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Topic Core 1: Better Health For Individuals
Meanings of health

Definitions of Health:

Early meaningsà Focusing on the body’s ability to function and be free from illness or disease.
WHO CURRENTà A state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity”.
Dimensions of health

If one dimension is compromised, other dimensions will be affected.

5 Dimensions of Health

Physical- functioning of body + systems à gives people capacity to carry out everyday activities + free from illness.

Social- Interactions with people. Good social health = feel a sense of connection and belonging with various people.
We form and maintain positive relationships that provide a network of support and manage situations.

Mental/ Emotional- State of emotional wellbeing. Factors that contribute include sense of connection, belonging,
emotions and biological factors.

Spiritual- feeling of purpose and meaning in life. Beliefs, values, and ethics are factors that influence spiritual health.
System that encapsulates values.

Relative and Dynamic Nature of Health

Relative Dynamic
How we judge our health compared to Constant fluctuations that occur in our
other people or other points in our life. level of health.

How Circumstances
Affect Health:

- Health status is
affected by our
personal circumstances.
- These include our physical environment, sociocultural environment, socioeconomic environment and our
political environment.
Physical Environment:

- Important part in our health.

- Includes our cultural and ethnic backgrounds.
- Quality of air, food, water, sanitation and housing.
- Threats include pollution, chemicals, radiation and climate change.
Sociocultural Environment:

- Includes ethnic background.

- Includes gender, which can affect certain health conditions and social expectations of behaviour.
Socioeconomic Environment:

- Refers to levels of income, employment and education of a group of people.

- People in low SES ground tend to have lower health.
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Political Environment:

- Governments make decisions and laws to protect out health.

- Governments also make decisions about health expenditure.
Perception of their health

Perceptions of health vary throughout our lives, as definitions of health change to reflect our expectations,
and beliefs.
Way we perceive our health is influenced by:
- Personal interpretation of health
- Environment
- Beliefs about our capacity to achieve good health.
- Behaviours and lifestyle
- Past level of health
- Messages about health and the media
- The value we place on the importance of being healthy.
Perceptions of the Health of Others

We can hold stereotypical beliefs about groups in a community and this can limit our ideas about their
health status. Our different ways of seeing and interpreting the living conditions, fitness levels and health
behaviours of various groups can shape out notions of how healthy people are likely to be.
 E.g. an elderly person may evaluate their level of health based upon the presence or absence of chronic
disease while someone else may automatically judge them as unhealthy because they are less able to do
things they could once do.

Implications of Different Perceptions of Health

- Perceptions of health influence a person’s behaviour, choice and priorities in life.

- They also influence governments, industries, communities and families in setting goals and targets in terms
of health promotion.
- Individually, people’s perceptions of their own health have a significant influence on their lifestyle choices
and behaviours relating to health.
- Different perceptions of health also have the potential to reinforce stereotypes.
- We may treat people differently based on our perceptions of health.

Perception of Health as a Social Construct

- The idea that how you see health is not just determined by you but is chiefly shaped by society is called a
social construct.
- There are many factors that contribute to our social construct of health.
- Economic status
- Education
- Employment
- Cultural background
- Religious views
- Family and peers
- Geographical, social and political environment in which we live.
Socioeconomic status
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- Linked to level of income, employment, education, and occupation.
- Higher socioeconomic status à healthier person is.
- Low socioeconomic status à greater risk of poor health, illness, and disease + lower life
expectancy.

Social and economic disadvantaged are linked with poor emotional health which is categorised by:
o Loss of a sense of control/power
o Higher levels of health
o Low self-esteem
o Feelings of unfair treatment
Geographic location
- Geographic areas à Urban, rural and remote = people from each area have varying social
constructs for health and wellbeing due to the unique features and circumstances of these areas.
E.g., people living in rural and remote areas have lower access to health services and recreational
facilities in comparison to those living in urban areas, meaning they have restricted access to medical
practitioners and participate in less physical activity.
Cultural background
- People from different ethnic backgrounds or cultural heritages have different explanations for
different meanings of health.
- People from different cultural backgrounds may hold deep-seated beliefs and ideas related to
health that have been passed down through generations.
E.g., some cultures, illnesses such as mental health are a weakness, which can create stigma for those
experiencing these which contribute to feelings of guilt.
 Ideas of healthy weight can also differ depending different cultural groups, where consideration of
being overweight in one culture may be considered strong in another.

Health Behaviors of Young People

Positive Health Status of Young People

The Positive Health Status of Young People:

- Society has misperceptions about young people and their protective and risk behaviours.
- The media and other groups of people like to clump all young people into one group and make statements
about their health and wellbeing.

Protective Behaviours and Risk Behaviours:

- A protective behaviour is any behaviour that leads to a decreased risk of a health disorder or illness.
- A risk behaviour is any behaviour that leads to a greater risk of a health disorder or illness.
Food Habits:
Protective behaviours Risk behaviours
- Eating a variety of foods in accordance with - Drinking soft drinks, energy drinks and sports
the Dietary Guidelines. drinks that are high in sugar.
- Eat breakfast. - Skipping meals and then snacking on foods that
- Drinking plenty of water are high in fat, salt and sugar.
Body Image:

Protective behaviours Risk behaviours

- Developing positive self-esteem and - Participating in ‘yoyo’ or fad dieting or fasting.
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surrounding yourself with positive friends. - Excessively exercising.
- Having a good support network. - Constantly comparing yourself and your body to
- Knowing that it is okay to eat a balanced diet media images.
that includes all foods.

Physical Activity:

Sedentary: not engaged in physical activity.

- It is recommended that for good health 12–18-year-olds should:

- Should participate in at least 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous intensity physical activity every day.
- Should not spend more than two hours a day using electronic media for entertainment particularly during
daytime hours.
- Young people’s physical activity.
Protective Behaviors Risk Behaviors
- Becoming involved in a team sport. - Always using cars and public transport rather
- Limiting the amount of time spent on than walking or riding.
small-screen activities. - Being in a group that encourage physical
- Looking for ways to be physically active in activity.
everyday life e.g., walking the dog, riding - Spending large amounts of time working or
your bike, parking further away from the studying and not balancing this with some
shops. form of physical activity.

Drug Use:

Protective Behaviours Risk Behaviours

- Hanging out with people who don’t substance - Binge drinking
abuse. - Drink driving or getting into a car with someone
- Getting involved in alternative activities. who is under the influence.
- Having a plan before you go out, to avoid risky - Mixing drugs and alcohol.
situations that involve drugs or alcohol.

Mental Health:

Risk Behaviours Protective Behaviours

- Exposure to violence. - Supportive family relationships.
- Exposure to family violence. - Connectiveness with peers.
- Surrounding yourself with toxic people. - Stress management strategies.

- Anxiety and depression are the most common mental conditions experienced by young people.
- Drug use is the most prevalent factor associated with the development of mental illness.

Sexual Health:

- Chlamydia is the most commonly reported STI

- Proportion of students who have experienced sexual intercourse has increased.
- The number of young women experiencing unwanted sex has increased.
- Males are more likely to have multiple partners and use condoms.

Protective Behaviours Risk Behaviours

- Practicing safe sex, if sexually active. - Having unprotected sexual intercourse.
- Regularly doing testicular check-ups. - Not informed about STIs.
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- Getting regular pap smears if you become - Avoiding regular health checks and tests,
sexually active. particularly if sexually active.

Road Safety:

- Injury is still the leading cause of morbidity and mortality for young people.
- Young males remain overrepresented in traffic accident statistics.
- Inexperience
- Overconfidence
- Influence of peers
- Alcohol and other drugs
Protective Behaviours Risk Behaviours
- Not drinking and driving. - Driving with a BAC over the legal limit.
- Organising a designated driver. - Talking on the phone while driving.
- Arranging to be picked up after a party or - Driving while sleep deprived.
function. - Not using a seatbelt.
- Wearing seatbelts. - Drag racing.

Determinants for Health

Factors that can Determine Health:

Individual Factors Socio-cultural Factors Socio-economic Factors Environmental Factors

- Knowledge - Family - Income - Geographic location
- Skills - Peers - Education - Access to health
- Attitudes - Media - Employment services
- Genetics - Culture/religion - Access to technology

Individual Factors

Knowledge:

- In order to improve health an individual needs to have good health knowledge.

- Person needs to know things like where to get information from regarding health, healthy food choices,
recommended levels of physical activity and what affects health.
Skills:

- Critical inquiry (who to trust for information).

- Research skills (how to find information).
- Practical skills, such as decision making.
Attitudes:

- An attitude toward a specific issue which impacts health.

- Will either encourage or prevent a person from engaging in actives such as smoking etc.
Genetics:

- A family history of disease or lack thereof which would impact a person’s health.

Sociocultural Factors

Family:
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- Family determines culture.
- Has a huge impact on choice.
- Decides how much media exposure you have.
- Influence your behaviour choices relating to productive and risk behaviours.
Peers:

- Peer influences linked to peer pressure.

- Pressure on adolescents to fit in with groups and select behaviours that place them within a particular peer
group.
Culture and Religion:

- Some religions place restrictions on people which has an effect on a person’s health.
- Cultures have traditional meals which can affect health also.
Media:

- The media can place positive and negative impacts on an individual.

- It can promote exercise, body positivity and encourage young people to be confident.
- Although it can promote ‘fad’ diets, miracle weight loss methods and photoshop.

Socioeconomic Factors

Education:

- A person who is more educated on the effects of lack of physical activity and the dangers of regular
unhealthy eating is less likely to partake in unhealthy habits.
Income:

- Low income can impact a person’s access to beneficial resources.

- People with a low income are less likely to purchase healthier options for food since they are more
expensive than unhealthy food.
Employment:

- The kind of work your job entails determines your level of physical health.
- Jobs that include high levels of physical activity help its employees to be healthier.
- Jobs that are mostly stationary will negatively impact a person’s health negatively.

