity or arising from it. Identify the main
issues or points that you wish to highlight or focus on. This will ensure meaningful
participation of the group in the training activity and a stimulating and productive
discussion. Envisage the points when your intervention may be required, ideas that
would require further clarification and questions that are likely to come up during
the session/s. If you are adequately prepared to handle such situations, the quality
and substance of the discussion are assured.
If the module requires several sessions, draw up a plan that clearly indicates how
you wish to deal with various aspects or sub-topics. This enables you to establish a
linkage between different sessions, thus, enhancing learning.
The way you use the material on the topic depends on the method/s you wish to employ
for its delivery. For instance, if you select the case study method, role-play or group or indi-
vidual assignments, you need to decide what part of the material will constitute the intro-
duction to the topic or the module, what comprises your subsequent interventions during
the discussion or the training activity and what will be given as summing up inputs. Some
material, undoubtedly, is generated through the training activity, discussion in the session/s
and comments of the participants. You should also have the ability to integrate this material
with that prepared by you.
Setting out the Learning Objectives
You should carefully set out the learning objectives for the session. In order to establish
realistic objectives, you must decide what areas of growth and development are likely to be
focused upon during the training activity or the session, for instance, passing information to
the participants, growth of knowledge, development of skills or fostering certain appropriate
values and attitudes.
(For cross-reference refer to the section on setting out learning objectives in Chapter 4.)
Deciding on the Training Methods
The next step is to decide on the training method/s. The process through which you
decide on an appropriate method has been described in detail in Chapter 6 of this
Handbook. Particular attention should be paid to the learning outcomes you expect
from the session/s.
Some methods, such as role-play and case study, require a great deal of preparatory
work on the part of the trainer as well as the training group, to ensure success. Simi-
larly, if you propose to use software or other advanced technology, you may have to
prepare a lot of material in advance of your presentation. The nature of preparations,
however, depends on the topic and the learning objectives and, therefore, no useful
suggestions can be offered here.
(For cross-reference and details on ‘Training methods and techniques’ see Chapter 6.)
If you decide to give some exercises or assignments or want the group to be involved
in some practical work, you need to make advance arrangements, ensuring that all
the required facilities are available for smooth conduct of the activity. For this task
you may have to give prior notice to the support staff. Do not leave this arrangement
for the last minute as you run the risk of not being able to get the necessary facilities,
thus jeopardising your assignment. If you propose to divide the group into smaller
subgroups for more intensive discussion, you need to set out the issues, the basis on
which you wish to divide the group into subgroups and the mode of discussion. This
enables you to obtain optimum results from the exercise. Also, you must decide on
the question of leadership of the discussion groups and the reporting procedure.
Preparing and Distributing Support Materials
An important decision that you are expected to make is on the support materials required
for the session in the form of handouts, notes, and so on. This is an important part of the
preparation for the conduct of a training activity or a session, often not given adequate at-
tention by the trainers. It is not unusual to hear the participants complain that they did not
have enough time to prepare for the session or the training activity, or that a summary of the
discussion would have been useful. Act before the suggestion comes from the group. Prepare
the materials, arrange for their production and decide on the timing of their distribution to
the participants. It is likely that some or all of the materials may have to be distributed well
in advance of the session to enable the participants to go through these as part of their
preparation for the discussion or participation in the activity. Some materials could be given
as handouts after the module has been completed, some as a summary of the discussion and
some as key learning points. Besides preparation of learning materials, you may need to
develop or procure some audio-visual aids for your presentation.
Establishing Mechanism for Feedback and Evaluation
You would also like to get feedback from the participants on your presentation or the train-
ing activity. The participants would also be interested to know how you assess their partici-
pation and contribution. Therefore, you need to decide on the mechanism you wish to adopt
for the purpose, ways to receive feedback from the participants and giving them feedback
on their performance in the session. This should inform them of the contribution they have
made to the session or the training activity, and in what ways the activity has helped in their
learning. You may be required to prepare suitable materials for the exercise.
Deciding on the Equipment Required for the Activity
For the conduct of the session or the training activity, you may require special facilities and/or
equipment, for instance, extra rooms for group discussion, role-play or group assignments,
special sitting arrangement for conducting exercises or administering training instru-
ments, computer and monitor, digital video disc (DVD) player, overhead projector, display
boards, and so on. You must ensure that appropriate persons in the administration are in-
formed about these requirements, well in advance to avoid any hassles during the training
activity.
8.6.2 Attributes of an Effective Presentation
Some of the specific aspects that could assist you in enhancing the quality and effectiveness
of your presentation are illustrated below.
Opening the Session/Introductory Remarks
The manner in which you open the session or introduce the topic is crucial as it
sets the tone for the training activity or your presentation. If it is the first session on
the topic or the module, you should share the scheme for dealing with the topic and
invite suggestions from the participants. You should also set out the objectives you
aim to achieve. If considered appropriate, display the outline and the scheme for all
to see. It is tactically important to obtain agreement of the group on the learning
objectives and the session plan. This helps in establishing a positive relationship
with the participants, stimulating their interest in the topic and motivating them for
active participation. You thus make your task easier.
If you are continuing from a previous session, it is always helpful to recapitulate
salient points of the last session and proceed from there. You will thus be able to main-
tain continuity and also prepare the participants for the session.
Depending on the training method you wish to use for the topic, you should also
decide the scope of your opening inputs on the topic. As mentioned earlier, for some
training activities you may be required to introduce the topic in a manner that the
participants are able to understand its framework, sets the stage for the activity
that follows, and facilitates active and meaningful participation by the group in the
training activity.
Self-control, Level of Motivation
Self-control is an essential element of an effective presentation. It is, therefore, im-

portant to subtly convey the message to the participants that you are in complete
control of yourself and the session, without appearing to be arrogant or brusque.
You will be able to attract their attention and win their respect only if they are con-
vinced that you are fully prepared for the task ahead and possess the necessary
knowledge about the topic, have a clear plan for conducting the activity and skills to
communicate with the group.
It is not unusual even for an experienced and accomplished trainer to feel a bit ten-
tative and anxious when facing a new training group for the first time. However,
once the session or the activity gets under way and a good functional rapport has
been established with the participants, it is possible to relax and even enjoy the
experience of interacting and working with the group.
During the presentation, you must remain in constant touch with your own level of
motivation and enthusiasm and evaluate whether you are reaching out to the group.
If the level of your motivation comes down, the participants are quick to notice that
and, correspondingly, their interest will also slacken. You must also maintain your
active interest throughout the training activity.
Individuality is an essential feature of effective presentation. Do not try to emulate
someone else (probably the one who in your view is a successful trainer) but project
your own personality. Rely on your personal credibility and standing.
Delivering Your Inputs
Plan your inputs in a manner that one component or aspect of the topic leads to an-
other in a natural, spontaneous and harmonious way. Consistency should not be lost
when you move from one argument or issue to another. The participants should
be able to clearly perceive the linkage. This helps in learning and ensures that the
interest and motivation of the group stays at high level. You also remain in complete
control of the session and the topic. Do not hesitate to make generous but proper
use of examples and anecdotes. Where necessary, make use of the white board, flip
charts or other such appliances as visual aids for your presentation.
It is important for you to ensure that you do not expend your energy and enthusiasm
right in the beginning of your presentation. Many trainers start in a very lively and
vigorous way but are unable to maintain that level. Your demeanour may give you
away and once the participants are able to make it out, their interest too may decline.
Therefore, set a pace in your presentation or in discussion that is appropriate for you
as well as the group. In fact, it is advisable that you begin somewhat on a moderate
scale and gradually raise the level of intensity, energy and enthusiasm.
Use of Notes
If you have prepared notes for your presentation, their effective and discreet use is
a key element of your presentation. The participants do not appreciate total de-
pendence on the prepared notes as this indicates lack of preparedness or confidence
on the part of a trainer. It is suggested that while the emphasis remains on making
the presentation in an informal manner, it is not improper to refer to the notes
periodically. Your notes serve as reference text, ensuring that you cover all the
points identified earlier. These glances, however, have to be careful and short. Long
glances may distract the group, momentum may wane, the link with the group may
be broken and there could be a lapse or shift in attention during the intervening
period.
Perhaps, as you get experienced you may move closer to a position where reliance
on the notes is reduced to the minimum. However, remember that when you carry
notes to the session, the group gets the message that you have spent time preparing
for the session. This gives the participants a sense of importance and esteem and they
are likely to respond by showing respect and appreciation for your efforts. This helps
you start on a positive note.
Interacting with the Group
One of the key aspects of your presentation is the manner in which you carry the
group with you, maintaining a consistently high level of interaction with the par-
ticipants, through words or your demeanour. In fact, this is a measure of your
confidence in yourself and your control of the situation and depends on the degree of
your preparation. There are a number of ways of maintaining communication with
the group. Put a question to the group, not to an individual participant, without
appearing to be intimidating or challenging the participants, invite comments on the
points or issues covered by your presentation, encourage them to ask questions or
simply facilitate their participation. Your body language should make it abundantly
clear that you welcome interventions by the participants. If you notice that a
participant wishes to say something, through her body language or other gestures,
be prompt in giving her a chance. You should design your presentation in a way that
you create a lot of opportunities for participation by the group. This will enrich your
presentation and you also keep the group with you.
(For cross-reference see Chapter 5, section on ‘Using question–response approach for
enhancing participation’.)
You must have the ability to keep the atmosphere relaxed and informal during the
presentation. It does not mean that participants should be joking and clowning about
with one another. They should remain very much a part of the action. When the
participants are free from anxiety and tension and not inhibited, they are encouraged
to participate with greater vigour. They do not hesitate to make contributions and
ask questions. These are indicators of the level of interest of the group in the train-
ing activity.
Handling Questions
Handling questions competently and with dexterity is an immensely valued skill of a trainer.
As part of your preparation for the presentation, you should plan for possible questions
from the participants. This will help you handle them with confidence and composure, thus,
enhancing your credibility with the group.
(For details refer to the section on ‘Using question–response approach for enhancing participation’
in Chapter 5.)
Integrating Participants’ Comments with Your Inputs
As you move forward with your presentation or inputs, there may be several inter-
ventions from the participants: raising queries, offering views on the issues you have
put before the group or responding to your questions. These comments may provide
you with some substantive material on the topic you are dealing. Sometimes, they
give you an excellent opportunity to broaden the scope of the discussion or to raise
its level. Do not miss it. Your task is to integrate these contributions with your own
inputs.
It will be helpful if you take down the key points raised by the participants. This
facilitates discussion and enables you to cover all the issues introduced by them.
Adhering to the Time Schedule
It is important that you start the session at the scheduled time and pace your presentation
and discussion in such a way that you do not overshoot the allocated time for the session.
Language
You must use straightforward and learner-friendly language. Do not try to impress
the group with your vocabulary, high-sounding terminology or by using jargon that
may not be understood by all. If need be, elaborate on difficult terms that you are
constrained to use. You ought to be careful in what you say. Do not say anything
that can be misinterpreted or misunderstood, is derogatory or may cause offence to
any member of the group or is frivolous.
Do not use strong language. Avoid making sweeping or categorical statements,
as these may be open to challenge and queries. It is advisable that such state-
ments should always be qualified.
Body Language
Often, your body language conveys a lot more than your words. Generally speak-
ing, your postures, gestures, eye contact, manners and movements constitute your body
language.
If the communication is informal and spontaneous, the posture should reflect this. A
comfortable and relaxed stance conveys to the participants that you are in complete
control of yourself, the group and the situation.
Gestures should be natural and spontaneous. Actions and gestures assist in com-
munication, increasing your energy and enhancing your self-confidence. Do not
appear to be theatrical by throwing your arms around, as this is likely to distract the
participants. These could be used to emphasise or reinforce a point. If certain actions
and gestures are repeated too often and without relevance, they are seen as physical
mannerisms and have an adverse effect on your presentation.
Maintaining a regular eye contact with the group is an important element for effective
communication. You should ‘speak’ to each and everyone in the group and not
appear to be directing your communication at only a few. Every participant should
be made to feel that she is having a dialogue with you even when there is no verbal
exchange. Some trainers have the tendency to look in a particular direction or at
specific angles, creating ‘blind sides’. Some others get so fixed in their gaze that it
makes the participants coming directly under it uncomfortable. Still some others
may be tempted to look into the direction of the participants who ‘appear’ to be
enjoying the presentation by giving endorsing nods. All these tendencies should be
avoided as some participants may feel left out of the interaction and lose interest in
the presentation.
Voice and Tone
You relate to your group with your voice and tone. Your voice should carry your
words to the farthest corner of the room. It should be soothing and pleasant to the
ear and not jarring and intimidating. The tone should be appropriately changed
to convey confidence, emotion, emphasis or indignation, reflected in high or low
pitches. If the tone remains at the same pitch or level, it can inflict boredom on the
unsuspecting audience.
A well-balanced pace makes your communication listener- and learner-friendly,
allowing the participants to keep abreast of your words. Speaking haltingly or with
long pauses is not recommended. There should be proper pauses between words
and sentences as this makes the presentation more effective and attractive. If you
have made a substantive point or a profound statement or a key point, pause a bit
longer to let the idea be fully comprehended by the participants.
There should also be proper integration of your voice and gestures. If you do not
take care of this aspect, your gestures may appear to be superficial.
Manner and Movement
Your manner should reflect courtesy, poise and sincerity and not arrogance or lack of defer-
ence to the group. If the physical setting for the session does not restrict your movements,
use them for making the environment relaxed and informal. These should assist your com-
munication. A forward movement will indicate that you want to be near the participants and
also want to hear if anyone has a query or seeking a clarification. Do not stride up and down
the room or prance aimlessly. Another golden rule is that you should never turn your back
to the participants. You lose contact with them. An advantage of your movements is that the
eyes of the audience follow you, and if the presentation is interesting, the movement may
heighten interest of the participants and keep them alert and attentive.
Acting on the Feedback
It is not only important but also necessary to receive regular feedback, either directly or
through body language, from the participants. You need to be sensitive to the vibrations and
messages coming from them. This will help in proper understanding and interpretation of
their communications. This also ensures that you are in concord with the group, making it
possible for you to make necessary adjustments to your presentation. One way of getting
direct feedback and maintaining a rapport with the group is through asking and encouraging
questions. You need to develop your ability to make intelligent use of these questions and
comments to complement your presentation.
Evaluating the Learning Outcomes
You should also decide on the mechanism for appraisal of the session, not necessarily, as a
part of the formal evaluation but mainly to assess whether the learning objectives have been
met and, if not, what more could be done.
To help you plan your first session with a training group, some guidelines are suggested
in Box 8.2.
Box 8.2
Your First Training Session
Your first session with the group is very crucial. It sets the tone for your future sessions. It
helps you establish a bond with the participants as a group and also as individuals. It can be
used for building up an association that will see you through the training programme. It is,
therefore, important that you should give adequate attention to all the details.
It is desirable that you are near the entrance of the classroom a few minutes before the
time for the session. This way you have an opportunity to get connected with them even
before it commences. Greet them when you enter the room, acknowledging at least some
(Box 8.2 contd.)
(Box 8.2 contd.)
of them by name. (It is a good trick of the trade to make a conscious effort to remember
their names.) Take time to make an eye contact with most, if not all, participants. Make
some casual introductory remarks. This is another way to get related to the group. In the
process you put the participants at ease, especially those who might be anxious or tense. If
you launch straight into the session, the important part of building a bond will be missing.
You must regard participants not just as learners but also as individuals with normal human
emotions.
If your presentation is organised and the participants get an impression that you have
invested considerable efforts in putting together a plan for it, they will appreciate your
hard work. This will also give you the ability to handle various situations during your pre-
sentation. You will feel more confident.
As this is your first session, it is good to convey the participants a subtle message that
you are happy to be part of the team that is responsible for delivering this programme.
Tell them that you are here to carry out an assignment that interests you and you have the
necessary expertise and experience for the task. If necessary, briefly tell them about your
professional background relevant to your assignment. This will establish your credentials
with the group and give you confidence. However, do not appear to be boastful or
eulogising yourself. Some trainers give a bio-data highlighting areas of their expertise and
previous assignments. This is not necessary. It can raise expectations very high and your
performance will be assessed accordingly. Some may consider it unnecessary.
Do not be paternalistic or condescending. Be deferential and polite.
Express your admiration for the group. Acknowledge participants’ importance to
their respective organisation by underscoring positive aspects of their nomination to the
programme. Give them affirmative reinforcement. Remind them of their responsibility
as a stakeholder in the programme. Too much praise may appear to be out-of-place and
superficial. The participants may perceive it as an attempt to befriend them to get a favourable
response to your session. They may even suspect your ability and get an impression that
you are not sure of yourself. Some may even consider it a facade.
Your first half an hour with the participants is crucial for you. You need to be careful. It
is during this period that the participants evaluate you as a professional and knowledgeable
trainer, somebody from whom they can learn. Your first encounter with them was as a
person. Now as you begin your training session, you are perceived differently. You will be
evaluated for your performance. So make a good beginning.
8.7 WORKING IN A TEAM—SOME KEY ELEMENTS
It is important that the training team works as a cohesive team, each member supporting the
efforts of the others. Proper functioning of the team is crucial not only for the success of the
programme but also for the image and credibility of the training agency. The team should
project a corporate image with every member contributing to the success of the team and
following a common agenda. If the members pursue their personal motives, there could be a
conflict of interests. And it may not be long before the participants are able to see through it.
Remember that the team is under constant scrutiny of the participants and their perceptions
of the functioning of the team can influence their motivation and attitude. They convey their
views to their respective organisations. Any unfavourable assessment can undermine the
credibility of the agency as well.
Functioning of a training team has professional as well as human aspects. The interaction
between the members of the team should contribute to the professional growth of all mem-
bers, regardless of their experience and level of competence. A team will be more effective if
its members complement one another in terms of areas of expertise and experience, covered
by the programme. Usually, in a team, there are varying degrees or levels of expertise and
experience. It is, therefore, necessary that those with more experience and a higher degree
of competence are willing to provide professional support and guidance to their less-
experienced colleagues, without appearing to be paternalistic or overbearing. They should
not feel intimidated by the presence of senior colleagues. Many a time, the presence of
a senior colleague in a session rather than being reassuring can make a less-experienced
member nervous. This situation should be avoided.
If the members of the team are full-time staff of the training agency, there is a need to
foster and nurture an enduring and mutually supportive relationship. Each member should
feel assured that she has the active support of others. Working in a team can be a very en-
riching and stimulating experience, leading to personal growth. But a constructive climate is
an essential precondition. Team functioning should also infuse a sense of belonging in every
member of the team. Bonding with other colleagues should be a very satisfying experience for
all. Working together can also be a productive exercise in human relations, self-expression,
tolerance and in developing respect for others’ point of view.
A good team works on the principle that the energy, creative strength and effects of the
team are more than the aggregated energy, creative strength and effects of individual mem-
bers. Synergy of efforts, competence and personal attributes is important. Some of the key
elements that help a team function more effectively are discussed below.
8.7.1 Clarity on Team Objectives
The first task in building a team is to establish its objectives. These objectives should be con-
sistent with the overall framework of the programme, the goals and working methods of
the training agency, job profile of the trainers and their professional commitments. They
go beyond the programme objectives. They should also suggest what the members would
achieve as a team and as individuals through this collaborative effort.
The team objectives should be evolved through consultation among the members of the
team, with every member contributing to the process. As these objectives constitute the
basis of the actions and behaviour of the members, it is important that every one in the team
fully understands the implications of these objectives in the context of her professional com-
mitments and personal conduct during the programme.
8.7.2 Proper Allocation of Roles and Responsibilities
A good team is built when every member feels that she has something substantive to contri-
bute to its overall mission. When an individual is aware of her role and responsibilities in the
context of the overall assignment for the team, it gives meaning and direction to her efforts.
No member should feel that she has the expertise that has not been properly and optimally
utilised for realising the team’s objectives. It is a major factor in team building. Therefore,
the decision on allocation of roles and responsibilities to the team members is significant.
The designated leader of the team must make sure that the existent expertise and creative
strength of the team are fully realised. When the tasks correspond to the competencies of an
individual, motivation is enhanced. This is a stimulant for a competent performance. The
members are encouraged to give their best to the team. However, an important prerequisite
for this exercise is that every member should know what she can realistically and effectively
deliver in the programme and not what she wants to do. However, there should be scope for
growth and new initiatives but no room for bravado.
Every member should have a role and functions to carry out. There should not be any
overlap or conflict in the roles but each should complement the others. To the extent
possible, it is desirable that there should not be any hierarchy in the roles in terms of their
value to the programme, as this could lead to a scramble to secure the more prized or coveted
assignments.
8.7.3 Sound Working Procedures and Norms of Functioning
There are some critical issues to the functioning of the team that must be dealt with well in
advance of the programme. One of them is about establishing the decision-making mechan-
ism. Who will initiate the process of decision making? Who will ensure that this exercise
is productively and suitably carried out? Who will be responsible for the implementation
of the decisions? The decision-making structure, in fact, constitutes the leadership pattern
in the team. This may not be a formal position of leadership but it fixes the responsibility
for overseeing the work and functioning of the team. This mechanism also establishes the
procedure and rules for accountability and reporting. Unless these are specified, the team
members can go adrift without anybody controlling their actions and behaviour. This can
adversely affect the implementation of the plan of action. The standards, against which the
performance of an individual will be appraised, should also be defined and agreed to. The
expectations from one another should be expressed. It is also important to lay down general
working procedures and norms in realising the team objectives, prescribing some do’s and
don’ts for the members, where necessary.
8.7.4 Sound Interpersonal Relations
Sound interpersonal relations are important for the development of a highly functional and
productive team. Mutual trust underpins all relationships and a training team is no exception.
Trust infuses better understanding and appreciation of one another’s actions and behaviour.
Transparency is an essential virtue in the team members. Actions should be carried out openly
and not in a surreptitious manner. There are no hidden agendas. Interpersonal relations
thrive on communication. Views and opinions are exchanged freely and frankly, and there is
constant flow of information among the members. Disagreements are expressed openly and
without rancour or bitterness. The issues that can cause discords are discussed thoroughly
and not ignored or swept under the carpet. There is an environment of cooperation and
mutual support. There is no one-upmanship among the team members.
8.7.5 Regular Review of Work
A regular appraisal of its work is important for effective functioning and growth of a training
team. During the delivery phase, this review has considerable meaning and significance as a
wrong step by the team or a trainer can have adverse consequences for the programme. It
is, therefore, necessary that a mechanism should be put in place, well before it commences,
providing for constant generation of data that assist in this appraisal. This review should
focus on the working of the team as a cohesive unit, and performance and conduct of its
members. The extent to which the team’s objectives are being realised and the manner in
which the trainers are carrying out their assignments are some of the issues that should
be addressed by this review. As mentioned earlier, it is useful to establish some minimum
standards for the team members. The review can be based on these criteria.
The criticism should be constructive, offered with the sole objective of assisting in the
improvement of the functioning of the team, as a whole, or the performance of a member,
in particular. It should not be done with the motive of deriding a colleague. It is equally im-
portant that any criticism expressed during the team’s meetings should be taken in a posi-
tive spirit.
For planning a co-facilitating session, some guidelines are suggested in Box 8.3.
Box 8.3
Co-facilitating a Session—Some Guidelines
Determine learning outcomes for the topic, module or sub-modules.
Decide on the method/s for the delivery.
Prepare the contents.
Discuss and agree on the main areas or issues that would be covered during the presentation/s.
Identify different dimensions and viewpoints.
This is a crucial aspect of the presentation/s. Here, it is necessary that the trainers pool
their knowledge and experience, keeping in mind the level of comprehension and
other special needs of the participants. They may draw from their earlier encounters
with similar groups. If opinions are to be expressed and the trainers expect some
issues may evoke controversy, they should thrash out these points in advance.
(Box 8.3 contd.)
(Box 8.3 contd.)
This can save possible embarrassment during the session. The trainers should also
agree on the points that need to be emphasised during the presentation.
Outline the respective roles for each member of the team
Who will be the lead facilitator and who plays the supporting role? It is not necessary
that these roles should stay for the entire presentation. The trainers may decide to
reverse the roles, with each taking the lead for different parts of the same presentation.
But too many changes can distract the participants.
Make the presentation
Decide on the sitting arrangement for the session. It is important that the trainers should have a line
of interaction through eye contact. This enables them to communicate with the body language. A lot
can be achieved through strategic sitting.
If the supporting trainer feels that the participants are not getting the point, she may assist the lead
trainer by raising a question. The lead trainer should pick up the signal and elaborate or clarify the
point. However, this intervention should be subtle.
If there is a need to add a point or reinforce ideas, the supporting trainer should do it in
a discreet way. It should not appear to be an interruption or an attempt to score a point.
Perhaps she may begin with these words: ‘Just to add a point to what my colleague has
said…’
The supporting trainer must ensure that by her intervention, she does not open a new
avenue of discussion or take the group away from the points presented by the lead trainer.
If the lead trainer feels the need for presenting another opinion or viewpoint on the issue, she
should take the initiative. ‘It will be useful to listen to the views of my colleague on
this issue. Perhaps she can add to what I have said or present another point of view
that may help in the discussion…’ This will be a live demonstration of team work.
Interventions by the support trainer should not be long, otherwise it can take away the focus
from the lead trainer or even the topic.
In any event, the trainers should not enter into any arguments with each other. This is
courting trouble and embarrassment.
The lead trainer should sum up the discussion and close the presentation, but give a chance
to the supporting trainer to add to what she has said. This ensures that key points are not
missed.
Besides being a trainer, she also has a personal identity as an individual, with
personal needs, values and attitudes. Her actions and behaviour should be
understood and interpreted in this context.
A trainer is a multifaceted individual. She has to carry out some designated roles
in accordance with professional expectations from her. She is equipped with
competencies that enable her to carry out her responsibilities in a proficient and
effective manner. She also has personal values and qualities. Together, these four
elements constitute the portrait of a trainer.
The following are the important values of a trainer:
Faith in training as a tool for growth and development.
Belief in humanistic approach in training.
Commitment to the programme and its objectives.
Professional commitment and discipline.
Faith in participatory training.
Among the key roles of a trainer are the following:
Planner.
Facilitator of the learning process.
Subject matter specialist.
Developer of the individuals.
Counsellor.
Manager.
Leader of the group.
Trainer as a learner.
At different stages in a training programme, these roles are emphasised, in relation

to the requirements of the programme.
Among the important skills a trainer requires to carry out her functions are the
following:
Using training methods.
Communication.
Interpersonal.
Managing intra-group conflicts.
Giving and receiving feedback.
Understanding and using group processes.
Organising and conducting training activities.
Among prime qualities of a trainer are the following:
Being enthusiastic about the job.
Ability to work under pressure.
Sincerity and openness.
Flexibility.
Good sense of humour.
Willingness to recognise good contribution.
Willingness to accept mistake and apologise for it.
A training style can be understood as a configuration of behaviour, actions and

techniques aimed at promoting the learning process in a training programme and
realising its objectives. Training style is determined on the basis of perception of
roles by a trainer, her values, repertoire of skills and knowledge, personal needs
and nature of the training group.
Trainers, participants, programme contents and transactional elements are
constituents of a training style.
A trainer faces a number of dilemmas during the delivery of the programme. She
has to decide on the degree of control she must exercise on the group and the
learning process. Another major dilemma is to what extent she can go to satisfy
the needs of the group, as a whole and some sections of the group. It is really
striking a balance between being effective in the programme and yet remaining
popular with the group.
Proper functioning of the training team is crucial not only for the success of
the programme but also for the image and credibility of the training agency.
The team should project a corporate image with every member contributing to
the success of the team and following a common agenda.
Key elements that help a team function effectively are the following:
Clarity on team objectives.
Proper allocation of roles and responsibilities.
Sound working procedures and norms.
Sound interpersonal relations.
Regular review of work.
9
Evaluation of a Training Programme
After having completed the task of delivering the programme, it is now time to look back
and appraise how the event was conducted and what have been the outcomes from the
efforts of the training agency and the training team. We have to reflect on the messages
that have come out from the programme—in terms of its planning and delivery, its general
administration and the manner in which the main stakeholders carried out their respective
responsibilities. There are a number of issues and factors that need to be put under the
scanner. As part of the training team, you may be tempted to believe that all went well and
you have put in your best. However, such confidence should be supported by concrete data
and information generated through an exercise carried out with sincerity of purpose and
objectivity. Specifically, this chapter focuses on the following areas:
Evaluation—Need and Purposes

Stages of Evaluation in a Training Programme
Conducting the End-term Evaluation
Measuring Participants’ Learning
Learning Outcomes
Specify the needs and purpose of evaluation.