Environmental Factors

Geographic location:

- People in cities have better access to facilities like doctors, hospitals etc.
- People living in rural areas has limited access to these facilities.
- Health problems suffered by people living in rural areas are often associated with harsher physical
environments and social isolation.
Access to Health Services:

- Availability
- Proximity
- Affordability
- Awareness & understanding
Access to Technology:

- New technologies have resulted in improved levels of health and a reduction in morbidity and mortality
rates in Australia.
Interactions between Factors

Interactions Between Factors

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The Degree of Control Individuals Can Exert Over their Health

- A person’s level of health is not solely determined by individual choices.

- A range of social, economic, environmental, and individual factors which are often interrelated, all exert a
considerable influence over the health choices we make and our chances of being healthy.

Modifiable and Non-Modifiable Health Determinants

Easily modifiable Moderately modifiable Non-modifiable

- Knowledge - Peers - Family
- Skills - Religion - Media
- Attitudes - Geographic location - Culture
- Income - Employment
- Education
- Access to health services
- Technology
- Genetics

The Changing Influence of Determinants Through Different Life Stages

Childhood:

- Family, parents
- Shape health related values, school, geographic location, meals.
Adolescence:

- Shift of parent to peer influence

- Part time job -> change in socioeconomic factor = more options.
- Develop own values and beliefs.
- Development of health-related knowledge.
Young person:

- Opportunity to move away from childhood environment.

- Job, university.
Adulthood:

- Life experiences affect their individual knowledge and skills.

- Influenced by socioeconomic factors.
- Individual attitudes more important.
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Old age:

- Environmental factors have greater influence.

- Accessibility to transport and social contact
- Lack of control over life.
Health as a Social Construct
A person’s health behaviours and health status are determined by factors relating to the social, physical and cultural
environment in which they live.

Recognises the interrelationship of determinants:

Determinants affect each other.

Stats- ATI: poor education, less secure and heavy-duty employment ----> more illness

Individual physical and psychological factors, society, environment, socioeconomic, sociocultural, health behaviour
and biomedical factors all affect wellbeing and health (life expectancy, morality, illness, injury, disease and disability.

Challenges the notion that health is solely an individual’s responsibility:

An individual has limitations and barriers such as biological, social and environmental factors which make health not
only one’s responsibility. Improving heath requires more than just teaching and encouragement to make better
health choices.

Examples of an overweight person:

-Family is sedentary (predisposing factors which increase likelihood of behaviour)
-Fast food available (enabling factors which support behaviour)
-Absence of role models, obesity in community (reinforcing which help behaviour continue)

What strategies help to promote the health of individuals?

What is health promotion?

Health promotion involves activities which aim to enable people to take control of their health, for improvement and
prevent illnesses. Environmental and group support include: government legislation (laws), government regulation
(Achieving standard, food labels), physical supports (provision of hospitals), economic support (welfare programs),
social support (support groups and social workers) and educational supports (health ed in schools).

Health promotion approaches and strategies.

- Lifestyle/behavioural approaches à
EXAMPLE:
Quit smoking programs, health education.
Aims to reduce or prevent incidents from risk behaviours.
E.g., stopping physical inactivity, smoking, drug consumption or unhealthy eating.

- Preventative medical approaches à

EXAMPLE:
Childhood immunisation, cancer screening
Using medical treatments and interventions to improve health.
E.g., visiting doctor regularly, check-ups.

- Public health approaches à

EXAMPLE:
Health-promoting schools and workplaces
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Establishing programs, policies and services in schools and workplaces
E.g., councillors, welfare teams, free immunisation

Responsibility for Health Promotion

Individualsà

- Key role in promoting their own health.

- Personal behaviour is the major determining factor of health status.
- Good health can be promoted by making choices that enhance personal health.
- For health promotion to be effective, individuals need to be empowered.
- For example, individuals are responsible for wearing masks, checking into venues and washing their hands.

Community groups à

- Childhood and adolescents are stages of life when attitudes towards health and health behaviours are still
forming, providing schools with an opportunity to have a positive impact on young people’s values and
beliefs.
- Schools are responsible for delivering health and physical education programs, to assist young people to
develop their knowledge and make healthy choices

Non-government organisations à

- Operate at local, national or international capacities.

- They are funded through public donations, fundraisers, and government grants.
- The cancer council and the heart foundation are examples. They undertake roles such as providing
educational programs, conducting activities designed to raise awareness, provide support groups, provide
accurate and up to date information.

Government levelsà

- Share a degree of responsibility for promoting better health.

- The nature and scope of the health promotion initiatives they undertake vary considerably due to different
priorities, allocated funding and resources available.
- Local, state and federal government have different responsibilities, whilst local governments are responsible
for ensuring compliance, park maintenance and LGA control, State Government is responsible for planning
and delivering health promotion and border control, and the federal government is responsible for vaccine
rollout and Centrelink. Examples for government responsibility include legislations, speed cameras, national
campaigns etc.

International organisations à majorly responsible for health promotion. They provide leadership, work
collaboratively with governments producing research, statistics and reports, and setting international health
standards.

Ottawa Charter

First came into existence at the first International Health Promotion Conference in Ottawa Canda 21 st November
1986

- Created to address the growing health concerns tht had emerged into the 20 th century

Most prominent issues:

- AIDS
- OBESITY

Main motive was to respond to the increasing expectations for contemporary health movement around the world
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- Forged in an age of technology (ie. Phones and televisions)
- Enabled it to be broadcasted on an international scale, easy access of information to the public

ACTION AREAS:

Developing Provision of information, educations for health - Mandatory PDHPE curriculum from
Personal Skills and the enhancement of life skills kindergarten to year 10
- Media campaigns on the harmful
consequences of drug use
Creating This action area focuses on the places where - Providing counsellors in school
Supportive people live, work and play and on increasing - Establishing healthy canteens in schools
Environments peoples ability within these settings to make
health-promoting choices
Strengthenin The empowerment of communities to identify - Local R U OK DAY events
g Community and implement actions to address their health - Family drug support meetings
Action concerns
Reorienting Seeks to prevent ill health occurring, helping - Increasing funding for research and
Health people attain the highest level of health health promotion
Services possible and support overall wellbeing.
Building Ensuring that decisions made at all levels of - Legislation relating to unsafe driving
Health Public government work towards health behaviours such as driving under the
Policy improvement. influence alcohol and using mobile
phones.
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Topic Core 2: Body in motion
Human movement occurs because of complex interactions between the nervous system, muscular system,
cardiorespiratory system and skeletal system.

Skeletal System and its contribution to movement.

Functions of the Skeletal System:

- Shape and structure (SUPPORT + SHAPE + FORM + STRUCTURE)

- Protect organs (PROTECT VITAL ORGANS + SOFT TISSUE)
- Muscle attachment (BODY MOVEMENT)
- Produce blood cells (MARROW CAVATIES)
- Calcium storage (STOREHOUSE OF ESSENTAIL MINERALS)

Skeletal System Diagram:

206 bones in the human skeleton and it can be divided into two parts:

1. The Axial Skeleton: consists of the skull, ribs and vertebral column. Mainly responsible for protection of vital
organs.
2. The Appendicular Skeleton: consisting of the shoulder girdle, arms, pelvic girdle, and legs. Mainly
responsible for movement.
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Anatomical and anterior and posterior positions:

Term Definition
Superior Towards the head (E.g.- The chest is superior to the hips)
Inferior Away from the head (E.g.- The foot is inferior to the leg)
Anterior Nearer to the front of the body (E.g.- The breast is on the anterior chest wall.)
Posterior Nearer to the back of the body (E.g.- The oesophagus is posterior to the trachea.)
Medial Nearer to the midline of the body (E.g.- Ulna is on the medial side of the arm)
Lateral Further from the midline of the body (E.g.- The phalanges are distal to the carpals)

Anatomical position (SLAP)

1. Standing up straight
2. Looking straight ahead
3. Arms by your side
4. Palms facing down
Planes of the body (SCT)

Sagittal: V plane that divides the body into left

and right.
Coronal: V plane that divides body into back and
front.
Transverse: H plane that divides the body into
top and bottom.
Two types of bones:

Compact bone Hard outer layer, Strong and dense, Common in long bones.
Cancellous bone Soft, formed by a lattice work of thin bones, Spaces between are filled with bone marrow.
Found in shorter, smaller bones.
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4 main types of bones:

Long Bones Short Bones Flat Bones Irregular Bones Sesamoid Bones
Longer than they Tend to be boxed Broad surface Made up of bines Embedded in a
are wide and work shape and have limited that do not fit into tendon. These are
in a hinge range of the other 3 small round bonds
arrangement with movement categories. and found in tendons
other bones. of hands, knees and
feet.
MOVEMENT MOVEMENT PROTECTIVE SUPPORT PROTECT TENDONS
Humerus, radius, Carpals in the Skull and rib Sacrum, coccyx. Patella- knee cap
ulna, femur, tibia, wrist and tarsals bones.
and fibula. in the ankles
Vertebral Column:
Vertebral column protects the spinal cord and consists
of 24 movable vertebrae in three sections.
1. Cervical
2. Thoracic
3. Lumbar
4. Sacrum
5. Coccyx
Spine keeps the body upright and connects the different
parts of the skeleton to each other. It is flexible due to
the elastic ligaments and spinal disks.
E.g., - Pelvis, head, chest, shoulders, arms, and legs.
Major bones involved in movement:
Major Bones Description
involved in
movement
Clavicle (collar - Long bone
bone) - Provides attachment between shoulder gridle and vertebral column.
- Gives better mobility to shoulder joint.
Scapula - Large, triangular flat bone
(shoulder - Allows the arm to attach to the trunk portion of the skeleton.
blade)
Humerus - Major long bone in upper arm joining shoulder to elbow.
- Ove in most direction and rotate within the shoulder joint.
Radius - Long bone found on the thumb side of the forearm.
- Works with Ulna – providing structure to the forearm and allowing it to rotate on elbow
joint.
- Muscles work on and around the radius and ulna rotating the palm of the hand.
Ulna - Longer bone of the forearm
- Found on little finger side
Carpals, - Bones of the wrist and fingers
metacarpals - Carpals - short
Phalanges.
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Major bones Description
involved in
movement
Pelvic girdle - Compromises several bones and provides the base of support necessary for the
weight of the upper body.
- Allows for the attachment of the lower limbs and muscles of the leg and lower
back.
- Allows less movement than the shoulder girdle because the supporting ligaments
are short and strong.
Major bones Description
involved in
movement
Femur (thighbone) - Longest and strongest bone in the body.
- Covered by large muscles – extend from pelvic girdle to the shin.
Patella (kneecap) - Small, flat triangular bone
- Provides protection to the knee
Tibia (Shinbone) - Larger of two long bones that form the lower leg.
- Bears most body weight.
- Involved in all movement of the lower body.
Fibula - Slender long bone.
- Lies parallel with and on the lateral sides of the tibia.
- Works with the tibia – support and stability to lower leg + allow slight rotation of
knee joint.
Tarsals, metatarsals, - Comprised bones in foot
phalanges. - Tarsals – short bones
- Metatarsals + phalanges – long bone
- Provide structure – enables leg movements