Describe specific features of evaluation at different stages in a training programme.
Develop appropriate instruments and tools for measuring the participants’ learning
in a training programme.
Any activity consuming resources of an organisation or an agency needs to be evaluated

to assess the returns—in terms of the expected outcomes, cost-effectiveness and on the basis
of indicators of success—on the investment. Evaluation of a training programme can, thus,
be viewed as a process of gathering data and information by the agency or the training team
responsible for organising the programme, to establish its value. Was it worth the investment
in time, effort and cost? That is the key question to be answered through evaluation.
In training, the participants are the immediate and direct beneficiaries. They are expected
to use the learning for their personal as well as professional growth. It is also assumed that
they will transfer the acquired knowledge and competencies to their work (or life) situations,
benefiting the organisation that nominated them. Thus, they constitute a major group for
appraising the usefulness of the programme. The other stakeholders—the organisations, the
training agency and the trainers—also have their own specific interests in the evaluation,
though the nature of their concerns varies. Perhaps, the stakes are the highest for the training
agency and the trainers as they have put in a lot of resources in terms of time, effort and
cost. However, it has been observed that all agencies do not show similar earnestness for
evaluating the training programme. While some consider it a worthwhile exercise, others feel
that once the programme is delivered, they must move on to other assignments and com-
mitments. They do not feel the need for it. Some trainers would like to rely more on their
intuitive feeling and observations. If there are favourable visible indicators or manifestations,
they conclude that the programme must have been a good one. If, on the other hand,
there are signs of disquiet and lack of enthusiasm, they feel that things have not gone well.
But, in either case, the desire to have an organised and scientific evaluation is absent. The
interest among the nominating organisations also varies. If they have financial stakes, by
way of bearing the expenses, fee, and so on, they are interested to find out the benefits of
the training that have accrued to the participants or indirectly to the organisation. On the
other hand, if the organisation had no financial liability, it may just ignore any suggestion to
appraise the outcomes. With the stakeholders having such varied approaches to evaluation, it
is not surprising that it has not received the attention it deserves. It is with this aim that we
had discussed the concept of contracting in Chapter 3. Contracting with key stakeholders—
participants and the nominating organisations—emphasises their responsibilities to find out
to what extent each has carried out its part of the contract. Thus, there is built-in need
and scope in contracting for mutual accountability and for evaluating the outcomes of the
training as envisaged in the training design.
Evaluation of a Training Programme 371
Another key question with regard to evaluation is its costs. While the pre-training and
end-programme exercise may not cost much but if the agency is interested to find out about
the impact and the changes the training has brought in the job behaviour of the participants,
it should be prepared to invest in terms of funds and time and effort of its professional staff.
Many agencies may not be in a position to make that commitment. Therefore, the uncertainty
about the value of evaluation among its stakeholders prevails.
9.1 EVALUATION—NEED AND PURPOSES
It is necessary that the evaluation is carried out in a professional manner using objective
and scientific methods. You should ensure that the data generated through the exercise are
authentic and reliable as these could become the basis for taking crucial decisions and action
for future initiatives.
9.1.1 Need for Evaluation
As mentioned earlier, there are a number of stakeholders in a training programme,

though the nature and extent of their interest in its success differ. The participants
who were earnest in learning and participating in the training activities and had put
in hard work are keen to find out how the trainers and the training agency evaluate
their efforts. Some of them may also feel accountable to their organisations and
consider the formal appraisal of their performance in the programme as a testimonial
of their contribution and active involvement. However, some may be indifferent to
it as they are well aware that their efforts and contributions were nothing to speak
about. Therefore, they may even make light of the exercise.
A training agency that is desirous of establishing or maintaining its credibility with
client organisations would be keen to put on record its performance during the
delivery phase, especially if it has reason to believe that it was an excellent effort.
On the other hand, some agencies may shy away from evaluating their work for or-
ganisational reasons or wish to keep the data confidential and use the information
gathered for internal purposes only.
The trainers have a lot more at stake than other partners. The extent to which a
trainer feels the need to evaluate her performance depends on her personal attitude
and the value she attaches to the evaluation. If a trainer feels that she invested a huge
amount of time and effort in her assignments, perhaps, at the cost of her personal
needs and comforts, she will be keen to find out the result of her work. An up-and-
coming trainer, driven by a desire to grow and establish herself as a professional
would like to evaluate her performance to identify areas in which she needs to put in
more work to become an accomplished trainer. For a professional trainer, a training
programme is not just an assignment or a task, but much more than that. There is
an emotional bonding with it and the group. It is, therefore, natural that she is keen
to find out how she had carried out her responsibilities.
The organisations want to be informed of the outcomes to enable them to identify

the benefits that are likely to accrue to them. Some of them might demonstrate an
interest in the performance of their nominees just to make sure that the time spent
by them away from their official responsibilities was productive and useful.
The donor agency is concerned whether it has got its money’s worth. It may also
want to ensure that the programme was carried out in accordance with its policy and
guidelines. Their future financial commitments may be determined on the basis of
this evaluation.
The programme was planned and organised with certain training needs in mind. It is,
however, quite conceivable that these needs might have undergone some changes as it
progressed. New training needs might have emerged as a result of interaction among
the participants and also between the trainers and the participants, necessitating
changes in the contents. For the training agency and the trainers, the task is to find
out to what extent the changes were appropriate and relevant to the requirements of
the training. This information will help them in future planning. It is also necessary to
examine whether the needs assessment exercise was flawed, and if so, to what extent.
Even the best plan can, sometimes, go awry and not be implemented in its totality.
The programme was planned on the basis of certain assumptions but, during its
implementation, some unforeseen factors might have intervened in its delivery,
affecting the training process. There could be considerable variance between what
was planned to be implemented and what was actually delivered. So it is important
to find out the gap between what the agency had set out to achieve and what it ac-
tually accomplished. This will give the planning team a lot of useful information and
clues about the process of planning and implementation.
In some cases, it is also worthwhile to establish the validity of training as an impor-
tant tool in professional and personal growth of an individual. Generally, this query
is not raised because it is assumed that the very process of designing and delivering
the programme to a group of professionals nominated by recognised organisations
has affirmed the status of training. In some cases, however, this assumption can be
open to a closer examination.
9.1.2 Purposes of Evaluation
The value of the information generated by the evaluation exercise is determined by its
usefulness for the people who receive it—training agency, trainers and the organisations. It
is, therefore, important that before the trainers undertake the task, they should be absolutely
clear about what uses they are going to make of the data. Some agencies or trainers take it
up merely to demonstrate their ‘professional approach’ to training. They give little thought
to its purpose or content. The result is that participants spend a good deal of time and
efforts in providing the feedback, but the data are neither analysed nor used. In some cases,
the responses are simply filed away and the training team gets busy with the upcoming
assignment.
It is important to first establish the purposes for which the evaluation is to be carried out,
before undertaking the exercise. Evidently, these will be closely related to the programme
objectives. This will help you in preparing appropriate tools and instruments for receiv-
ing appropriate feedback. The aim of the evaluator is to do a sound job with the available
resources, in terms of both time and personnel.
The primary purpose of evaluation is to improve training by discovering which train-

ing processes are successful in achieving their objectives, to sort out the good training
from the bad.
From the point of view of the training agency and the trainers, evaluation itself
constitutes a learning process. It is a tool for growth. Different units and personnel
may be involved in the delivery, emphasising the need for a coordinated approach
and effective monitoring and supervision. And evaluation will indicate to what
extent they have worked together for the success of the programme.
The evaluation may suggest new approaches in designing the programme. It may
highlight adequacy or otherwise of pre-training preparations. It may bring to light
hitherto unforeseen factors. All this will help the training agency to work continu-
ously towards improving its work and functioning and not remain content with
what it has achieved. The agency must constantly strive to improve. The exercise can
also generate data that help the trainers in identifying their strengths and weaknesses.
They can then work towards improving their performance.
Two similar groups may have varied perspectives on the same subject matter. Their
response to the same training activities may also be contrasting. The evaluation data
enable the trainers to compare the response of diverse groups to the same learning
stimuli. This will help the trainers widen the range of their response to a variety of
learning situations and enable them to hone their training skills. A trainer may well
be on course to become a ‘person for all groups and situations’.
Since evaluation affects learning, it can be put to use as a training aid. Knowledge
that results from an activity or action will be appraised and can itself become a
motivating factor for learning. It facilitates more effective learning.
Data generated from the evaluation exercise may also help the training agency and
the trainers formulate the plan for follow-up with the nominating organisations.
9.2 STAGES OF EVALUATION IN A TRAINING PROGRAMME
Evaluation can be carried out at different stages of the programme. However, it should be
seen as a process or a system, in which all stages and components are interrelated and mutu-
ally dependent and supplementary to one another. What is required is the collation of the
data in order to arrive at sound and firm conclusions. In most programmes, the evaluation
can be carried out at four stages, each having its own relevance and significance, depending
on their nature and what they are attempting to achieve.
9.2.1 Pre-training Evaluation
The pre-training evaluation has considerable significance for the trainers as well as the par-
ticipants. It is an exercise that deserves to be carried out with earnestness and objectivity.
Unfortunately, however, not many training agencies or trainers attach much importance
to it as they feel that this will not have any implication for the programme that they are
about to roll out. These trainers, at best, consider it a ritual that needs to be gone through to
lend credibility to training and to create a facade of professionalism for the training agency.
This is, however, a myopic view of pre-training evaluation. The result is that the exercise is
gone through in a perfunctory manner and no productive use is made of the data generated by
it. The time and effort, therefore, are wasted.
Some uses of pre-training evaluation are as follows:
Perhaps the most important purpose of the exercise is to generate data that will
serve as the basis for measuring the learning accruing from the training. These data
help in establishing the level of the knowledge and skills the participants possess
in relevant areas at the entry point. Later, by comparing the pre-training and end-
programme data, it will be possible to scientifically demonstrate the learning that has
resulted from the training activities. This activity has special significance in in-service
training where the objective is to enhance the level of the participants’ competencies.
These data are useful for the trainers/training agency as also the organisations that
have nominated participants.
The data can help the trainers establish a benchmark in terms of knowledge and
competencies of the group and this will help them plan the inputs more realistically,
pegged at an appropriate level. Trainers may also be in a position to identify partici-
pants who may require special attention in the proposed training areas.
The data also enable the training team to determine areas of emphasis during the
training. This will help the trainers direct their efforts to achieve optimum results.
In some cases, the exercise can also provide useful supplementary data on the partici-
pants’ training needs.
Once the participants become aware of the areas that will require greater efforts
on their part, they can take necessary steps to improve their performance. This also
facilitates the task of setting out their learning objectives, giving direction to their
participation and contribution.
Pre-training evaluation can also provide some useful information on the participants’
background. This will help the trainers in preparing for their inputs, presentations
and training activities.
It is relatively easy to carry out this exercise if the training focuses on one or two specific
areas of competence. However, if the programme is generic and covers a wide range of
competencies, this task becomes more difficult and involves considerable effort on the part
of the evaluator.
In the case of an orientation programme, it is possible to assume that the knowledge

level of most of the participants with regard to the areas to be covered by the training will
be minimal. In this case, the objective is to prepare the participants for the job for which
they have been selected or they intend to take up later in life. Therefore, it is reasonable to
expect that they come with a small baggage of knowledge, skills and experience. Of course,
in a heterogeneous group, there could be some variations in these levels. If the training is
for developing technical skills, it is realistic to assume that their level of skills in the relevant
areas will be very low. Thus, pre-training evaluation in pre-service or orientation programmes
has limited significance and meaning.
In an in-service training where the emphasis is on developing an appropriate level of know-
ledge and competencies with a view to improve the performance of the participants, this
evaluation has considerable relevance and value. In such cases, they bring with them a range
of knowledge and skills related to the contents, although the level may not be commensurate
with their requirements in the job. Therefore, it is necessary to find out the level of their
learning, in the context of the proposed areas, before the process commences. Otherwise, the
data generated through end-training evaluation on the learning emanating from the train-
ing may not give you a realistic assessment of the benefits that have flowed from the
programme.
For training designed to enhance organisational effectiveness, the entry-level evaluation
is carried out within the context of the objectives related to different parameters of organ-
isational functioning.
Methods for Pre-training Evaluation
The choice of the methods for gathering data for pre-training evaluation depends on the
nature of the training programme. The following will illustrate this point further.
Generally speaking, in an in-service training where the participants are drawn from
different organisations, it is practical and cost-effective to use a structured question-
naire for the pre-training evaluation. The questionnaire should be drafted in a way
that the participants are persuaded to share information in a free and frank manner.
This exercise would provide useful information not only about the group but also
with regard to specific individual requirements of the participants. It is impor-
tant that this task should be carried out well in advance of the programme to enable
the training team to collate the data and incorporate the key points in the contents.
Wherever logistics permit, this information can be supplemented by a discussion
with the concerned organisational personnel.
For an orientation training involving participants from one or two organisations,
the key method should be discussion with the management personnel. The objective
is to gather information on the job responsibilities of the participants.
For a programme that focuses on enhancing organisational effectiveness, this ex-
ercise should involve detailed structured discussion with the senior management.
The discussion needs to be focused, as the data generated will provide the basis for
developing the contents.
In a long-term programme, it is recommended that the pre-training exercise should
include a personal interview with the participants to find out their level of com-
petence and to identify specific areas in which they will require special attention.
An open discussion with the training group at the commencement of the training
may also provide you with useful clues about the level of competence of the group.
9.2.2 Ongoing Evaluation during the Programme
In the interest of the programme and its successful completion, it is important that the
training team should constantly follow its progress through a process of monitoring and
feedback. The main objectives of ongoing evaluation are to assist the training team in pro-
viding quality control over the delivery of training activities, overseeing the movement of
the training process and maintaining an environment that is conducive to participation and
learning. This ensures that the programme stays on course, in accordance with the design. It
is an aid to progressive improvement in the delivery as the data assist the team in identifying
elements that are working well and need further strengthening and those that require your
attention. The trainers can then decide when and where to intervene during the process and
take suitable remedial measures.
The data coming out of this exercise should benefit the participants and the trainers. They
(trainers) will be able to assess the suitability of the approach to training and the effective-
ness of the training methods used to deliver the contents. This information will also assist
them in improving the quality of their presentations and inputs, thus developing their profes-
sional competence. It will also provide useful clues on the pattern of participation, standards
of performance of the participants, and the way the group processes are moving—the extent
to which they are supportive of your efforts. On the basis of the data, it is also the respon-
sibility of the trainers to provide objective feedback to the group on relevant aspects.
For making optimum use of the time and effort of the training team and the partici-
pants in carrying out the feedback, it is suggested that elements and areas of the training
design that are crucial to its effective delivery should be identified, well in advance of it. This
will enable you to keep a close watch on these elements. However, make sure that you do
not miss out or overlook important indicators or signals during the process of implement-
ation of the training plan. Develop a set of indicators that are crucial and the feedback that
you get will give you a lot of clues about the functioning of the programme.
Specifically, this exercise will help you to:
determine the extent to which the objectives are being met and locate problems,
if any;
find out how far the learning outcomes for each topic, module or training activity
are being realised;
assess the usefulness of the topics covered during the learning event and of the learn-
ing situations;
evaluate consistency between programme contents and the training process;
identify the participants for whom the training is of most and least benefit;
suggest areas that need special attention; and
identify problems, if any, in running the programme.
Methods for Ongoing Evaluation
For monitoring the progress, a number of methods are available to the training team. It is,
however, essential to put in place a formal, credible mechanism for regular feedback. It is also
important that the participants should also have an opportunity to share their views about
the way it is being run and offer suggestions to improve its delivery and promote the learning
process. By involving the training group, either directly or through its representatives, you
reaffirm its ownership of the programme. The involvement of the participants will also
ensure that you get their perspectives and viewpoints on various issues related with the
promotion of the training process. This conveys an assurance to the training group and helps
create a collaborative environment.
At the beginning, you should set up an appropriate formal mechanism where the par-
ticipants will have an opportunity to express their views on various aspects of the delivery
of the programme. This could be in the form of a committee that has representatives of the
group and the training team sitting together and evaluating its running.
Besides this formal mechanism, you can gather a lot of information through other in-
formal methods. They are as follows:
An important method for getting feedback is your observations, especially during

your sessions or training activities. This, however, requires a sensitive mind, an
unbiased approach and a certain level of skills on your part. These observations can
be of immense value. It is suggested that you keep a record of key points of obser-
vations for later use and reference.
You should aim to get periodic feedback from the group, both on the contents and
on the process. It is a good practice for a trainer to get informal reactions of the par-
ticipants after the completion of a module or conclusion of a training activity. While
it helps the group in bringing to the fore the key learning points from the activity, it
also provides useful feedback to the trainer. Here also it is advisable that you keep a
record of the views expressed by the participants.
Depending on the nature of the programme and the group, you may bring in a sug-
gestion for daily reports, to be presented to the group the following day. The emphasis
in the report can be decided in consultation with the group, but, nevertheless, it
provides you with some useful information on the running of the programme and
the participants’ points of view. It is, however, important that the report should
reflect general views of the group and not just of those who are responsible for its
preparation.
It is absolutely necessary that the training team should have regular staff meetings
during the programme. These meetings constitute a key forum for overseeing its
running and enable the trainers to share their thoughts and identify issues that
deserve attention. This feedback thus becomes the basis for further action.
9.2.3 End-programme Evaluation
Now the programme is almost over. And so is your main task. The participants are in the
concluding phase. It is now time to look back and find out to what extent you succeeded in
your efforts. Did you achieve what you had set out to? Did the programme run an expected
course? Did you get the desired response from the group? There are myriad questions that
are crossing your mind. You want to get answers. And these can be provided by a scien-
tifically conducted evaluation. End-term evaluation has been discussed in greater detail in a
later section in this chapter.
9.2.4 Post-training Evaluation
A key aspect of post-training evaluation is about the expected improvement in the per-
formance of the individual consequent to her changed job behaviour. Here, there is an
underlying assumption that the training would have helped her develop better insights
into her job responsibilities and honed her competencies to carry out the tasks in a more
effective manner. To a considerable extent, the improved performance may be attributed
to the training received by the participant, given her ability to transfer the training to job
situations. However, there we have to be somewhat guarded. If the organisation were to
pose the difficult question, ‘Was the training effective?’ there cannot be a ready and easy
answer. It would involve a complex analysis of the interplay of a number of elements and
factors. Some are: contents and the delivery of the training, ability of the participant to com-
prehend and internalise the learning, the work environment at the organisation, an in-depth
understanding of the factors that may either support or obstruct its application, awareness
of the opportunities that are available to the participants for transferring the training to the
work or real-life situations and the likely role of the factors that might have intervened be-
tween the conclusion of the training and its application. The response to the question would
not only convey to us whether the training programme was conducted well and if it was
worthwhile for the organisation to nominate participants for it, but also provide information
on the desire and potentiality of the organisation to ensure that the learning is utilised for
its benefit.
As will be evident from our earlier discussion, measuring effectiveness of training in
the post-training scenario is often more difficult than measuring participants’ reactions to
the programme and their learning, at the end of the training. There are many factors—
organisational, personal and environmental—that intervene to impact changes in job behav-
iour or performance of an individual. It is difficult to isolate the influence of one factor from
that of the others.
One way to minimise the difficulties is that the training team should identify those aspects
in the training programme that are crucial to the performance of the job, but are amenable
to relatively easy appraisal. Once these parameters are established, it may be possible to
adopt suitable methods or devise tools to provide some reliable clues or indicators for this
evaluation. One of these approaches is to monitor the performance and job behaviour of
the individual over a period in varied settings and different job situations appropriate to the
learning accruing from the training, on the basis of the specified criteria. Evidently, for this
task, you will involve the organisation. Another key source of providing you information
on the effectiveness of the training programme is the participants themselves. They should
be encouraged to engage in a process of self-appraisal. The evaluation of the immediate
supervisors can also be immensely helpful. Once you are in a position to get reasonably
authentic and objective data from these sources, it will be possible for you to put together a
report on the usefulness of the training.
Another aspect that may be open to evaluation is the extent to which the changed be-
haviour and improved performance of the individual has made an impact on the function-
ing of the organisation. This task is not easy as it relates to the position the individual has in
the overall decision making and functional structure of the organisation. One indirect way
of carrying this out is to identify a specific programme, an activity or an area of operation
that is crucial to the operation of the organisation and for which the individual has direct
responsibility. This activity should also have the potential of applying the learning the
individual has accrued from the training. The manner in which the tasks are performed and
the outcomes will provide some measure of the impact she is able to make on the overall
organisational working. However, this appraisal should be affirmed through those organ-
isational personnel who were associated with her on these tasks.
9.3 CONDUCTING THE END-TERM EVALUATION
This is the evaluation that will convey to you how the programme was implemented. It
will suggest areas for improving the quality of your future endeavours, making it possible
for the agency to plan and deliver its future programmes in a more effective manner.
It is important that this activity should be included in the schedule itself and appropriate
time is allotted for it. This conveys a message to the participants that it is not an ancillary
activity that can be dispensed with, but a part of the programme. They must be made to
realise that it is a serious exercise and they should be mentally prepared for it. The purpose
of the evaluation should be made clear to the participants and they should be encouraged
to assist the trainers and the training agency by giving correct and relevant responses and
information.
In the end-term evaluation, we do not aim to appraise the effectiveness of training to the
work situation of the participants. It is simply to find out the level and extent of learning
acquired by the participants during the programme. The tests carried out at this stage cannot
show whether the participants are capable of using the newly acquired knowledge and
skills and what are likely to be the results of the application. This requires proper environ-
ment at the workplace, support of the supervisors and their acceptance of the new job
behaviour. We are also not in a position to appraise the extent to which they will internalise
the learning through continuous practice. After end-term evaluation, we can only say, with
some degree of certainty, that they are going back to their work or life situations, perhaps,
better equipped to face the challenges of their work and life, in general.
9.3.1 Difficulties in End-term Evaluation
In conducting the end-term evaluation, the trainers have to keep in view a number of factors
that can directly or indirectly influence the responses of the participants. Some of these
factors have the potential of vitiating the data collated from the exercise, sometimes, even
rendering them unreliable. In these cases, the data may convey a different picture of the
programme than what it was or is. It is possible that due to the impact of these factors, the
evaluative comments of the participants appear to be substantially different from the trainers’
own assessment, put together from other sources. This can be a cause of frustration for the
training team. It is, therefore, necessary for you to be aware of these factors. Once you know
about the dynamics of these factors, you will be in a position to take suitable measures to
counter them, thus making the data more authentic and worthwhile. This also underscores
the need for developing more objective and scientific instruments and tools to minimise the
influence of these factors.
Many trainers hope to obtain completely objective information on the results of the
training. In practice, this is usually not possible, as the evaluation exercise itself affects the
thought processes of the participants. The moment we formally ask the participants to put
down their reactions to certain elements in the training, we influence the nature of their
reactions. Consider the following factors. There may be some more that can be added to
the list.
Many a time, the participants’ evaluative comments and reactions do not reflect a
realistic and objective assessment of what happened in the preceding period but
are grounded in their attitude towards the programme and the trainers, cumulative
package of their experiences and their mental and emotional state at the time of
evaluation. Are they feeling excited? Are they happy with their experiences? Do
they have a feeling of fulfilment and achievement? Do they feel easy as it is all over?
Do they suffer from a sense of frustration? Is their energy level low after a hectic
schedule of activities? Are they keen to wind up? How they perceive the evaluation
exercise? All these will have bearing on their responses.
It is quite possible that those participants who did not get along well with some
trainers regard this as an opportunity to settle old scores. If they were not given
the attention that they thought they deserved from the support staff, they might be
peeved and decide to vent their dissatisfaction and irritation through their comments.
Some participants, who did not perform well or, for personal reasons, felt frustrated
may transfer the blame to the trainers or find fault with the way the programme
was conducted. For the sceptics or the fault-finders, this is the opportunity to give
formal shape to their views. It has also been seen that a few dominating partici-
pants or opinion leaders succeed in swaying the views of the group to their own
point of view.
In some cases, social and cultural factors affect the participants’ responses. Some
participants have an exaggerated sense of gratitude for the agency or the trainers for
their hospitality and hard work and are reluctant to put on record anything that is
likely to embarrass them. So they hold themselves back from giving free and frank
expression to their views and feelings.
As a result of the aforesaid factors, it is quite conceivable that the data generated
by the evaluation exercise are sketchy, and even specious, and do not reflect the ac-
tual happenings in the programme. Thus, the reactions may become less reliable.
In the evaluation, the onus shifts to the trainers. Their performance comes under
scrutiny of the participants and of the training agency. Although the participants
were active partners in the training process, in the evaluation, the general focus is
on the role and performance of the training team—both in the context of planning
the training and its delivery—unless there are specific questions on the participants’
role and contribution. In some ways, this is not a reasonable situation. The training
team may even feel that the evaluation will not recognise or evaluate their efforts
but would evaluate only the outcomes over which they did not always had full
control. The assessment or reactions of the participants will not identify the factors
or circumstances that had adversely affected the conduct of the programme. It is,
therefore, not surprising that they get somewhat apprehensive and anxious about
the training evaluation.
As mentioned earlier, in a long-term programme, the participants may find it dif-
ficult to recall the learning that occurred in training activities in the early stages of
the schedule. It is, therefore, possible that their views are influenced by the events
and activities of the last few days. In such cases, the evaluation data are not indicative
of total efforts during the programme.
It is not possible to quantify every aspect of learning. Therefore, the evaluation lacks
comprehensiveness.
As indicated earlier in another context, all the learning in a training programme does
not take place at the conscious level. A significant portion of it occurs at subcon-
scious level. As the participants are not fully aware of this learning, they will find
it difficult to express it in specific terms. It will, therefore, go unrecorded. The un-
intended learning outcomes that are a normal feature in any training also do not
appear in any balance sheet of the programme, although it is the result of the efforts
of the trainers. The evaluation, therefore, is somewhat restrictive in nature.
What we attempt to measure in the end-programme evaluation is the learning ac-
cruing from various training activities but, as mentioned earlier, its relevance and
usefulness cannot be appraised at this point in time. Therefore, to some degree, it
does not reflect the true value of the training.
In the reactions-level evaluation, the participants sometimes give general comments
and impressions. Therefore, the evaluation lacks specific data and information that
could be helpful to the trainers or the training agency.
The trainers in the team have varied stakes in the evaluation of the programme.
Those whose performance is under examination (of either the training agency or
immediate superiors) approach evaluation with a lot of circumspection. Some may
even attempt to influence the process and make it more favourable to them, through
lobbying with the participants. This not only undermines the credibility of the ex-
ercise but also reduces the value of the data. Those who have nothing more to prove
professionally may be indifferent to the process and just take it in the stride.
If the goals of the training programme have not been properly established or its
objectives, the contents and the process lack harmony and consistency, the evaluation
can be flawed. The situation is complicated and presents a problem for the trainers.
They will find it difficult to decide whether the emphasis in evaluation should be on
the training objectives, the contents or the processes.
As mentioned earlier, all participants do not learn in the same degree or in the same
manner. The value they attach to each of the topics or modules varies in accordance
with their own requirements and perceptions. Their evaluation will be based on
these differentials. The trainers or the agency have the task of interpreting these data
and analysing them to conjure a broader, inclusive picture of the evaluation.
If a large number of guest speakers or trainers are associated with the delivery of
the programme, it is not easy to maintain the focus. The emphasis may shift from
one speaker to the other, depending on the presentation and their expertise. With
this lack of focus, the evaluation exercise becomes difficult. This problem is more
conspicuous in high-profile programmes where a number of experts and executives
are invited.
9.3.2 Ascertaining Reactions of the Participants
Once the programme is over, it is important to ascertain the participants’ views and obser-
vations about its various components, both in terms of the contents and the training pro-
cess. The evaluation can either focus on a session-by-session review or on the programme
as a whole. The formal format that the trainers choose to adopt for eliciting end-term
appraisal of the participants’ ranges from the relatively simple—‘highlight the best and the
worst aspects’—to a detailed response through a properly devised questionnaire or
instrument.
Areas for Ascertaining Reactions of the Participants
The following are some of the areas on which the trainers can ascertain the views and sug-
gestions of the participants. However, it is necessary to point out that all these areas or sub-
areas may not be relevant or appropriate to all the programmes. A lot depends on its nature.
Therefore, an important decision that the training team is required to take is about the
specific elements it would like to include in the evaluation. Also, the questions or statements
indicated under each area are only indicative. Keeping in view the specific nature of the
programme you are handling, you may modify them or add more items.
Course Objectives
How far the programme objectives were realistic?