Types of joints
Joint: a junction of two or more bones and is commonly referred to as an articulation.
3 types of Joints:

Type of Joint Definition Example

Fibrous No joint cavity and held together by Bones of the cranium à fused win
(immovable) strong connective tissue. lines called sutures.
Cartilaginous No joint cavity and held together by Vertebral column à where fibrous
(Slightly moveable) cartilage. cartilage between discs allows a limit
range of movement.
Synovial Have a joint cavity and held together by Synovial joints à hip joint
(Freely moveable) ligaments and separated by synovial
fluid.

Structure of Synovial Joints:

Structure of Synovial joints Definition

Ligaments Connects bone to bone and provides stability.
- Fibrous inelastic bands
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Tendons - Tough, inelastic cords of tissue that attach muscle to bone.
- Further strengthened by muscle tendons that extend across the joint and
assist ligaments to hold the joint closed.
CONNECT MUSCLE TO BONE
Synovial fluid Acts as a lubricant TO PREVENT friction between joints.
- Forms a fluid cushion between joints.
- Provides nutrition for the cartilage and carries away waste products.
- When articular cartilage is under pressure à fluid is ‘pumped’ in joint
space.
Hyaline cartilage - While synovial fluid acts as a cushion between articulating surfaces of the
bones, they are also covered with a layer of smooth, shiny cartilageà
allows bones to move freely over each other.
- Limited blood supply but receives nourishment via synovial fluid.
- Thicker in leg joints where there is greater weight bearing.

Types of synovial joints

A synovial joint is one that is freely movable and allows maximum movement. It consists of ligaments,
tendons, and synovial fluid.

Type of synovial joint Description Example

Hinge (Back and forth) Like a door, opening and closing in one direction along one - Knee
plane, allows for flexion and extension. - Elbow
- Phalanges
Ball and socket (free, Permitting movements in all directions, the ball and socket - Hip
rotation) joint features the rounded head of one bone sitting in the - Shoulder
cup of another bone.
Gliding (side to side) In gliding joints, bones will alongside one another which - Tarsals
allows flexibility in wrists and ankles. - Carpals
- Vertebrae
Saddle (side to side) This permits movement back and forth and from side to side - Radius ulna
but does not allow rotation.
Pivot (rotation) Pivot joints are involved in rotational movement, - Ulna and radius
characterised by one bone that can swivel in a ring formed bones that
from a second bone. rotate the
forearm
Ellipsoid (side to side) An oval shaped bone fits into an elliptical cavity of another - Radius
bone. It allows side to side and back and forth movement. - Carpals
Allows abduction and adduction, flexion, and extension. - Metacarpals and
phalanges
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Types of Joint actions

Joint action Definition Example

Flexion A movement that decreases the angle between the bones at the Upward phase of a
joint. bicep curl, bending the
leg at the knee.
Extension Increase in the angle of the joint. Straightening the
elbow or knee.
Abduction Movement of the body part away from the midline of the body. Lifting arm out to the
side (side jump).
Adduction Movements of the body part back towards the midline of the body. Returning arm into or
towards the midline.
Supination Rotation of the hand so the thumb moves away from the body. Palm facing up
Pronation Rotation of the hand so that the thumb moves in towards the body. Palm facing down

Eversion Movement of the sole of the foot away from the midline. Twisting ankle out
Inversion Movement of the sole of the foot towards the midline. Twisting ankle in
Dorsi flexion Decrease in the angle of the joint between the foot and the lower Raising toes upwards
leg.
Plantar flexion Increase in the angle of the joint between the foot and the lower leg. Pointing toes to the
ground
Rotation Movement of the end of the bone in a circular motion. Turning head from side
to side.
Circumduction Movement of the end of the bone in a circular motion. Drawing a circle in the
air with a straight arm.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Muscle Tissue Functions
1. Stabilisation of posture and internal organs (STABILITY)
2. Generate heat to maintain body temperature. (HEAT)
3. Produce movement to walk, run, jump, breathe, digest, and excrete. (MOVEMENT)
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Muscle Location Joint Action

Biceps Brachii Anterior to humerus Elbow flexion, forearm supination
Triceps Posterior to humerus Elbow extension
Deltoid Anterior and posterior Shoulder extension, abduction and
adduction of arm
Pectoralis Major Anterior to ribs Arm adduction, flexion and
rotation of the shoulder
Trapezius Posterior to scapula and lateral to Scapula adduction and elevation of
cervical vertebrae the shoulders
Gluteus Maximus Posterior to pelvis Extension and abduction of thigh
Quadriceps Anterior to femur Hip extensions and knee
Hamstrings Posterior to femur Hip extension and knee flexion
Gastrocnemius Inferior to the hamstrings Knee flexion, Plantar flexion
Soleus Posterior to tibia, fibula and Plantar flexion
gastrocnemius
Tibias Anterior Anterior to tibia and fibula Dorsi flexion and inversion of foot
Rectus Abdominus Anterior to vertebrae Flexion of trunk
Latissimus Dorsi Posterior to ribcage Shoulder extension, arm adduction
Erector Spinae Posterior to vertebral column Extension of back
External Oblique Lateral to rectus abdominus Flexion and rotation of trunk
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Types of muscle tissue

Cardiac muscle tissue: Makes up the

bulk of the heart and is striped in
appearance. Cardiac muscle is
involuntary because you have no
control over the contraction. e.g. the
heart.
Smooth muscle tissue: Located in the
walls of internal structures and
responsible for the functions of many
internal organs. Contraction is smooth
and rhythmical. It is not striped in
appearance and is an involuntary
muscle e.g. walls of small intestines

Skeletal (striated) muscle tissue:

Attached mainly to bones and responsible for moving the skeleton. Striped in appearance.
Voluntary muscle because you have control over its contraction e.g. the bicep

Muscle Origin, Belly Muscle & Insertion

Muscle origin: one end of a muscle, generally the location of where it is attached
to the bone.

Belly Muscle: main part of the muscle, then crosses over the gap between this
bone and other. Usually adjacent bone – to attach there.

Insertion: end of the muscle that attached onto the second bone.

Skeletal Muscle Fibres

Slow Twitch Fast Twitch

- Helps to move or stay still. - Provide bigger and more powerful forces, but
- Focused on smaller sustained movements. for shorter durations and fatigue quickly.
- Muscles un the back of lower legs are mostly - The muscles in your eyelids that help you blink
made up of slow twitch fibres are fast-twitch fibres.

Muscle relationship Agonist and Antagonist:

Most movement requires several muscles working together. They
are arranged in opposing pairs..
Agonists have a reputation for being the prime mover, that is, they
are the main force that causes the desired movement. Or the muscle
that shortens during the contraction.
Antagonist is the muscle that opposes, relaxes or lengthens in a
particular movement.
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• For example: when you bend your knee the agonist is the hamstring and the antagonist is the quadriceps
Types of Muscle Contraction & Major muscles involved in Movement.

Isotonic Concentric
- The muscles shorten during the contraction and pulls on another structure to produce
movement (e.g., flexion phase of a bicep curl).
Eccentric
- The muscles lengthen during the contraction. This results In more delayed onset muscle
soreness than concentric contractions (e.g. down phase of a push up).

Isometric Isometric
- Occurs when the muscles does not or cannot be shortened, but the tension of the muscle
increases (e.g. flexibility stretches)

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Respiratory system - Structure and function

- Supplies the blood with oxygen

- Removes waste (carbon dioxide)
- This occurs through respiration

Respiration: respiration is the movement of oxygen from the outside environment to the cells within tissues, and the
removal of carbon dioxide in the opposite direction that’s to the environment. It uses oxygen to free energy from
food.

Structure Function
Nasal Cavity/ Mouth Oxygen enters the body either through the nose or mouth. When entering through the nose it passes
through the nasal cavities and is warmed, moistened and filtered of foreign material.
Pharynx Serves as a common passage for air to the trachea (windpipe) or food to the esophagus. It leads from
the nasal cavity to the larynx (voice box), located at the beginning of the trachea.
Larynx A hollow tube that lets air pass from the throat (pharynx) to the trachea on the way to the lungs.
Trachea The Trachea is a hollow tube strengthened and kept open by rings of cartilage. The trachea divides into
ta right and left bronchus (bronchial tube), which lead to the right and left lungs.
Rings of cartilage Rings of cartilage helps the throat from collapsing when there is a low amount of air present. It also
helps them to expand when food and water passes through it.
Bronchus The left bronchus carries air to the left lung. The right bronchus carries air to the right lung.
Alveoli The alveoli are where the lungs and the blood exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide during the process
of inspiration and expiration. Oxygen breathed in from the air passes through the alveoli and into the
blood and travels to the tissues throughout the body.
Bronchioles The bronchioles carry air to the alveoli.
Lungs Takes oxygen from the environment and transfer it to the bloodstream.
Diaphragm A large, dome-shaped muscle that contracts rhythmically and continuously. Upon inhalation, the
diaphragm contracts and flattens and the chest cavity enlarges. This contraction creates a vacuum
which pulls air into the lungs.
Lung Function

Inspiration (inhaling)
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- More oxygen which is used to create energy.
- Less carbon dioxide than exhaled air
- Inspiration occurs when the diaphragm contracts allowing oxygen to be inhaled.