Clarity with which they were expressed in the programme document or explained by
the training team at the beginning of the programme.
The extent to which the programme objectives or the participants’ personal learning
objectives were realised.
Trainers’ Performance
Effectiveness of the presentations—whether each was properly paced, knowledge

of the trainers of the subjects/topics/issues, method of presentation, communica-
tion with the participants.
General level of inputs of the training team.
Competency of the trainers in using training methods.
Trainers’ expertise in responding to the questions of the participants.
How were the interventions from the participants handled?
Whether their attitude towards the participants was one of support and help?
Their relationship with the training group.
Their role in guiding the group processes.
Training Methods
Their appropriateness to the programme and the topics/modules.

The extent to which they facilitated learning.
Training Group
Its size and composition.

Selection procedure.
Level of the group and quality of its participation.
Time Schedule
Duration of the programme and its appropriateness.

Allocation of time for each module/topic.
Was the daily schedule hectic or easy?
Sequencing of the topics.
General flow of the programme and its momentum.
Training Facilities
Suitability of the sitting arrangement for participation and learning.

General ambience of the training room/s.
Appropriateness and quality of the equipment used.
General learning environment at the venue.
Physical Arrangements
Suitability of the accommodation.

Arrangements for food, and so on.
Training Support Materials
Usefulness and quality of the materials.

Their timely distribution.
Sources for Ascertaining Participants’ Reactions
The participants’ reactions can be ascertained through a number of sources, chief among
them being a structured questionnaire. The following sources provide you with useful and
reliable data on the reactions of the participants.
Structured questionnaire.
Tests (rating tests, open-ended questions, descriptive essays, and so on).
Open forum in which the participants are encouraged to express themselves in a free
and frank manner.
Personal interviews of the participants (a very useful method for long-term
programmes).
Reports of the discussion in the meetings of the formal mechanism (such as Pro-
gramme Committee) established for ongoing evaluation of the contents and the
process.
Observations of the trainers or the support staff.

Comments of the participants during sessions and training activities and their off-
the-cuff remarks in informal settings.
Some examples of the type of questions, statements or items you can use for getting the
reactions of the participants are given in Box 9.1. It is important that the rating scales should
be constructed in a way that allows the participants to give different shades of views or
opinion. The checklist can be prepared using a range of positive and negative words depen-
ding on the nature of the programme.
Box 9.1
Examples of Questions/Statements/Items for Ascertaining
Reactions of the Participants on the Programme
To what extent were your personal learning objectives/programme objectives achieved?
(Use of a rating scale.)
Name three sessions/training activities that have been most helpful/least helpful to you in the
programme. (Open-ended question; give space for indicating the sessions.)
Describe your experience in the programme in about 100 words. (Descriptive essay; give
proper space.)
If you are a trainer for a similar programme, what three aspects would you like to
improve; why and how? (Descriptive essay; give proper space.)
Check against the words mentioned below that best describe your reactions to the
programme. (Use of a checklist of about 10 words.)
How would you rate the selection of the training methods used for the delivery of the
programme? (Use of a rating scale.)
How would you rate the quality/usefulness of the training support materials? (Use of a
rating scale.)
Rank the following five modules, in terms of their usefulness and learning value to you.
Place A beside the one that you rate as the highest, B for the next best, and so on.
(Rankings; indicate key words for the Modules.)
How would you rate the quality of contribution of the participants in the sessions and
to the training activities? (Use of a rating scale.)
Complete the following sentence beginning, (Sentence stem.)
‘As the programme ends and I prepare to leave for home, I feel…’
It must be remembered that no single source by itself can provide you with full, authentic
data because of the reasons mentioned in earlier paragraphs. Therefore, it will not be
appropriate to place full and unqualified reliance on the data generated by any one source.
It is also important that you and your colleagues in the team are sensitive to the signals and
clues received from different informal sources and, where possible, document the infor-
mation. However, in order to arrive at a realistic appraisal of the programme, it is necessary
that the data generated by different sources should be properly analysed and collated.
9.3.3 Participants’ Learning from the Programme
The objectives of a training event are always focused on knowledge, skills/competencies

or attitudes. So evaluation may be directed at whichever of these is relevant to a particular
learning activity or module. As this is an important aspect of training, specific methods and
tests to measure the participants’ learning have been described in detail in the following
section.
9.4 MEASURING PARTICIPANTS’ LEARNING
Measuring the extent of learning of the participant is an important component for evalu-
ation, but often it does not get desired consideration, as the focus is often on other aspects,
especially objectives, contents and methodology. This section deals with this aspect and
attempts to highlight its importance for the training team.
Though at the end of the programme it is often difficult to make a realistic appraisal
of the extent to which this learning will result in changed behaviour at the job or in
other life situations, one of the objectives of this evaluation should be to measure the
learning that the participants have acquired during the training. At least you will get
a fair estimate of the learning—especially in terms of knowledge and competencies—
that has accrued through the topics or the modules. You will be in a better position
to provide appropriate and valid data to the nominating organisations on the
usefulness of the training. This will also help you develop a strategy for monitoring
the progress of the participants with regard to the application of this learning.
It will be helpful if the participants are informed about the areas that would be
covered by the evaluation exercise. Awareness on their part that the training team
intends to measure their learning sends an important message to them that their
performance and contribution will be monitored and appraised through proper tools
and instruments. For some of them, this could provide the necessary motivation for
greater effort and involvement in the training and related activities.
Obviously, when we measure learning that has occurred as a result of the training, it
is necessary to have a benchmark. This underscores the need for pre-training evalu-
ation of the level of learning in those areas which the training programme covers. To
facilitate its measurement at the end of the programme, this learning can be divided
into three categories—knowledge-based learning, development of competencies and
fostering new attitudes and values. The approach you can follow in evaluating the
three types of learning has been described in one of the following subsections.
Before a test or an instrument is developed to measure learning, you should first
answer the following three questions. ‘Why am I measuring participants’ learning?’;
‘How can I make the exercise more realistic and valid?’ and ‘What will I do with the
results or the data?’ The answers to these three questions will clarify your purpose
and approach to the exercise.
As is the case with other aspects, measurement of results can help you identify areas
of the training contents that are weak in terms of the participants’ learning. You can
then take necessary remedial measures for future programmes.
9.4.1 Measurement of Knowledge
Probably, measurement of knowledge is the easiest task for an evaluator. However, there
are some prerequisites. If it were intended to attribute changes in levels of knowledge to
the training programme, it would appear to be only logical to measure it before as well as
after training and thus assess the change. Testing only at the end is not scientific as it is not
unlikely that some participants knew a lot more than what has been transmitted to them.
Many a time the trainers are inclined to take the minimum on the scale as the benchmark
for their pre-training knowledge in the relevant areas covered. This is not realistic and has
no logical base. Therefore, it is necessary that you carry out the pre-training evaluation on
the topics and modules that you propose to use for end-programme assessment.
It is suggested that this learning is evaluated at different stages of the learning process.
The timing of this periodic evaluation will depend on the topics or the modules. Whenever
you are convinced that a topic or module has been completed and the learning objectives
have been realised, you can go for either formal or informal assessment of the learning that
has resulted from the activity. Accordingly, you may design suitable tool or instrument for
measuring the learning. Before we devise proper methods for measuring knowledge, it is
important to understand different levels of knowledge. This helps us in identifying suitable
methods and in constructing relevant instruments.
Levels of Knowledge
Knowledge acquired by the participants in a training programme can be measured at three

possible levels. These are as follows:
Information
For the purpose of ease of a discussion on evaluation, we can include transmission of infor-
mation under the category of knowledge. The simplest thing is the recall of information that
has been transmitted to the participants on any area or topic included in the training. For
example, certain provisions for securing a bank loan for setting up an enterprise, extracts
from the documents pertaining to the functioning of an organisation, rules and regulations
of an organisation, and so on.
Factual Knowledge
Some basic features of the issues of the topic, for example, principles and features of man-
agement, youth problems, needs of the community, and so on.
Dynamic Knowledge
This refers to intellectual or analytical understanding of theories, issues, topics or prob-

lems. The objective is to measure the ability to understand the issues and take an analytical
view of them, for example, factors that influence the working of an organisation and status
of women in society.
Tools and Instruments
Paper and pencil tests are designed primarily to measure knowledge-related achievement
or learning. They are efficiently prepared by trainers and curriculum planners and can meet
many of the purposes cited earlier. Their development is based on course objectives, elements
of objectives or content outlines. They may refer to a variety of tests that may include the
following:
True/false statements.
Short answer items.
Multiple-choice questions or objective testing.
Matching items.
Writing essays.
Each of the aforesaid tests has distinct advantages for measuring a particular type of
learning. For example, a true–false item can measure recall or recognition of learned facts,
but it cannot measure understanding of a complex process. The essay is able to measure the
complex process better.
True/False Statements
True/false items are the easiest item type to develop. They are straightforward statements
of fact that the participant must mark as either true or false. The true/false item is excep-
tionally well suited to identify the correctness or accuracy of definitions, terms, statements
of principles and facts. It has several advantages. The item is easy and efficient to score. The
true/false item can provide for the sampling of a broad segment of programme contents.
A third advantage is the ease of constructing true/false items. There are, however, a few
disadvantages of this test. First, the true/false item can measure factual knowledge and not
more complex knowledge such as understanding and problem solving. Another disadvantage
is that as the item has only two options, it is possible to guess the correct choice. The
participants may engage in guesswork and this will not be true reflection of what they really
know.
In developing this test, the following suggestions could be helpful.
General statements often have qualifying words that give away the correct res-
ponse to the item. Examples of such words include generally, often, sometimes,
usually, always, never, all, none and only. These should be avoided. The participant
may notice these words and be able to pick up the correct response without knowing
the true content of the item. With this type of item it is necessary to avoid the use of
the words like never or always in the stem, because these are usually false statements
and make it relatively easy for the participants to identify the correct answer.
Oversimplification in preparing the true/false statements may not yield the desired
results. When attempting to draw up statements that are definitely true or clearly
false, you should select content that is not directly related to the course objectives
and knowledge elements. Also, you should avoid direct quotes from a book or
author. This can encourage the participants to memorise the text rather than learn.
It is important to avoid including two or more ideas or statements within the
same item. If there are two or more than two parts, the participant may know the
response to one and not to the other. The result is misinterpretation of participants’
knowledge.
Many times words such as ‘no’ or ‘not’ are overlooked by the participant and result
in an incorrect response to the item. In cases where negative terminology may be
necessary, it is desirable to draw attention to the negative words by underlining them,
making them bold or in any other way of distinguishing them.
With true/false items, the intention is to assess the participant’s knowledge of the
content area and not the vocabulary that is outside it. Therefore, it is very important to
use familiar words and terms which are related to training and have been used during
the discussion. The objective is to assess the knowledge of the participants and not
to test their vocabulary.
Attempt to make the length of each item equal. There is often a tendency to make
the true items longer than the false items. Some participants can sense this, and it
may give them an unfair advantage during the test.
It is important that appropriate guessing correction should be applied to arrive at a
more authentic score from the test.
Short Answer Items
Open-ended questions that require short answers may be posed to the participants to as-
sess knowledge of facts, procedures and working methods. They can also be used to test
the ability to analyse. The answer expected should be short, and a clear statement should be
given of how long the answer could be.
Short answer items take three forms—completion, definition and identification. The
completion item is simply an incomplete sentence that the participant must complete with a
word or phrase to make it correct. The definition item requires the participants to write the
definition of a term. The third type of short answer item focuses on assessing a participant’s
knowledge of certain objects or products.
The examples are as follows:
Briefly state three reasons…