Expiration (exhaling)

- Carbon dioxide produced as a waste product of energy.

- Less oxygen than inhaled air as it has been used in respiration.
- Expiration occurs when diaphragm relaxes moving upwards and forces carbon dioxides out (Gases move
from high to low concentration areas)

Gaseous Exchange

- When we breathe in, the alveoli has a HIGH CONCENTRATION OF OXYGEN and a low concentration of
carbon dioxide.
- Blood in the capillaries surrounding the alveoli is the opposite, it has a high concentration of CARBON
DIOXIDE and a low concentration of oxygen.
- The differences in concentration result in the exchange of gases – “Substances of high concentration will
always move to areas of low concentration”.
- Therefore, oxygen in the alveoli will move to the blood in the capillaries and carbon dioxide in the blood will
move into the air in the alveoli.
- Oxygen then attaches itself to hemoglobin in the blood and travel to the cells of the body where the
exchange will occur using the same principle.

Lung function and physical activity

1. Breathing rate and depth increases: The rate and depth of breathing increases as muscles are working
harder, meaning the body uses more oxygen and produces more carbon dioxide. In response to this, the
breathing is more vigorous so we receive more oxygen and release carbon dioxide.

2. Shorter- burst exercise has the greater effect on breathing rate because of a higher exercise intensity and
greater demand by the working muscles for oxygen.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Function of the circulatory system

- Transports essential substances such as oxygen, nutrients, and water to all cells.
- Heat also transported to regulate body temperature.
- Hormones distributed around the body to maintain homeostasis.
- Removes waste products by carrying them to the excretory organs such as the kidneys, skin and lungs.

Components of Blood

Blood consists of a liquid component called plasma (55% of blood volume) and a solid component made up
of red and white blood cells and platelets (45% of blood volume).
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Component Definition Function

Plasma Light yellow liquid made up of mainly water
(90%). Carries water, salts, and enzymes.
Red Blood Cells Formed in bone marrow. Contains an iron and
protein Hemoglobin, that combine with oxygen.
Flat disc shape that provides a large surface area
for taking up oxygen.
White Blood Cells Makes up less than 1% of total blood volume in
healthy adult. They come from bone marrow,
found in the blood and lymph tissue.
Platelets Platelets are tiny structures made from bone
marrow cells that have no nucleus.
The heart
Necessary for the nourishment and functioning of
tissues. Assists with temperature regulation.
Carries oxygen and carbon dioxide around the
body and into tissues. They also transport oxygen
to the lungs, to allow an individual to breathe.
Phagocytes and lymphocytes are two common
types of white blood cells. Phagocytes engulf
foreign pathogens and lymphocytes produce
antibodies to fight disease.
Produces clotting substances that prevent blood
loss when a blood vessel is damaged as well as
infection.

The heart has two chambers. The top two chambers are called the left and right atria, and the bottom two chambers
are called the left and right ventricles.

Entry Points Exit Points

- Pulmonary vein - Pulmonary Artery
- Superior vena cava - Aorta
- Inferior vena caba - Other Arteries
- Other veins

- Between chamber are valves which PREVENT blood from flowing backwards.
- Blood is squeezed from the hart to the arteries. This is called a heartbeat. Which occurs when the heart
muscles contract.
- Blood fills the chambers of the heart when the muscles relax. This is called a diastole.
- Systole occurs when the heart contracts and pumps blood.

Blood Vessels

Provides Removes
Nutrients + Water Waste + Co2
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Blood vessel description

Veins - Veins carry the deoxygenated blood from the body tissues back to the right atrium.
- Contracting muscles squeeze the vein, forcing blood against gravity towards the heart.
- Vein walls are thin and allow blood to move easier. Pocket valves close to assist
backflow.
Arteries - Delivers blood away from the heart.
- Thick, strong, elastic walls covering layers of smooth muscle which allow them to
withstand pressure of blood being forced through them.
- The blood pumped under pressure from the left ventricle passes through the aorta (the
largest artery) and throughout the body.
- Blood from the right ventricle passes through the pulmonary artery to the lungs where
it collects oxygen and then returns to the heart.
Capillaries - Smallest of all blood vessels
- Functions to exchange oxygen and nutrients for waste, link between arterioles and
veins.
- The capillary network is dense with much branching of very fine structured vessels,
providing large surface area for the exchange of materials between blood and
interstitial fluid.
- Single layer of flattened cells allows oxygen, nutrients and hormones from the blood to
easily pass through interstitial fluid.
CIRCULATION:

Pulmonary: refers to the heart pumping deoxygenated

blood to the lungs to get oxygen and return to the heart.

Systemic: is the process of carrying oxygenated blood from

the heart to the rest of the body and returning
deoxygenated blood to the heart.

BLOOD PRESSURE:

- The measures of the amount of pressure exerted on a blood vessel wall during contraction and relaxation of
the heart.
- The reading taken at peak pressure created by the contraction of the left ventricle is called systolic pressure.
- The reading take during the relaxation of the left ventricle is called the diastolic pressure.
- Generally, reflects the quantity of blood being pushed out of the heart (cardiac output) and the ease or
difficulty that blood encounters in passing through the arteries (resistance to flow).

Factors influencing increase in BP:

1. Increased cardiac output.

2. High sodium intake (salt)
3. Viscosity (increased through dehydration)
- BP is taken using a inflatable cuff and a device called a sphygmomanometer. The reading is in (mmHg) and
identifies systolic pressure over diastolic pressure.
- Blood pressure readings in the healthy range are 120/80 plus or minus 10 either way.
- Blood pressure (hypertension) can place people at risk of cardiovascular and other lifestyles diseases. Low
blood pressure can result in feelings of lethargy, dizziness and difficulty concentrating.
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Health-Related components of Physical Fitness

Component Description Influence on movement efficiency Sports

Cardio-respiratory The ability of working muscles Allows for sustained movements that - Marathon
endurance to take up and use the oxygen require the use of additional oxygen for a - Cycling
that has been breathed in longer period hence improving - Triathlon
during exercise and circulated performance.
to muscle cells via the heart.
Muscular strength The ability of the muscle to Allows for a greater amount of force to - Weightlifting
exert force against resistance in be exerted, improving performance and - Gymnastics
a single maximal effort. reducing injury. - Rugby
Muscular The ability of the muscles to Allows muscle groups to perform - Cycling
endurance endure physical work for repeated contractions to preform - Skiing
extended periods of time required skills, without tiring. - Rowing
without undue fatigue
Flexibility The range of motion allowed by Allows for an extensive range of motion - Gymnastics
a joint or the ease of joint by the joints to performance a range of - Running
movement skills with less discomfort.
Body composition Refers to the percentage of fat Body composition takes account of the - Weightlifting
as opposed to lean body mass in level of storage fuel required for muscle - Resistance
a human being. activity. training

To what degree is fitness a predictor of performance:

- Subjective to some degree

- Certain sports require high levels of specific
fitness depending on activity.
- Elite performers in a specialist domain may
struggle physically to perform in another
sport.
- Fitness can be specific to an event.
- Only to the extent of the significance that
physical fitness plays in that performance
- Only to the extent pf the significance that
fitness plays in that performance.
- Other area: knowledge and understanding of a
sport, experience, mental approach.
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Skill-Related components of Physical Fitness

Component Description Influence on movement Sports

efficiency
Power The ability of the body to combine Allows for explosive movements - Weightlifting
muscular strength and speed in an which have great emphasis on - Sprinting
explosive action. speed and strength - Javelin
Agility The ability to move the body from one Allows for quick changes of - Skiing
position and direction to another with direction and fast acceleration - Ice skating
speed and precision and deceleration. - Team sports
Coordination The ability to link messages from the Allows for efficient movement - Soccer
senses (sight, sound, feel) with parts of and the acquisition of new fine - Cricket
the body to produce movements that motor skills. Coordinated - Basketball
are smooth and well controlled. individuals adapt easily to new
activities and sports.
Balance The ability to maintain equilibrium Allows individuals to execute - Surfing
while either stationary or moving. specific skills properly and more - Skating
accurately.
Reaction Time The time taken to respond to a Faster reaction times allows for - Weightlifting
stimulus. individuals to respond to the - Sprinting
stimulus quicker
Speed The ability to perform body movements Allows for quicker joint - Soccer
quickly movements and muscular - Sprinting
contractions

Aerobic vs Anaerobic Training

Aerobic
- Aerobic means with 'oxygen'
- Generally, is prolonged; over 90 secs
- Places stress on large muscle groups
- Targets cardiorespiratory endurance If movements
are sustained and of moderate intensity, the aerobic
pathway (with oxygen) supplies the bulk of energy
needs Targets an athletes lung/aerobic capacity by
targeting improvement in delivery of oxygen to
working cells.
Anaerobic
- Anaerobic means ‘in the absence of oxygen’
- Generally short and sharp; under 90 secs
- High intensity physical activity
- Targets Muscular strength and power, agility and
speed In short sharp movements like jumping the
body uses the anaerobic pathway (oxygen is
absent) to supply energy.
- Anaerobic training improves/enhances the ability
of muscle cells to improve their use of fuel reserves
and be more efficient in converting blood sugar to
energy during intense/anaerobic exercise.

Examples: walking, marathon running, 1500m swim, cycling, Examples: gymnastics floor routine, field events, 100m
rowing, soccer midfield sprint, soccer goalkeeper, weightlifting

FITT Principle:

Principle Definition Example for Aerobic Example for Anaerobic Training

Frequency How often training should
occur I.e. how many sessions
per week
Training
Optimal to complete 3 - 5 Optimal to complete 2 to 3 training
training sessions per sessions per week.
week. E.g. A gymnast might complete 2-3
E.g. Marathon runner sessions per week in the gym
might train 5 sessions per completing resistance training.
week in order to achieve
the desired physiological
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adaptations
Intensity Amount of effort required by Recommended for Work between 90-100% of their max
(measured through an individual to acquire a individuals to work heart rate and depending on specific
THR zone) fitness benefit. between 70-85% of their movements, ensures the recruitment of
max hart rate. fast twitch muscle fibres.
Time Time refers to the duration Exercise over 30 minutes Shorter exercises around 10 minutes
of each exercise are most effective in long are most effective, working on
order to improve power, speed and strength.
cardiorespiratory and
muscular endurance
Type Type of exercise undertaken Exercises like walking, Interval training is recommended,
or what kind of exercise you jogging, swimming, bike where periods of intense work are
complete. riding, stair climbing etc. interspersed with short rests.

Immediate and physiological responses to training

Response What is it? Immediate response to physical Reasons

Heart rate Resting heart rate is our heart rate
when completely at rest
activity
Fit person: heart rate rises Strong measure of CV fitness.
rapidly bit will level to a steady
state. Fitter person will have a
stronger efficient muscle (heart)
Unfit person: heart rate will and will adapt to intensity where
continue to increase and take unfit person will not.
longer to return to pre-exercise
state.

Ventilation Ventilation rate refers to the rate of
Rate breathing and is expressed in breaths
per minute.
Tidal Volume x respiration rate
Stroke Volume of blood pumped out of the
volume left ventricle of the heart.
(SV)
Cardiac Cardiac output is the amount of blood
Output pumped by heart per min.
C0 (Cardiac output) = HR (heart rate)
X SV (stroke volume)
Lactate Lactate is a chemical formed during
the breakdown of carbohydrates in
the absence of sufficient oxygen.
Moderate to heavy exercise shows a
gradual build up of lactic acid in the
body. When the intensity of exercise
is moderately heavy the body’s
Rate and depth of breathing
intensifies.
- Matched by increase in
oxygen consumption
and carbon dioxide
production.
Increases during exercise
Increases immediately in
response to training and is
directly related to the intensity
of the workout.
Vigorous physical exercise
causes increasing levels of
lactate.
Lactate flows freely in the blood
and it’s concentration increases
as the workload is increased.
As exercise intensity increases
Muscles work harder and body
uses more oxygen and produces
more carbon dioxide.
To cope, breathing has to
increase from about 15
times/min when resting to
about 40-60 times/min during
exercise.
Exercise increases muscular
need for oxygen.
CHANGED IN SV during exercise
increase the amount of blood
pumped reaching the muscles.
Muscles need more oxygen
when physical activity is
completed. During exercise,
cardiac output is increases so
that more blood gets out of the
body.
High lactate levels are produced
when we exercise and there is
insufficient oxygen available to
the muscle cells.
Accumulates rapidly when we
exercise above lactate inflection
point (LIP) which occurs at about
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production of lactic acid is becoming
unbalanced.
Oxygen is required to synthesise lactic
acid.
When intensity increases there is a
constant and relatively rapid rise in
the level of blood lactate. The high
level of exercise intensity makes it
difficult to supply the amount of
oxygen the blood needs.
the PH level drops and 80-90% MHR for trained
acidification of muscles athletes.
increases.
At rest, blood has a PH value of
7.4 which means that is slightly
alkaline. However as exercise
intensity increases the pH level
drops and acidification to the
muscles increases.

CORE 3

How do biomechanical principles influence movements:

Biomechanics: Science concerned with forces and the effect of these forces on and within the human body • Choose
the best technique to achieve our best performance with consideration to body shape

- Reduces the risk of injury by improving the way we move.

- Design and use equipment that contributes to improve performances.
- Maximise performance by using the best technique

Motion: refers to the movement of a body from one position to another

Linear motion: occurs when a body and all parts connected to it travel the same distance in the same direction and
at the same speed. An example of linear motion is a person who is standing still on a moving escalator. The body
moves from one place to another with all parts moving in the same direction and at the same time.

Angular motion: angular motion is rotation about an axis or centre of rotation. Examples include the orbit of the
Earth around the sun, and the rotation of a bicycle tyre.

General motion: General motion is a combination of Linear and Angular motion. The movement has both linear and
angular characteristics involved. Examples include running and walking.

Term Description Formula

Speed Time taken to cover a specific distance. S= d/t
Instantaneous speed breaks a race down into segments
and calculate the average speed;
Acceleration Acceleration is the rate which speed changes in a given A= V2 – V1
amount of timer
Acceleration = change in velocity
Distance Length of path covered by body as it moves from one -
point to another
Displacement Displacement: measurement of a body in one particular -
direction
Momentum Momentum refers to the quantity of motion that a body M= mass x V
possesses
Momentum is calculated as a product of mass and
velocity
Velocity Velocity is displacement divided by time V=
displacement/t

Balance and Stability

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Static Balance- refers to the ability to maintain a position of enduring stability such as that required in archery.

Dynamic Balance- refers to the balance while in motion and performing a skill. Being in the correct position.

Term Description Example

Centre of Gravity - The point at which all the weight is evenly In static balance activities such as
distributed headstands, precise manipulation
- In humans, the position of the centre of gravity of the centre of gravity is required.
depends on how much the body is arranged.
Base of Support - Refers to an imaginary area that surrounds the Wrestlers widen their base of
outside edge of the body when It is in contact support by standing with their legs
with a surface. apart to prevent their opponents
- It affects our stability and ability to control from moving them into a
equilibrium disadvantageous position.
- A narrow base of support allows the centre of
gravity to fall close to the edge of the base of
support.
Line of Gravity - The line of gravity is an imaginary vertical line
passing through the centre of gravity and
extending to the ground.
- The closer the line of gravity moved to the outer
limits of the base of support the less stable we
become.

Fluid Mechanics

Refers to the forces that operate in water and air environments. These forces will affect how well we move under
water.

Floatation:

- Buoyant force that pushes the body up, and weight force that pushes the body down, determine an
individual’s ability to float.
- If buoyant force is greater than weight force the body will float.
- If buoyant force is less that weight force the body will sink

Centre of Buoyancy:

- Centre of buoyancy is at the COG of the water that the swimmer displaces. When fully submerged the centre
of buoyancy falls directly above the COG. Both will result in movement changes.
- For an object to float, it needs to displace the amount of water that weighs more than itself.
- A floatation device increases buoyancy because its size displaces a lof of water with only a minimal increase
in weight.

Fluid Resistance:

- Drag force: The resistance that acts against a body as it moves through water or air

Types of drag:

Profile drag: Profile drag, is a type of drag force that acts on an object moving through a fluid due to its shape or
profile. It arises from the pressure difference on the front and rear surfaces of the object, causing resistance to its
motion. Factors such as the object's cross-sectional area, shape, and the flow velocity of the fluid influence the
magnitude of profile drag.
Surface drag: That affects an item travelling through a fluid skin friction drag. It happens as a result of friction
between the surface of the object and the fluid particles that come into touch with it. It adds to the overall
resistance that the object encounters while moving.
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Lift force: occurs perpendicular to the flow of water/air

Drag force and lift force act on us when we attempt to propel ourselves through water. Eite athletes use these forces
in a way that will benefit their efficiency and performance.

TO REDUCE IMPACT OF DRAG:

- Swimmers use skills such as streamlining and pitching the entry of their hands to ensure the water surface is
cut cleanly.
- They also use swim suits, swim camps and shave their bodies to reduce the resistance caused by drag.
- Cyclists will put their bodies in low crouched down positions, used streamlines helmets and wear tight fitting
clothing to reduce the resistance caused by drag.

Magnus effect: The magnus effect is a physical phenomenon that impacts an additional force on a spinning object. In
case of backspin this results in an upward force on the ball and for topspin, this results in a downward force on the
ball.

Application of forces (body)

Newtons First Law - An object at rest, and an object in motion will stay in motion unless an outside force
acts on it.
- A ball will not move unless there is a force to cause it to move, a conversion in
rugby.
- A ball will continue rolling unless met with an outside force such as friction or
another player.
Newtons Second - The acceleration of an object is dependent upon the net force actin g upon the
Law object and the mass of the object.
- The harder you kick or hit a ball the further it will go
Newtons Third Law - For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
- Bouncing a basketball, bench press and running are examples in action
Internal forces- generated by muscles and applied to surfaces such as a running track or equipment. Such as a bat.

External forces- are equal and opposite forces exerted in response to applied forces. E.g. runner applies the force
generated by their legs to the track surface, which is equally matched by reaction force coming from the track
surface.

To propel a body we need to develop power, an increase ein strength or speed at which muscles will shorten due to
the result in an increased power.
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Absorbing force:

Force absorption occurs in our muscles usually through eccentric contractions.

- The body aims to increase the time of absorption. Or increase the area I which the force is absorbed

Safety with colliding:

- Using large surface area as possible when landing

- Land on bigger body parts
- Try to keep COG stable and low
- Use gloves, mitts or headgear
- Protect projections of the body during contact

Application of forces

Types of applied force:

Centripetal: forces directed towards the centre of a rotating body

Centrifugal: forces directed away from the centre of a rotating body

To generate max force, the body needs to use its biggest muscle. The muscles of the lower body and torso such
as quadriceps, glutes, latissimus dorsi, and pectoralis major.

Even when using the upper body to make contact with an object, the body will often generate force from the
lower body like serving in tennis, shooting a 3-pointer and completing a spike in volley ball.
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Topic Core 3: Fitness Choices
Exercise as a form of physical activity.

Physical activity: Any movements that results in some expenditure of energy.

Exercise: Planned, structured and repetitive bodily movement, performed to improve or maintain one or more
components of physical activity.