List the five most important…
Define the term field monitoring.
The best type of grain storage is the…
The short answer item has several advantages. It can be used to measure knowledge
of facts, principles and processes. It is often difficult for a participant to guess the correct
answer. It is relatively easy to devise questions of this type to measure participants’ knowledge
of a particular topic. There is, however, a disadvantage. Answers may vary but still be correct
and this can make the analysis of the data, scoring or grading somewhat difficult. The most
popular format for objective tests is to use a stem and four or five alternative responses.
For developing this exercise, the following guidelines are suggested:
The items should be developed in a way that they require short and concise answers.
Completion items should have singular completing words or phrases.
Avoid using direct statements from books or training materials.
Multiple-choice Questions or Objective Testing
Multiple-choice items are the most common of all test items. A multiple choice consists of
a stimulus statement, usually called the stem of the item, followed by a list of four or five
responses or alternatives. The stem can be in the form of an incomplete sentence or a direct
question. A participant has to choose one correct answer from a set of possible choices. The
participant circles or ticks the alternative selected. The choice of answers should be clearly
right or wrong so that anyone with a marking guide can grade it by knowing the correct
answer. This test can be administered at the end of the programme and then compared with
the results of the test carried out at the beginning of the training. The learning as evident
from this test can be credited to the training programme.
There is a belief that multiple-choice items can only measure the first two levels of know-
ledge—information and factual. This is not right. You can also test the understanding of
various concepts, theories and principles using this method. The Open Universities do a lot
of course assessment by using objective tests and they are not limited to mere recognition
of factual knowledge. For example, questions can be asked where understanding of a theory
is tested by asking which of the set of statements is consistent with the theory. Appropriate
questions can also be formulated to test the ability of a participant to apply the theory to
the new situations that she may confront in her work. Multiple-choice questions take less
time than the open-ended questions and, therefore, it is possible to cover a much wider area
within the same time using this method.
The following steps are suggested for developing the tool:
Formulate an item stem using simple and concise language. As far as the stem is
concerned, make sure that:
it is clear and brief;
it does not include negatives; and
it does not give clues by using key words that are repeated in the correct answer.
Construct plausible and unambiguous alternatives
Alternatives to a particular item should appear to be equally attractive and logical
to a knowledgeable participant. You must ensure that the correct response does not
stand out from the others. For example, do not make the correct alternative longer
than the incorrect alternatives. Also, be cautious that you do not place the cor-
rect response in the same place in all the items. Vary the placement so that the
correct answer cannot be guessed because of its place in the sequence of alternatives.
Also, do not use generalising alternatives such as ‘all of the above’ or ‘none of the
above’.
Group the items by type so that the instructions are made simpler.
It is important to develop items in a systematic way and to review them prior to
their use. Revise, if necessary.
This method has a disadvantage as the process of developing multiple-choice items is dif-
ficult and time consuming.
Matching Items
A third type of test is the matching of items. Actually, the matching item is a special form of a
multiple-choice item. While the multiple-choice item comprised an item stem and a series of
alternatives, the matching item has a sequence of stems and a string of alternatives. Matching
items are usually presented in two columns: one for stems and one for alternatives.
The matching item can be used to measure the participants’ knowledge of associ-
ations. The objectives that emphasise the identification of relationships can often be assessed
through the matching item. Examples of relationships that can be measured with the
matching item include the following:
Terms—Definitions
Problems—Solutions
Problems—Sources
Symbols—Concepts
Machines—Uses
A primary advantage of the matching item lies in its efficiency. It can measure a broad
range of contents with very little time required of the participants. The item takes a small
amount of space within the test and it is easily scored or graded. The major disadvantages
in using this method are the difficulty of obtaining a sufficient amount of contents from
one general area for including in the item, and the limitation of the item to mostly factual
information.
The following suggestions can be considered for constructing the instrument:
Content material used in formulating both stem and alternatives must come from
the same general area or domain and must match up with your test plan.
Use only homogeneous material. The contents must be similar in order that all
alternatives are plausible for each item stem.
The directions for the matching item should be presented immediately preceding
the item. Formulate clear and concise directions for recording the responses. The
participants should know exactly what is expected of them. If they are allowed to use
one alternative more than once, this should be indicated in the directions.
Ten elements in a matching item are usually the maximum. Longer items are both
difficult for the participant to deal with and not easy for the trainer to develop.
To decrease the participants’ chance of guessing correctly on the basis of elimination,
include more alternatives than the items. If the columns are equal, the last choice is
made with no decision.
It is much easier for the participant to make choices if they do not have to turn a
page to view the total list of alternatives. Therefore, as far as possible include all
items in one page.
Writing Essay
The essay item requires the participant to write a response using her own words. This item
type usually focuses on assessing objectives that require her to recall, organise and present
ideas. The essay item should be used to measure more than factual knowledge. It is capable
of measuring higher order knowledge of skills as well. It can require a paragraph response
or a longer essay.
The major advantage of the essay item is the type of learning that can be measured.
Additionally, the essay item is easy to develop. The biggest disadvantage of the essay item
is in its scoring or grading. To read each answer in the essay item requires a good deal of
time. The essay item also requires judgement in determining the degree of correctness in a
participant’s response.
9.4.2 Measurement of Competencies/Skills
Measurement of skills is a lot more difficult than assessing the learning in the area of
knowledge. This learning can be evaluated by tests but, in most cases, these must be practical
tests that provide an opportunity to the participants to demonstrate the skills acquired from
the training. However, because of the time and effort necessary to develop and administer
good performance tests, they have not been extensively used. It must also be remembered
that it is relatively easier to devise performance tests to measure technical skills or physical
actions than for assessing mental, management or social skills. For basic or elementary skills,
the tests can be simple and can even be conducted informally, but for highly developed skills,
the tests would be more elaborate and complicated. The details would have to be worked
out carefully. Thus, generally, a lot of work is involved in designing instruments or tools
for measuring skills. Like in the case of the knowledge, here again the tests must be performed
at the beginning and at the end of the training. This will give you an assessment of the
learning that has come from the training. It is, however, important that for a more focused
approach in evaluating skills, it is necessary to identify key elements of the skills involved in
carrying out a task. This will also make you feel easier and you will be able to make optimum
use of the time.
As mentioned earlier, ideally, skills should be tested by practical assignments in which
the participants are asked to perform a designated task or carry out a project. However,
if the trainers realise that it is not possible to perform the task because of constraints of
time, they may find other suitable ways of assessing the acquired skills. It is not always
feasible or realistic to organise elaborate performance tests at the beginning, especially in the
programmes designed to develop mental and management skills. There can be constraint of
time and the environment may not be conducive for conducting the tests. As an alternative,
the participants can be asked to describe the actions they would take in completing the task.
Another possible timesaving method is to ask the participants to list out the skills required
for the purpose. However, the knowledge of skills required in performing a task or the ability
to describe to someone how to carry it out is not the same as actually doing it. This is be-
cause when a person carries out an activity, a number of factors are at play that may not
be taken into consideration in explaining the actions. It is relatively easy for people to des-
cribe certain actions but they often find it difficult to give practical shape to their ‘knowledge
of action’.
There is another expedient, though not very scientific, way of measuring skills learnt
through training. It can give you a reasonably fair assessment of the learning. It involves
combining a participant’s knowledge of skills, required for performing a task and her ability
to carry it out in a practical way. A participant can be asked to explain the necessary action
and then actually perform some key functions or parts of the task that are crucial to it. But
in devising this test the trainers have to put in an extra effort. They need to identify some
key aspects of the task that are highly significant but participants find it difficult to master
the skills for performing them. It is suggested that the trainers should identify these crucial
aspects at the time of organising the training activity aimed at developing the necessary skills.
The participants should be asked to pay special attention to these skills and aspects.
There are two ways of conducting the performance tests. The participant is set a task
and the work or the final product is examined at the end. In the other approach, the par-
ticipant is watched throughout the test so that the methods used can be constantly assessed.
In such cases, it is possible for the supervisor or the one monitoring the test to intervene and
make suggestions for the task or for corrective action. The additional inputs further rein-
force the skills acquired earlier through the training activity.
9.4.3 Measurement of Changes in Attitudes and Values
An attitude is a tendency or a predisposition to behave in a certain way in a particular situ-

ation or to interact with people in a specific manner. There is some constancy of this
behaviour or interaction until the attitude undergoes a change or some other powerful
variables intervene. The behaviour is modified accordingly. It, therefore, follows that often
an attitude can be expressed as specific elements of behaviour or actions of an individual.
For instance, a positive attitude towards teamwork can, among other things, be expressed as
follows:
Faith in the capabilities of the colleagues to carry out the task/s assigned to the team.
Respect for others’ point of view and ideas.
Accepting negative feedback from colleagues without rancour.
Offering feedback to other team members in a constructive way.
Willingness to share information and expertise freely.
Supporting other team members in their efforts.
Free and frank communication.
Although attitudes can be measured directly by using specially designed instruments,

they are usually inferred from what people say or are seen to do. If a change is effected in
someone’s attitude, generally, it will involve changes in what one says or does. However, it is
not necessary that the results will be the same in all cases. It is possible that even with a change
in attitude, the behaviour in a particular situation may not show corresponding or expected
changes as some other powerful factors may influence the behaviour of an individual. In
order to make a realistic measurement of the changes that have occurred in the attitudes as
a result of the training programme, it is necessary that some tests should be administered
to the participants at the beginning of the training and repeated when it concludes. The
changes, if any, can be attributed to it.
If the training aims to develop competencies in a participant with a view to enhance
her performance, the attitudes will obviously be related to her work. These attitudes can
be fairly general in nature, such as respect for individuals, keenness to give her best despite
constraints, respect for work culture of the organisation, desire to carry the subordinates
with her and openness and trust. It is expected that by accepting new attitudes and incorpor-
ating them in her personality, the participant will display behaviour that is consistent with
those that were developed through training. Of course, in some programmes, the focus
may well be on developing a broader spectrum of attitudes in an individual taking into con-
sideration the larger scenario of life rather than the limited work environment.
Methods for Appraising Changes in Attitudes and Values
Measurement of the attitudes and values can be done by the following methods:
One of the methods that is used by the trainers for measuring attitudes and values
is to provide two contradictory but related views on an aspect and the participant
is asked to mark her response on a rating scale at the beginning of the programme.
The exercise is repeated at the end of it. The movement towards a positive end will
indicate qualitative change in her attitude and values.
Another method is to give a set of statements, each describing an action or a response
to a situation, people or a task, reflecting an attitude. The statement can indicate
either an appropriate or an inappropriate response or action. The participant is
asked to express either her agreement or her disagreement with the statement, but
on a rating scale. This test is administered at the beginning and at the end of the
programme with the same set of statements. The movement in a desired direction
will indicate the changes that have occurred in the attitude and values during the
training.
If the training group is constituted of supervisors or managers from same or similar
organisations, as a pre-training evaluation you can ask them to indicate five key values
that are essential for effective performance of their responsibilities. You can then ask
each participant to rate herself on the scale. To facilitate objective self-appraisal,
this information can be treated as confidential. At the end of the programme, this
exercise may be repeated. The movement across the scale indicates the changes.
Another element can be added to the aforesaid methods. Each participant can be
asked to pick up five key values related to her job and to indicate where she would like
to move in the next six months. This will give an action plan for change in her values.
A variation of the aforesaid method is to get the response of the participants on a
checklist that gives some attitudes and values that could be associated with the work
and responsibilities of a particular position or functionary in an organisation.
Table 9.1
Suggested Plan for Preparing an Evaluation Design
Main areas Subareas When to evaluate? Who will evaluate? How to evaluate?
Programme Were the programme objectives realistic or too Periodically Trainers Meetings of the
objectives ambitious? during the training team
Training agency
programme
Were they consistent with the programme contents? Informal
Participants
After the discussions
The extent to which the programme objectives have
programme
been achieved Structured
questionnaire
Planning Identification of the training needs End of the Planning team of Meetings
of the programme the agency
Development of the programme contents Informal
programme
Trainers discussion
Selection of the participants
Training agency Structured
Role of the organisations in planning the
questionnaire
programme, especially with regard to the Trainers
identification of the training needs, selection of the Correspondence
participants and assistance in the planning phase and official records
Delivery of the Organisation of the contents—pace of the training, Periodically Participants Meetings
programme momentum, time schedule, working hours, and so during the
Training agency In formal contacts
on. programme
Participants Questionnaires
Appropriateness of the training methods End of
and other
programme
Training team—range and level of expertise, instrument and
performance of individual trainer, role of the guest tools for collecting
speakers data
Response of the participants—their participation,
commitment and attitude
Group dynamics—cohesion and harmony,
interpersonal relations Size of the group, its
composition
Management and administration of the
programme—role of support staff, availability
of support materials and equipment, physical
arrangements
Linkage with organisation, especially if it is a
long-term programme
Participants’ Knowledge-based learning At the entry level Trainers Questionnaires
learning
Skills acquired during the programme During the Specially
programme, constructed
Imbibing new attitudes and values
preferably after instruments and
each module or tests
major training
activity or block
of sessions
After the
programme
Evaluation becomes a necessary exercise whenever resources in money, time and