Level of Exercise Energy Expenditure Equivalent to Talk test Examples

Light exercise 3-4 times as much Slow walking Person is able to - Warm up
energy as rest sing whilst doing - Slow swim
activities
Moderate exercise 5-6 times as much Jogging at a Normal conversation - Rec
energy as rest comfortable pace can be held swimming
- Golf
Vigorous exercise 7 times or more Sprint Insufficient - Race
energy as rest breathing to carry running
on a conversation - Circuit
training

Exercise and its relationship to fitness.

Fitness is the combined result of regular exercise, good nutrition and rest for recovery.

- Fit individuals can function efficiently and effective to enjoy leisure time, resist disease, be healthy and cope
with emergencies.
- Relative to a persons circumstances and why they need to be fit.
- Fitness combines health and skill related components, they interact and are independent. A deficiency in any
component can reduce overall fitness.

Fitness can be viewed in 2 ways:

General fitness- overall health and wellbeing- regular workouts and healthy diet to improve general good health
(muscle tone, healthy skin/nails/hair) whilst reducing lifestyle related issues such as heart complications due to a
poor diet.

Specific fitness- a person’s ability to preform a specific activity efficiently. Specific training will assist this. E.g.,
Marathon- an athlete needs to train aerobically to enhance their CV endurance.

Changing Attitudes to Fitness.

Influence How does the factor influence attitude to fitness?

Family Adolescents who have parents who are active or support them in their activity generally value
fitness.
Peers If the peer group does not value exercise and is not active, others in the group can feel
pressured into adopting the same values and behaviours.
Media Awareness raising of the benefits of fitness and the types of activities and sports available can
positively impact on the attitudes of individuals.
Age People who are aged between 16-34 years are the most physically active of all age groups.
Older age groups have lower levels of adequate activity and are more sedentary.
Gender Males are more active than females. Reasons for this in Australia appear to be associated
with stronger influences on physical activity from school and family on boys than on girls. For
example, participation in extracurricular sporting activities here is lower among girls than
among boys.
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Socio economic People with a lower level of education are more likely to be sedentary. This could be
status attributed to a lack of knowledge about the benefits of fitness and a lack of opportunity,
funds or facilities.
Culture Women from non-English speaking background (NESB) are more likely to be sedentary. They
often do not receive the social support they needs to be active. People from NESB are
significantly less likely to be adequately active (NSW Health)

Fitness as a Commodity

Commodity: product that exists to generate profit

People choose and pay for fitness facilities and serves for the following reasons:

- To access knowledge and expertise (quality assurance with trained personnel)

- Access to a wide range of resources
- Motivational support
- Poor time
- Lose/ gain weight
- Knowledge of skills from gym personnel
- Can be cost effective

There is an increased influence of social media in individuals purchasing fitness-related products ad services.

- There are more convenient options available such as apps, websites etc.

The fitness industry is a multi-billion-dollar industry. Money in this industry is generated through a wide range of
commercial transactions related to aspects such as employment, gym memberships, fitness equipment, training
services, fitness clothing and nutritional supplements.

People choose and pay for fitness facilities and services for the following reasons:
 To access knowledge and expertise (quality assurance with trained personnel)
 Access to wide range of resources
 Motivational support
 Time poor
 Lose weight

Some people choose to exercise from home and purchase their own equipment. This can be cost effective as long as
equipment is of good quality and is maintained. The individual also needs the knowledge and skills to use equipment
safely. The knowledge and skills that gym personnel have is one of the main reasons the fitness industry thrives. In a
time where many people are time poor, a trainer is a good motivational tool for commitment to exercise.

Individual Fitness Activities

Pilates Improved Core Strength:
Develops and strengthens the
core muscles, which can lead
to better posture and
reduced risk of back pain.
Increased Flexibility:
Promote flexibility and range
of motion in the joints,
enhancing overall mobility.
Pilates classes and A single group Pilates -Individuals looking to improve
studios can be found class in NSW might their core strength and posture.
in various locations. cost around AUD 20 to
-Those seeking a form of
AUD 40..
There are online exercise that is gentle on the
platforms that offer joints.
virtual Pilates classes
for those who prefer -Athletes looking to enhance
their performance and prevent
to exercise from
home. injuries.

Cross Fit Improved Overall Fitness: Great fit for those A monthly membership - Those seeking a high-intensity
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CrossFit workouts are
designed to improve
strength, endurance,
flexibility, speed, power,
agility, and coordination,
providing a well-rounded
approach to fitness.
High-Intensity Training:
incorporates intense
workouts, push participants
to their limits, resulting in
increased cardiovascular
fitness and calorie burn.
Community and Support
Cycling Cardiovascular Fitness: helps
improve heart health and
lung capacity.
Low-Impact Exercise: Cycling and rural areas
is gentle on the joints, making throughout the state.
it suitable for people of all
ages and fitness levels.
Joint Mobility: Cycling helps
improve joint mobility and
flexibility, particularly in the
knees and hips.
Swimming Full-Body Workout: Engages
multiple muscle groups,
providing an excellent full-
body workout.
Cardiovascular Fitness:
aerobic exercise that
improves heart health and
lung capacity.
Safety Skill: Learning to swim
is an essential life skill that
can help prevent drowning
and enhance water safety.
Advantages
- Some individuals prefer to work alone.
- Some people are able to train at their desired time
and pace.
who want to at a CrossFit gym in workout that pushes their
challenge NSW may range from physical limits.
themselves, improve AUD 150 to AUD 250.
- Individuals who appreciate the
their fitness levels, Some gyms might also
and be part of a offer class packages or support and motivation that
comes from working out in a
supportive and drop-in rates for
motivated fitness occasional visitors. group setting.
community. - Athletes looking to enhance
their performance and cross-
train for their sport.
- Anyone looking for a structured
and goal-oriented fitness
program.
There are numerous High-quality bicycles - Fitness Enthusiasts: Those
cycling paths, bike can range from several looking for a fun and effective
lanes, and dedicated hundred to thousands way to stay physically active and
trails in cities, towns, of dollars. Additionally, improve their overall fitness.
you might need to
consider costs for - Seniors: Cycling provides a low-
impact exercise option for
accessories such as
helmets, bike clothing, seniors to maintain mobility and
fitness.
repair tools, and bike
maintenance.
- Families: Cycling can be a
family-friendly activity that
promotes bonding and outdoor
time together.
Swimming Pools Public pool entry fees - Beginners and Learners:
range from around Individuals interested in learning
Beaches and Ocean AUD 5 to AUD 10 per to swim or improving their
Pools
session. swimming skills.
Private Swim Schools Private swim lessons - Rehabilitation and Therapy:
Fitness Centres AUD 30 to AUD 50 per seeking a form of exercise for
lesson. rehabilitation purposes.
Fitness centres and - Triathletes and Athletes: to
swim clubs offer enhance their cardiovascular
memberships that endurance and cross-train for
include access to their other sports.
pools, range from AUD
50 to AUD 150 per - Seniors: Swimming is a safe and
joint-friendly exercise option for
month.
older adults.
Disadvantages
- Individuals don’t receive feedback about their
techniques or training methods on how to
improve.
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- Strengthens self-discipline. - No social aspect or group support to look forward
- A customised plan can help target specific goals. to or help push you through each session.
- Helps address areas of weakness - More expensive than group training
- Very specific personal goals - Unlike group workouts where people can gain
- Flexible + convenient motivation to push themselves, individuals can
get off track ad then participate in less PA

Group Fitness Activities

Activity
Pump/spin - Allows individuals to set their own goals for training sessions
- Improves cardiorespiratory fitness
- Beneficial as a form of exercise for people who experience joint injuries or tendonitis.
- Frequent periods of high intensity combined with periods of moderate effort.
- Many gyms and studios often offer spin classes and can also be done at home as there is a wide range
of online sessions
- Classes are generally 45-60 minutes long and are 3-4 sessions per week of moderate-vigorous activity.
- Classes are suitable for anyone who enjoys moderate-vigorous exercises.
YOUNG ADULTS
Circuit training - IMPROVES MUSCULAR ENDURANCE
- Time efficient
- May promote weight loss.
- Circuit training is available at most gums and generally run in class
- Circuits are usually 30-60 minutes long and 3-4 training sessions per week of moderate-vigorous
activity will be enough for improvement.
- Circuit training is a bit more expensive- costing approximately $50 per session, alongside active
clothing.
TEENAGERS, YOUNG ADULTS
Netball - Improves hand-eye co-ordination
- Builds up muscle strength and stamina
- Develops the body’s cardiovascular system
- Improves the body’s flexibility
- Netball can be played on a local court, otherwise there are usually local netball teams
- Netball are 60 minutes long, however individuals should aim to train 2 other times per week.
YOUNG ADULTS, CHILDREN
- Netball can be quite expensive with purchasing uniform, training, registration, and other fees.
Pregnancy: - Exercise in water is easier as it supports body weight
aquarobics - Reduces stress on joints
- More comfortable environment to exercise in
- Allows a full range of movement without excessive strain
- Increase circulation and promotes relation
- Reduces stress levels
- Generally available in public swimming pools and aquatic centres.
- This reduces the risk of pregnancy complications and discomforts such as muscle pain
- Aquarobics may be suitable for all individuals are able to swim.
- Healthy pregnant women should aim to receive at 2.5 hours of aerobic activity per week.
- Recommended for pregnant women as it allows them to meet the physical activity guidelines without
putting too much strain on their body and risking injury to themselves and their baby.
Cross fit - May improve muscular strength
- High intensity, multi-joint movements may help to gain muscle strength and stamina
- May help you improve aerobic fitness
- Improves agility, balance and flexibility
- Weight maintenance
- Some gyms offer CrossFit classes and there are many cross fit facilities that also offer regular classes.
Generally 60 minutes
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- Cross fit memberships are higher than regular gym memberships. As well as this, individuals must
purchase activewear

Advantages Disadvantages
- May motivate individuals to achieve their - Group setting can elicit a sense of judgement
fitness goals and insecurity for some people
- Working at their own pace - It is difficult for the instructor to correct your
- Brings a fun aspect to physical activity THUS form or technique if it is wrong as they are
INCREASES MOTIVATION focused on the entire class
- Group training gives feedback or corrections,
helping individuals develop faster and minimize
risk
- Strengthen personal weakness
- Non-competitive

Settings for exercise

SETTING DEFINITION BENEFITS DISADVANTAGES

Exercise at Many people who can afford the
home equipment have set up home
gyms
(People
working longs These are online subscriptions to
hours, exercise program videos of
parents, DVD’s
pregnancy,
and highly Aerobics, step and pump classes
motivated can be done in the home by
individuals) following the instructor on the
online videos or DVD.
Community Availability and access to
facilities community parks and facilities.
(Elderly) Community leisure centres
provide the convenience of
many activities. E.g., benches,
strength equipment, step up
classes, Zumba, boxing.
Funded by government council
and provides the convenience of
many activities.
Practical for people with children
and those who work longs hours
A range of exercise can be done
with relatively little equipment.
Highly convenient (online
subscriptions, programs, youtube,
DVD)
Minimal display- less threatening
for those who don’t like being
observed by others
In larger communities the
existence of a wide range of
facilities provides the individual
with greater exercise choices
Most councils have outdoor
exercise equipment permanently
established. (bench presses,
cycling machines, near parks,
ovals, beaches.)
Costs are low compared to
commercial facilities and offer
social interaction
Equipment can be unaffordable
Total reliance on self-motivation
to engage in regular sessions
Easily distracted and lack of
space and knowledge
Those who live in smaller towns
(rural) find it more difficult to
access community facilities.
May get too busy due to high
demand.
Community facilities as they
share amongst numerous people
may quickly spread COVID-19
(unsanitary)
Activities offered will depend on
size and location of the
community.

Fitness centres Most fitness centres provide a Fitness centres have a range of Gap in skill level between
and personal range of classes and weight equipment to improve aerobic individuals and their PT may be
trainers training facilities. fitness. intimidating.

(Young adults, Classes include aerobics, step, Receive nutritional guidance (meal Individuals may not like the idea
teenagers, pump, body sculpt, yoga, tai chi, plans and supplements) of training In front of others- fear
people willing cycle tec. of judgement
to change Time efficient- maximising the
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their fitness Each class varies in intensity of short amount of time. Classes can be expensive – if
capabilities) exercise and level of going to a gym you may need to
choreography. Continuous improvementsà PT’S pay for a gym membership on
adjust place with accordance to top of PT programs.
Provide a sense of support and skills and capabilities of the
accountability/ flexibility. individual. Travel fee’s

Receives one on one help. Individuals can combine aerobic Time constraints- scheduling set
training with resistance work to times if you work or study
achieve goals.

Fitness centre personal and

trainers provide resources for
those who have little knowledge of
exercise

WORK + LIFE BALANCE

Exercise clubs There are many clubs in NSW They provide organised activity Generally focuses on one type of
that cater to both social and opportunity to meet others exercise only so individuals will
(Middle Ages, exerciser and competitive with the same exercise interests. not place emphasis on working
people athletes. their whole body.
working, Allows individuals to incorporate
people who E.g., running, walking and cycling fitness into something they enjoy Some struggles with strict rules
need with a social aspect. e.g., track
motivation) E.g., BONDI ICEBERGS (WINTER
SWIM CLUB)
Cultural Cultural fitness group keeps alive Cultural groups keep alive many Individuals who live in rural and
groups many aspects of different different aspects of the culture. remote areas may nit have
cultures through physical activity access to cultural fitness groups
(People from such as a range of sport/dance Opportunity to participate in within their area.
strong ethnic clubs. culturally based forms of physical
backgrounds) activity

Provides a connection to country

Advertising and promotion

How do you know who to believe:

Critical literacy - Involves Analysing images and text

Questioning
Checking credentials
Seeking references
- Questions key messages being communicated and examines what accompany is
trying to achieve.
- It helps avoid accepting what you are being told without question
- Trust is required when you place your health and wellbeing into the hands of a
fitness leader/ product.
- It is thus appropriate to ask lots of questions and expect satisfactory answers.
- E.g. accepting A PT for their qualifications, checking a gym/ staff are accredited
with a professional body reading research about a product and investigating using
the internet and mass media,
- These need to be from a reliable source. Ask family/friends about their experience
with a fitness product/services. Ensure they have the knowledge to provide an
informed review.
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Promotional Techniques:

Direct marketing: mail outs and pamphlets are delivered to a local community. They may include information about
the center/product include introductory free sessions. Consumers are advised to be wear of hidden costs.

Limited offer membership: common to try to encourage new members. Retain current members or entice previous
members. Usually has a fixed price for a period e.g. $99 for 99 days.

Telemarketing: like direct marketing however contact is via phone offering deals. The media (radio, newsletter,
social media) is becoming more popular platform as well for advertising.

Accuracy of information:

- There is a basic expectation that information is provided to consumers will be accurate

- Legislated and support in NSW by the office of Fair Trading which looks after consumers rights
- Consumers are protected from false and misleading advertising by the Commonwealth and Trade Practices
Act 1977 and NSW Fair Trade Act 1987.
- Industry related mechanisms also promoted provision of accurate information. For example, the Advertising
Standards Bureau and Fitness Cod of Ethics.
- Individuals though also need to recognize the role they must play in adequately reaching and critical
Analysing advertising.

Ethics of Advertising:

Advertising a short-term weight loss programs or long term membership must be investigated carefully before
commitment to it as this type of advertising tends to incite those appear to be misled without informed consultation

- Consumers should be looking for long term benefits of regular exercise and healthy lifestyle

Questions to consider:

- Who is the advertisement targeting?

- What does the advertisement offer?
- What are the benefits of the services?

Motivators to participation

A large range of real and perceived barriers to exercise include:

 lack of time
 lack of access and suitable childcare
 lack of money
 commitments to household duties
 lack of transport
 lack of facilities
 work commitments
 disability/injury/illness
 lack of self-efficacy (belief you can do it)

To be motivated, an individual needs to feel rewarded. This might include:

Physical consequences e.g. Looking better or feeling healthier
Extrinsic rewards e.g. Praise from others, receiving a T shirt for achieving a goal at the gym.
Intrinsic rewards e.g. Feeling accomplished after achieving a goal
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Motivator Description
Access to facilities - If facilities are located next to public transport a whole community can benefit
- Physical activity options that are close to local areas or someone’s home mean
they are more motivated to utilize what’s available to them
Convenience of use - Facilities near someone’s home or work can have a direct influence on activities
they will choose to participate
- Home exercise is a convenient option as individuals can purchase a
subscription or their own equipment.
Cost Many people will base their choice of activities on cost. Generally, fitness choices that
are affordable for individuals will most likely be preferred over those who are more
expensive.
Feelings about fitness - A personal feeling about exercise can determine whether they are motivated
to participate
- If an individuals has positive experiences associated with exercise, they will be
more motivated to keep participating in this activity.
Exercise as a priority Those who rate exercise highly as a priority are more likely to participate in physical
activity regardless of other barriers such as cost or convenience.
Influence of other - Those who value exercise highly will overcome these barriers by setting up a
responsibilities schedule that allows exercise to fit in with family and work commitments.
- E.g., exercise while a child is sport training, use gym at work
To be motivated an individual needs to feel rewarded. This includes:

Physical consequences: looking better or feeling healthier

Extrinsic rewards: praise from others, receiving a t shirt for achieving a goal at the gym

Intrinsic regards: feeling accomplished after achieving a goal

Barriers to participation

Barrier Description Ways to overcome barrier

Access to Transport or getting to a facility can be a
facilities barrier especially for adolescents who
mainly rely on parents/ carers to get to
venues
Convenience Inconvenient fitness options will not be
of use suitable for individuals who are time poor
already managing work/families/schools.
Cost Fitness activities that are unaffordable
may pose a barrier to those who have a
low socioeconomic status, or priorities
spending in other areas.
Feelings Many people have negative feelings
about fitness about exercise- they may find it
unpleasant, boring or embarrassed or
concerned what others may think.
They are associated with self-esteem or
experience.
Exercise as a Any people would like to have exercise
priority on a high list of priorities but
responsibility in relation to work and
family can also be high and met before
exercise
Influences Some individuals have other
commitments such as work or family that
must be met before physical activity can
- Utilizing home equipment and subscriptions
- Organizing and arranging transport before
hand.
- Exercising at home so there is no transport
and duration can be altered.
- Pre-planning exercise times
- Looking for discounted options
- Find more affordable options e.g. Walking or
running around a park
- Find a form of exercise that suits their liking
(try different fitness options)
- Utilize a friend or PT to motivate and change
attitudes towards fitness.
- Education about benefits of PA
- Become educated on research and the
importance of exercise
- Create goals for motivation.
- Create a schedule
- Increasing incidental activity
- Find activities where child minding facilities
are available.
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be considered as a priority.

Topic Core 4: First AID

SETTING PRIORITIEES FOR MANAGING A FIRST AID SITUATION AND ASSESING THE CASUALTY

SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS

There is a chance that some stage we may need to resuscitate a person whose breathing or heart function have
ceased. This could be the result of a range of circumstances, including:

- A car accident
- Drowning
- Electric shock
- A serious sporting injury
- Heart attack
- A stroke
- Drug overdose
- Envenomation

To deal with this quickly, effectively and without risk to yourself or others, you need to:

Analyze the situation: Observe what has happened (poisoning, car accident, drowning etc.) and ask yourself: ‘What’s
the best I can do for this person in terms of the skills I have?

Plan how to deal with the situation: Priorities your intended actions, dealing with the most important issues first.

- Use bystanders (if available) to get medical assistance.

- Minimize danger to yourself and others
- Clear airways and restore breathing
- Control bleeding
- Tend to other injuries such as burns and fractures

You may be altered to a potentially life-threatening situation by instances such as:

- The noise of the car crash

- A scream if a person is bitten by a venomous spider.
- Smoke
- An alarm
- Accidents or mishaps occurring, such as sporting injuries or electrocution in the home.