efforts are involved in carrying out an activity or in creation of a product. The
evaluation exercise helps us find out whether the activity has succeeded in realising
the objectives for which it was organised or the product has yielded the desired
benefits to its users.
All the stakeholders in the programme—training agency, trainers, participants and
the nominating organisations—are interested in the evaluation of the training, but
their concerns and reasons are varied because the nature of involvement of each
of these groups is different.
Evaluation can be undertaken at four stages. Pre-training evaluation helps the
trainers to establish a benchmark for measuring the incremental value of the
knowledge, skills and attitudes of the participants from the training programme.
Ongoing evaluation helps in monitoring the programme, in taking corrective
action and effecting necessary changes in contents and the training process to
make training more relevant and consistent with the participants’ requirements.
End-term evaluation is undertaken to find out how the programme was delivered.
Sometime after the training programme has ended the agency may wish to examine
in what ways the learning derived from the training has helped the participants in
improving their performance.
There are a number of factors that impact the end-term evaluation, notable
among them being the moods and attitudes of the participants at the time. Not-
withstanding the instruments used for the evaluation, it will not reflect the
learning at the subconscious level or the unintended learning outcomes of the pro-
gramme. Some trainers or dominant participants may also attempt to influence
the evaluation.
Reaction evaluation helps us to get the views and suggestions of the participants
on areas such as realisation of programme and personal learning objectives,
training methodology, performance of the trainers, training group and physical
arrangements.
Another key aspect of end-term evaluation is measuring participants’ learning
from the training. The knowledge acquired by the participants during the training
can be assessed through a number of pencil and paper tests. The development of
skills can be assessed through performance tests. And the changes in attitudes and
values can be measured through special instruments.
Index
administration, 130, 343 contracting, with stakeholders. See also stakeholders
responsibilities of, 123–24 areas of, 92–93
adult learner, 11, 38–41, 196 levels of, 89–90
ability to construct/visualise real-life situations, need and scope of, 88–90
41 with nominating organisations, 90–93
attributes of, 26 with participants, 93–97
capability and willingness to take responsibility
for learning, 40 de-learning, process of, 48, 49–50
characteristics of, 67 demonstration, as training method, 195, 249, 273–74
concern for short-term application of training, advantages of, 273
40 disadvantages of, 273–74
features of, 10, 25, 38–39 distance education, 20
owners of unique personal experience, 39
donor agencies, xxi, 30, 71, 74, 79, 372
self-image, 41–42
dynamic learner, 45–46, 67
attitudes, 37, 117, 138, 394
dysfunctional behaviour, of participants, 155, 165,
and values, 37–38, 121, 138, 394–95
289, 308, 332
audio-visual materials, 41, 262–65
and learning environment, 284
advantages of, 262–63
strategy to deal with, 286–87
disadvantages of, 263
in training activity, 283–84
in training group, 277, 283–84
brainstorming, 259–61
objectives of, 260 undermining group process, 284–85
organising, 260–61
e-learning, 22
case study and method of training, 194, 207–14, e-training, 22–23
275, 354, 355 education, 8, 310
checklist for, 215, 218 adult, 101
guidelines for using, 209 attributes of, 7
guidelines for writing case study, 209–12 institutions, xxv, 28
limitation of, 214 and learning, 29, 262
objectives of, 208 training and, 5–7, 23, 195
presentation and discussion of, 212–14 See also continuing, distance, non-formal
role-play method and, 215–19 entrants to organisation, orientation of, 13–15
cognitive learning, 111 evaluation
communication technology, 22 need and purposes of, 371–82
competencies and skills, measurement of, 393–34 stages of, 373
compliant learner, 46, 67 end-programme, 378
continuing education, concept of, 12, 23, 26 ongoing, 376–78
post-training, 378–79 job analysis, identifying training needs by, 106–07

pre-training, 374–76 job profile, identifying training needs by, 106–07
field trip, as training method, 195, 271–73, 276 knowledge

organizing a, 271–73 measurement of, 387–93
functional behaviour of participants, 155, 165, 277, of skills, 36–37, 208, 393
280, 289, 308, 332
assisting in maintaining discipline in group, laboratory method of training, 242–48
282 conditions for, 246–48
completing assignments and projects, 282–83 conducive atmosphere, 247
helping trainers in organising training activities, factors affecting, 245–46
281 feedback, 247
giving support and encouragement to other
goals and outcomes, 243–45
participants, 282
groups, 244
group harmony, 282
individuals, 243–44
intervention during session or presentation, 281
objective and honest approach, 247
in training group, 280–83
organisation, 244–45
willingness and ability to provide feedback,
trainer’s role, 248–49
280–81
values and social perspectives, 246
funding/sponsoring agencies, xxi, 71, 74–75, 82–83,
willingness to be part of, 246
89, 98
learning
group development, stages, 244, 294, 295, 298 activity, 251
group discussion, 118, 197, 353 adult, 9
dynamics of, 254 aids, 265
group reports, 256–57 basis of an individual’s behaviour, 28
guidelines for organisation, 253 benefits of, 55, 277
limitations, 257 components of, 34–38
method of training, 194, 251–57 concept of, 27–30
objectives of, 252 conscious and subconscious, 34
planning, 254 consolidating and recalling, 167–68, 188, 193
role of discussion leader, 255–56 cycle of, 31–32
setting up groups, 253 desire for change and, 29
group profile, 126–27, 132, 300 e-, 22
environment, 61, 262, 282, 284–86, 327, 329
in-service training, 13–14, 21, 23, 28, 55, 268, 374, establishing and maintaining conducive learning
375 climate, 158–63
information, 22, 27 as evolutionary process, 29
right to, 27 incentives for, 55
on training programmes, 34–35, 70, 103, 117, as an integrated process, 28, 30–31
129, 131, 352–56, 387–89 as an interactive and collaborative process, 32–34
for group profile, 126 lifelong pursuit, 26, 27
Index z 401
methods, 50–53 concept and dimensions, 27

objectives, 3, 258, 264, 267, 271, 279–80, 294, control by participants, 196–97
299, 354–55 desire for personal growth and development, 54,
on-the-job, 19 55
outcomes, 277, 361, 369, 376, 381 environmental factors, 61–66
overcoming resistance to, 163–64, 192 as an evolutionary process, 29–30, 67
pace of, 43 factors influencing, 53–54
participant’s responsibility for, 156–58 family situation and personal problems, 60–61
in present-day world, 26–27 general learning environment, 64
process in training, 30 incentives/benefits for learning, 55
as shared undertaking, 29–30 intellectual and emotional elements, 159–60, 192
stimulation for, 29 as an interactive and collaborative process, 32–34
styles of participants, 25, 31, 43–47, 267, 300, as an integrated process, 28, 30
304, 330, 353 participants’ learning styles, 60
through activities, 34 personal factors, 55–61
trainer’s response to styles of, 47–48 personal learning objectives and programme
under formal and informal conditions, 28 objectives, 56
as universal phenomenon, 27 programme contents/topics, 61
ways of, 48–50 reasons and manner of nomination, 58
affirmation or endorsing existing learning, relationship with other members of group and
48–49 trainers, 64–65
building on present level of competence, 48, self-image and self-esteem, 56–57
49 selectivity in, 43
development of new knowledge and compe- situation in organisation, 57
tencies, 48, 49 size and composition of training group, 65–66
learning after going through process of de- stimulation for, 29
learning, 48, 49–50 trainer/training team, 63
learning methods in training programmes, 50–51 training experience of participants, 59
direct inputs by trainers, 50 training strategies and methods and techniques,
formal and informal methods of observation, 50, 62–63, 194
52–53 pace of, 43, 125, 128, 197, 303
learning through practice and exercise, 50, 52 promotion of, 51, 318
learning through sharing within training group, as a shared undertaking, 29–30
50, 51–52 at subconscious level, 34, 381, 398
out-of-session exchanges with participants and understanding of, 27–30
trainers, 50, 53 unique at individual level, 26
learning process in training programme lecture, as training method, 194, 203–07
adult learner and, 38–42 enhancing its usefulness, 205–07
components of, 34–38 why and when to use the method, 204
attitudes and values, 37–38 why and when not to use the method, 204–05
information, 34–35
knowledge, 35–36 management, 130
skills and competencies, 36–37 responsibilities of, 123–24
management games, 235–42 roles and responsibilities, 69, 74

conducting, 239–41 selection of participants, 76–77
design and methodology of, 238–39 training needs identification, 75–76
evaluating, 241–42; transfer of training to field, 78–79
objectives of, 237
methods of training panel discussion, 257–59
case study, 207–14, contents of presentation, 258
demonstration, 273–74 inadequacy of the method, 259
field trip, 271–73, physical arrangements, 258
lecture, 203–07 role of moderator, 258–59
group discussion, 251–57 selection of panelists, 258
laboratory, 242–48 suitability of, 258
management games, 235–42 participants
panel discussion, 257–59 ability to learn from experience, 247–48
role-play, 215–16 arrangements for, 124, 141, 228, 258
monitoring, and supervision, 19 arrival for training, 140–41
assigning roles to, 223–34
new incumbents to organisation: orientation of, 13 bonding with, 144–45
new responsibilities assignments, training for, 14–15 building confidence, 10, 157–58
new role dimensions, training for, 14–15 clarification of doubts and queries, 189–90
new strategies introduction, training for, 15 commitment to programme, 63, 127, 155, 299–
non-formal education, concept of, 12, 26 301, 316, 367
See also continuing education contacts with, 136, 144
credibility, 145
on-the-job training, 18 dependence on trainer, 44, 46, 205, 341
features of, absence of interaction, 20 dysfunctional behaviour of, 277, 283–84
cost-effectiveness, 20 expression and exchange of views, 157
easy transfer of training, 20 functional behaviour of, 277, 280
emphasis on practice, 20 getting acquainted with each other, 142
individualised training, 18 hopes and concern, 153–55
monitoring and supervision, 19 information of programme to, 111
unpredictability of result, 19 interaction among, 53, 95, 148, 242, 252, 276,
Open Universities, 21, 22 290
organisation(al) interpersonal competencies, 46
effectiveness, training for, 105 learning from training programme, 48
new strategies and working methods in, 15 learning style and skills, 43–48, 60, 199
policy, training for, 15–16 materials for, 140, 225, 268
as stakeholder in training, 70 measurement of
expectations from programme, 77 changes in attitude and values, 394–95
monitoring progress of its participants, 77–78 knowledge, 387–90
participants’ nomination, 75 skills, 393
pre-training, 75 measuring learning of, 386–87
Index z 403
mechanism for involvement, 146–47 programmes objectives, 6, 23, 56, 110–14, 271, 294,
needs vs trainer’s needs, 312–14 311, 314, 338, 340, 383
ownership of programme, 145–46
personal learning objectives, 11, 56, 156, 316, 383 qualities, participation, 148, 165, 341
potential, 158 of trainer, 322, 327–330
preference for training activities, 44–45 of training programme, xxiv
pre-training survey of needs of, 106, 108–09, 146 question–response approach, 168–87
reactions of, 377, 382–85 attitude towards questioner, 173
re-entry into organisation and family after training, and enhancing participation, 169
193 fielding questions, 183–84
responsibility of learning to, 156 functions of questions, 170–72
role and commitment in programme, 155, 160, guidelines for usefulness, 174–77
300, 316 lack of preparation/self-confidence, 173
standards of performance and, 156–57 steps in asking questions, 177–80
support mechanism, 157 understanding the approach, 168–69
trainers and, 312–14
types of, 277, 287–93 role-play, as training method, 215–16
critic, 291 action guidelines for trainer, 232–33
detached, 289 assigning roles to participants, 223–34
fault-finder, 291 briefing role-players, 226, 230–31
hesitant/shy, 292 case study method and, 217
know-all, 291–92 checklist for, 236
learner, 288 commencement of, 229–31
monopolist, 292–93 essential elements in, 219–20
self-seeker, 288 feedback session, 233–34
socialiser, 289–90 identifying problem, 222
tourist, 290 introduction, 225
willingness to put extra efforts for learning, 44, limitations of, 234–35
45–46 materials for, 225
participatory training, 9–12 multiple role-play, 221
basic principles of, 9–11 objectives, 216
key aspects of, 9 observers’ sheet, 226–27
performance, training to improve, 13–15 operating rules and norms, 225
personal learning objectives, 56–57 planning guidelines, 222–28
placement, training through, 195, 268–71, 276 reverse role-play, 221
practical assignments, 249–51 simple role-play, 220
pre-service training, 12–14, 23, 104 spontaneous role-play, 221
presentation, preparing for 352–62 structure for, 223
attributes of an effective, 356 types of, 220–21
printed materials, 142, 262, 265–67 when to use, 217–19
advantages of, 266 role-players, 217, 219, 223, 225, 228
disadvantages of, 266–67 briefing of, 230–31
self-esteem, level of, 56–57, 343, 353 handling questions, 359