You need to approach the situation and remain alert to possible environmental hazards that may have contributed.

You must not become a victim yourself, For example:

- A house or room may be filled with smoke. Entering the room without proper equipment will cause you to
suffocate.
- You may be tempted to save drowning person when you cannot swim.
- A person may be trapped in a burning car and the chance of the fuel tank exploding is imminent.

YOU CAN NOT ADMINISTER EFFECTIVE FIRST AID IF YOU ARE INJURED IN ATTEMPTING TO HELP SOMEONE ELSE.

PRIORITY ASSESMENT PROCEDURES:

Procedures to follow during an emergency may include:

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- Requesting a mobile phone from bystanders
- Contracting emergency services
- Directing people to go for help
- Instructing people on how to give two operators cardiopulmonary resuscitation
- Requesting assistance with bandaging, control of bleeding or attaching slings and splints
- Observing people may be in state of shock

When contacting emergency services:

Topic Core 3: First AID

TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS:

- Do not move a casualty unless absolutely necessary due to risks of spinal injury an internal bleeding.
- If there is more danger in leaving them e.g. a fire, need for CPR or bleeding uncontrollably then the casualty
would need to be moved. Carry out a full examination to ascertain extent of injuries prior to moving.

In the case of traffic accidents, the rescuer must be aware of the potential danger from:

- Oncoming traffic
- Fallen electricity wires.
- Flammable liquids such as LPG, gas, and petrol
- Glass and debris
- Fire

PROTECTIVE STRATEGIES:

- Providing a protective barrier by parking a vehicle between the oncoming traffic and the accident
- Turning hazard lights on
- Placing a warning signal or sending a person back up the road to warn the traffic
- Turning the ignition off if the engine is still running
- Lighting the area with low beam if the accident has occurred at night to raise awareness and increase safety.

ONCE IMPLEMENTED, THE RESCUER CAN:

- Call for or send for help

- Assess the number of casualties and potential dangers. If fallen electricity wires are in contact with the
vehicle, the vehicle must not be touched as electrocution may occur
- Implement DRSABCD procedures

WATER EVIROMENT:

RESCUER MUST BE AWARE OF PROTECTIVE STRATEGIES INCLUDE

- Their own physical limitations, such as their
ability to swim
- The desperation of drowning person and their
potential to cause difficulty to the rescuer
- Hazardous objects under the water and not
visible to the observer
- Dangerous rips and currents
- Changes in weather conditions
- Water temperature
- Sending for help immediately
- Not participating yourself at risk if you are not
sure you can perform the rescue safely
- Using ropes, branches and floatation devices
where possible
- Entering unknown waters carefully
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ELECTRICITY:

RESCUER MUST BE AWARE OF PROTECTIVE STRATEGIES INCLUDE

- Deadly nature of electricity and how It is - Not touching cars or objects that are in contact
conducted with fallen powerlines
- Examine the situation and assess the potential - Turing off the power sources
for harm - Removing live power cords with non-
conduction materials such as a stick if the
power can not be turned off immediately.

1. DRSABCD
2. Keep airway clear
3. Only move casualty if in danger-.
4. Recruit bystanders to help support all parts of casualty’s body
5. Give helpers clear instructions on how to move casualty
6. Support spine and apply cervical collar
7. Carry out the movement smoothly

Whilst waiting for emergency services, help a trapped casualty by removing heavy objects that might be
compressing a casualty’s chest, tilt casualties head back with jaw support to keep airway open and ensure
no hot water or chemicals are splashing on casualty. Only remove a motorcyclists helmet if absolutely
necessary (e.g. If vomiting or breathing is obstructed), and if possible ask casualty to do it.

INFECTION CONTROL AND PROTECTION

HIV/AIDS

- Can be transmitted only through the exchange of blood and in some cases, body fluids from an infected to a
non-infected person
- To pass the virus from one person to another during firth aid, both the casualty and the rescuer need to have
cuts or wounds that are open and the blood of the infected person needs to mix with the blood of the non-
infected person.

PROTECTIVE MEASURES INCLUDE:

- Use disposable plastic gloves

- Cover sores, grazes, cuts, abrasion’s or incisions of any nature that exposes anyone’s blood
- Cover the face of an unconscious person with a face mask before administering PR
- Wash hands and any surfaces of the body that have contacted the casualty with soap and warm water as
soon as possible following treatment.

BLOOD BORNE VIRUSES:

Hepatitis B: Usual modes of transmission include shring needles, unprotected sex, ear piercing and tattooing. The
virus can be transmitted through first aid, particularly if there is an exchange of blood

Hepatitis C: transmitted through blood-to-blood contact as may happen with sharing needs or sharing contaminated
equipment:

- Remove any contaminated clothing and wash their hands thoroughly.

- Refrain from any sexual contact without protection as well as sharing needles and exposure of blood.
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For example: Sports Medicine Australia Infectious Disease Policy highlights that in contact sports to prevent blood
contact they should:

- A player who is bleeding or has blood on their clothes must immediately leave the okaying field and seek
medical attention
- The bleeding must be stopped, the would dressed and the blood on the players body must be cleaned
before they return
- Play must cease until all blood on the ground or equipment is cleaned up.

INFECTION CONTROL AND PROTECTION

LEGAL IMPLICATIONS:

- Use reasonable care in assessing the priorities of the situation based on their level of training
- Take steps to call for further medical assistance
- Keep the casualty stabilized until medical assistance arrives
- Follow established treatment and management protocols
- Not mispresent themselves or take unnecessary risks

WHS:

The work Health & Safety (WHS) Regulations aim to support legislation in each State and Territory in achieving
reductions in the incidence of workplace injuries

In brief the regulation:

- Requires employers to adopt a risk management approach to managing workplace health and safety
- Places obligation on employers to identify all foreseeable hazards in the workplace, asses the risks that the
hazards pose to health and safety and then eliminate or control those risks
- Impose a legal responsibility for each workplace to have adequate first id provisions

MAIN LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS:

DUTY OF CARE NEGLIGENCE CONSENT RECORDING

A moral obligation to
ensure the safety of others.
Workers have a duty of
care for their own health
and safety and to not
adversely affect the health
and safety of another
person.
A duty of care is breached
when someone is injured
because of the action from
another person when it
was reasonably
foreseeable that the action
caused the injury.
Failure to take proper care
over something.
It is established by:
- The first aider owed
a ‘duty of care’ to
the injured person.
- The standard of care
required by that
duty was breached
- - damage was
sustained
An individual with basic first
aid training could be
expected to keep the victim
stabilized until professional
help is available
Permission for something
to happen.
In an emergency where a
person is unconscious the
law will imply consent of
the injured person
A person can bring a
charge of assault if they
are touched without
consent
If the victim is a child, the
consent of a parent should
be sought where possible.
An incident report is a tool
that documents any event
that may or may no have
caused injuries to a person.
In the event of any dispute, it
will be helpful to the person
administering first aid to have
a record made at the time of
the incident that best
describes what was known
about the problem.
A first aider must take care
with recording because a first
aid record could be required
one day as a legal document
case at court.

MORAL OBLIGATIONS:
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- In emergency situations there is a certain moral responsibility to act in accordance with the training you
have and provide assistance.
- Responsible citizenship that suggests we should help provide assistance to the best of our ability.
- There exists certain moral responsibility to act in accordance with your training and provide assistance to the
injured.
- Morally, the first aid has a responsibility to treat with respect and dignity.

Specificity – choose sport (soccer, nrl) – through the contact

COMMON SENSE VS HEROICS:

- Basic first aid training reinforces the principals of common sense and prevention of further injury
- The first principle of the DRSABCD action plan is to remove the danger from the patient or the patient from
the danger so that there is no further injury or possible life loss.
- There may be some risk involved, but a rescue action does not call for heroics
- Using common sense is essential in rescue that requires the rescuer is able to think clearly, plan thoughtfully
and act wisely.

RESPONSIBLE CITIZENSHIP

Means the act of doing the right thing.

- In first aid situations we need to empathize with the casualty. They have the right to refuse resistance
- The first aider is responsible to treat the casualty with respect and dignity (do not uncover more skin that
necessary).
- Some situations can place a casualty in awkward or embarrassing situation. Morally, the first aider has a
responsibility to treat with respect and dignity.
- Its your moral responsibility to maintain the dignity of the casualty.

Example situation:

1. Determine the process you would use to identify a first aid situation that may be beyond your control?

Assessing the location and if it can be safe for yourself to help the casualty. Understanding the nature and extent
of the injury as well as the situational behavior of the casualty. If there is more than one casualty to treat, for
example, a car flipped if there is wired or petrol coming out (its beyond our control) thus will put yourself and
others in further danger.

SUPPORT FOLLOWING FIRST AID SITUATIONS

A person administering first aid may need physical and/or emotional support following the incident. It is important
to understand not every first aid situation is successful. It is estimated that 50% of CPR is successful (Australian Life
Saving Association). The longer it takes to begin first aid procedures, the lower the chance of success.

DEBRIEFING:

Debriefing involves obtaining information about the circumstances of the incident that resulted in first aid being
administered. The rescuer may be required to give an account of what happened and describe as precisely as
possible the nature of the incident. Police officers, ambulance officers or accident investigation personnel may make
these inquired:

DURING DEBRIEFING:

- Take time to ensure that the full picture is gathered

- Make all descriptions s accurate as possible
- Remain impartial and describe the incident and exactly as it occurred.
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COUNSELLING:

- Rescuers involved in emergency procedures where there are fatalities and serious injuries may need
counselling.
- Providing emergency care, organizing help and possibly watching life slip away can be very upsetting for
individuals and result in personal pain.
- Help is available from various counselling organizations including hospitals, medical centers and state
organizations such as NSW health.
- Counselling in beneficial as it provides the opportunity to ‘work through’ situations and dispel feelings of
blame and inadequacy.