self-image, 56–57 integrating participants’ comments, 359
skills, development, through training, 12 interacting with group, 358–59
stakeholders in training, 69 language, 359
and beneficiaries, 70–74 level of motivation, 357
contracting with, 88–90 manner and movement, 361
areas of, 92–93 opening session, 356
levels of, 89–90 self-control, 357
need and scope of, 88–89 use of notes, 358
with nominating organizations, 90–93 voice and tone, 360
with participants, 75, 86, 93–97 as facilitator of learning process, 318
funding/sponsoring agencies, 74–75, 82 functions of, 196, 309
organisations, 75, 83, 90 handling problem situations, 342–52
participants, 75, 86 sample situations and trainer’s response, 343–
role and responsibilities of, 69, 72, 74–75 49
trainers, 80, 85 strategy to deal with, 349–52
training agencies, 79–85 as leader of group, 321–22
as learner, 321
teaching, and training, 7–9 learning environment, 9, 64–65
technology advancement, training for, 15 as manager, 320
trainer(s), 85, 311 as member of the group, 322
action guidelines for, 116, 232–33 needs vs participants’ needs, 312–14
competencies of, 322–23 participants’ dependence on, 44, 46, 53, 67
as counsellor, 320 as person, 311–12
dependence on, 46 as planner, 318, 323
as developer of individual, 319–20 portrait of, 314
dilemma of, 339–42 preparation for presentation/training activity, 352–
control of training process and participants, 341 56
emphasis on group/individual needs, 340 compiling information on training group,
faculty intervention in group process, 341–42 352–53
popularity vs effectiveness, 339 deciding training method, 354–55
relationship with participants, 342 developing topics for topic, 353–54
rhythm of group and adhere to schedule, 340 equipment required for, 356
wider and quality participation, 341 feedback and evaluation, 355–56
dimensions of, 309, 314 preparing and distributing support materials,
direct inputs by 50–51 355
effective presentation, 356–61 setting out learning objectives, 354
acting on feedback, 361 pressure on selecting training method, 197–98
adhering to time schedule, 359 qualities of, 327–30
body language, 360 ability to work under pressure, 328
delivering inputs, 357 enthusiastic, 327–28
evaluation, 361 flexibility, 329
Index z 405
good sense of humour, 329–30 working procedure and norms of functioning,

sincerity and openness, 328–29 364
willingness to accept mistake and apologise,
330 training
willingness to recognise good contribution, attributes, 7
330 in business and development sector, xix–xx
response to participants’ learning style, 47–48 concept of, 3–5
responsibility, 85 design, 99–133
role of, 57–61, 248, 250, 318 distance, 20–22
in individual/group practical assignment, 194, education and, 5–7
empowering the group, 151–52, 192
249–50
experience and learning process, 39, 59–60
in laboratory training methods, 184, 242–43,
face-to-face, 17
245–48
facilitative, 11–12
skills of, 323–27
group-based, 16
ability to receive and give feedback, 326
group discussion as a method of, 251–57
communication skills, 324–25
humanistic approach in, 315–16, 367
interpersonal skills, 324 in-service training, 13–15, 23
in managing conflicts, 325 key facets of, 9–11
in organising and conducting training, 327 levels of, 12–17
planning skills, 323 developing new skills, 12–13
preparing and making presentations, 327 improving levels of performance, 13–14
in selecting and using training method, 324 individual-based, 12–16
selection of appropriate methods, 324 in-service, 13
team work among, 80 orienting new entrants, 13
understanding and using group processes, 326 pre-service, 12
as subject matter specialist, 319 meaning and scope of, 2–3, 331
training styles, 63 measures to enhance status of, xxi–xxii
values of, 314 modes of, 17–23
belief in humanistic approach in training, face-to-face, 17
315–16 distance, 20–21
commitment to programme, 316 e-, 22–23
on the job, 18
faith in participatory training, 317
need for a handbook on, xxii–xxiii
faith in training as a tool for growth and
needs, 75, 86, 103, 106, 109
development, 315
on-the-job, 18–20
professional commitment and discipline, 317
organisation, 13, 17, 24, 27, 102, 105, 130
working in training team, 362–66
participatory, 9–11
allocation of roles and responsibilities, 364 planning process, 114
clarity on team objectives, 363 pre-service, 12–13
guidelines on, 365–66 present status, xx–xxi
interpersonal relations, 364–65 scope of, 1–24
review of work, 365 short-term application of, 40
stakeholders, mechanism for participants’ involvement, 146–47

as partners in, 69–98 norms and standard of behaviour, 148
roles and responsibilities, 69, 74–75 stages of development, 277, 293, 295
status of, xxi–xxii acquainting stage, 295, 296–97
strategies, 62–63 bartering stage, 295, 297, 299
styles, 133, 309, 330–38 concluding stage, 295, 305–06
teaching and, 7–9 consolidation/cohesion stage, 295, 300
team, 63, 85, 129, 362 development stage, 295, 300–301
through placement, 195, 269–71, 276 dynamics stage, 295, 302–03
as tool for growth and development, 315 end stage, 295, 305–06
transfer of training to organisations, 130 finale stage, 295, 307
understanding, 2–9 key elements, 294–95
training agency, 33, 69, 71, 79–86, 89, 90, 101 preliminary stage, 295, 296
appraisal of work, 81 size and composition of, 65–66
communication with nominating organisations, and training activities, 281
81–82 types of participants in, 277, 287–93
consistency in work and administration of work, training methods
79–80 appropriateness of, 196, 324, 383
experience of, 106, 108–09 brainstorming method, 194, 295
initiative for training programme, 101 case study method, 194, 209, 217
keeping pace with development in field of training, demonstrations, 195, 273
81 factors influencing choice of, 194, 197
maintaining communication with sponsoring competence, 201
organisation, 82 facilities and resources, 201
promoting training programme, 80–81 learning objectives, 197
responsibilities, 79 presentation, 201
staffs’ professional growth, 80 pressure on trainer, 197
training group, 126–27 stage of the programme, 201
blending into cohesive entity, 147 time allocation, 201
characteristics of, 199–200 trainer’s competence, 201
composition and size of, 65–66 trainer’s style preference, 201
discord in, 285 training group characteristics, 199
dynamics of, 277 field trip method, 195, 271–73
dysfunctional behaviour, 277, 283–84 functions of, 196
empowerment, 151–58 group discussion method, 194, 251
enhance participation of, 196 group practical assignments, 249
establishment of bond with, 331 importance of, 194, 195
features, 277, 278–80 individual practical assignments, 194, 242
feedback provision, 280–81 laboratory method, 194, 242
functional behaviour in a, 277, 280–83 lecture method, 194, 203
interaction and cohesion, 197 management games, 194, 235
learning through sharing, 51–52 panel discussion, 194, 257
Index z 407
placement, 195, 268 break-up, 116

role-play method, 194, 215 categorisation, 117
skills required by trainer for, 202 identification, 116
technique and, 122, 195 organisation and sequence, 117
training support material, 195, 261 training process and, 165–66
training needs, 103–11 delivery of, 134, 136, 158–64
analysis, 103, 109 developing skills for performance appraisal, 114
identification of , 75, 103, 106 effective monitoring, 129
deficiencies in performance, 104 empowering training group, 151–58, 192
for enhancing organisational effectiveness, 105 environment, 153
job analysis, 106 establishing participants’ ownership of, 145–47,
job profile, 106 192
pre-training survey of participants’ need, 106, evaluation of, 134, 369–86
108–09 difficulties in, 380
in specified training area, 105 learning of participants, 386–87
sources of, 106 need, 371–72
training agency experience, 106 participants’ reaction to, 382
training needs for different programme, purpose, 371, 372–73
training needs of specific group of function- stages of, 373
aries, 105 end-programme, 378
for different programmes, 104 ongoing, 376–78
expectations and, 86 post-training, 378–79
understanding of, 103 pre-training, 374–76
training process, and training group, 165–66 feedback, 165, 376
control of, 341 identification of contents, 116
programme contents and, 165 information to participants, 130
training programme, 25 initiative by
action plan for, 100, 116 group of organisations, 102
arrival of participants for, 140–41 organisation, 102
assignments, 123 training agency, 100–101
beginning of, 134, 142 integrated approach to learning in, 30–31
break-up of contents of, 116 learning in a, 25–30
building flexibility, 128–29 methods of, 25, 50
challenge and dissent, 167 preference for specific type of, 44–45
communicating information on, 130–31 process, 32
conclusion, 134 learning outcomes, 120–21
condition for attending, 95 learning process in a, 25, 30–31
consideration in design of, 99, 124–25 making training group functional, 280
consolidation learning, 167 management and administration, 130
contacts with participants, 136 modules, 116
contents categorisation, 116–20 momentum and pace of, 118, 128
monitoring and evaluation of, 124, 129, 166–67 responsibilities for management and administra-
needs, 75–105, 112 tion of, 123–24
analysis, 103, 109 support material:
expectations and, 86 develop and use of, 261–68
identification, 75–76, 98, 104, 106 facilities and equipment for, 122–23
for organisational effectiveness, 105 time allocation, 122
in specified areas, 105 training group, 126
understanding, 103 training method and techniques, 122
nominating organisations’ objective and activities, training team, 129
125 training for entrepreneurship, 114
objectives, 100, 113 transfer of training to organisation, 130
considerations and guidelines, 112 types of participants, 277, 287–88
contents and process of, 165–66 training styles
define limits for programme, 112 constituents of, 330, 333–35
flexibility, 115 determinants of, 332–33
learner’s perspective, 112–13 evolution of, 335
functional training style, 335–38
measure of, 114
meaning, scope and dynamics of, 331–32
provide direction to programme, 111
training support materials, 261–68
realistic and practical, 113
audio-visual materials, 262–65
sample, 114
development of, 267–68
serve as a basis of evaluation, 112
preparation and use, 261–62
setting of, 102, 110–12
printed materials, 265–67
specificness, 113
training team, 31, 63–64, 68, 85, 123
tool for meeting participant’s training need,
assignments for members of, 123
112
understanding, 110
values, attitudes and, 37–38, 108, 117, 121, 138, 216,
when results beyond control,
366, 394–95
opening of, 142 of a trainer, 314–17
origin of, 100
preparation for, 134, 136 working method introduction, training for, 15
promoting learning process, 125 writing assignments 251
About the Author
Devendra Agochiya has over three decades of rich and varied experience of working with
national and international organisations engaged in the fields of youth and social develop-
ment, training, empowerment and management. He has worked for about 12 years (1969–80),
in senior professional positions, with an international NGO in New Delhi—International
Youth Centre. He has worked for about 18 years with the Youth Affairs Division of the
Commonwealth Secretariat—first as the Regional Director for Asia and then as Head of the
Division based in London, the headquarters of the Secretariat. He has been actively associated
with the planning and delivery of a wide range of training programmes for a variety of target
groups, including policy makers, senior government and non-government officials, business
executives and young people in India and other Commonwealth countries.
He is presently working as a freelance consultant with a number of national and inter-
national agencies in training and development and related areas.

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Every Trainer’s Handbook

ii z Every Trainer’s Handbook

First published in 2002

SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd

SAGE Publications Inc

SAGE Publications Ltd

SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte Ltd

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Available

ISBN: 978-81-321-0081-2 (PB)

In remembrance of my Mom and Dad as a

To our daughter, Mahima, and son-in-law, Rajeev;

1. TRAINING—CONCEPT, MEANING AND SCOPE 1

2. PROCESS OF LEARNING IN A TRAINING PROGRAMME 25

2.3 Process of Learning in a Training Programme 30

3. MAKING STAKEHOLDERS PARTNERS IN TRAINING 69

4. STEPS IN PREPARING A TRAINING DESIGN 99

4.5.2 Promoting the learning process 125

5. DELIVERING AN ACTIVE AND PARTICIPATORY

6. TRAINING METHODS AND TECHNIQUES 194

6.2 Factors Influencing Choice of Training Methods 197

6.8.2 Advantages of the method 250

7. TRAINING GROUP AND ITS DYNAMICS 277

7.3 Dysfunctional Behaviour in Training Group 283

8. THE TRAINER—ROLES AND FUNCTIONS 309

8.5 Handling Problem Situations 342

9. EVALUATION OF A TRAINING PROGRAMME 369

3.1 Roles and Responsibilities of Key Stakeholders 72

6.1 Appropriateness of Training Methods to Learning Outcomes 200

8.1 Roles of a Trainer and Required Competencies 323

9.1 Suggested Plan for Preparing an Evaluation Design 396

4.1 Sample Programme Objectives 114

5.1 Suggested Materials for the Participants 140

6.1 Suggested Areas for Preparing Observers’ Sheet 227

8.1 Evolving a Functional Training Style 337

9.1 Examples of Questions/Statements/Items for Ascertaining Reactions of the

TRAINING IN BUSINESS AND DEVELOPMENT SECTORS

THE PRESENT SCENARIO

Amidst growing acknowledgement of the value of training to individuals and organisa-

WHAT COULD BE DONE TO ENHANCE THE STATUS OF TRAINING?

a network of the training staff, facilitating collaboration and cooperation in training-related

WHY THIS HANDBOOK?

SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE HANDBOOK

THE TARGET GROUP

1.1 UNDERSTANDING TRAINING

1.1.1 Meaning and Scope

1.1.2 Concept of Training

1.1.3 Training and Education

Although in most cases, training is imparted through a group situation, it is a loose

1.1.4 Training and Teaching

the present-day context. Both are interactive processes, based on communication

1.2 KEY FACETS OF TRAINING

1.2.1 Participatory Training

Understanding Participatory Training—Some Key Aspects

Participatory Training—Some Basic Principles

and future requirements. They are, therefore, in a position to assess relevance or

training methodology provides the necessary impetus and creates opportunities

Some Key Prerequisites for Participatory Training

Previous experience of the participants, appropriate to the training contents, is the

1.2.2 Facilitative Training

In practice, however, no training programme can be delivered consistently from either

1.3 LEVELS OF TRAINING

1.3.1 Individual-based Training

An individual may possess Training helps in acquiring