Offshore Gas and Gas-Condensate Reservoir Engineering

1. Introduction to hydrocarbon reservoir engineering (Give

basic information about reserves estimation, development
planning and production operations optimization including
offshore environment related constraints)

• Show using a block diagram the integration of reservoir

engineering with other petroleum engineering and other
subjects.

With the petroleum industry’s desire to conserve and produce oil

and gas more efficiently a field of specialization has developed
called Petroleum Reservoir Engineering. This new science which
can be traced back only to the mid 1930’s has been built up on a
wealth of scientific and practical experience from field and
laboratory. In the 1959 text of Craft & Hawkins1 on Applied
Reservoir Engineering it is commented that “as early as 1928
petroleum engineers were giving serious consideration to gas-energy
relationships and recognised the need for more precise information
concerning physical conditions as they exist in wells and
underground reservoirs. Early progress in oil recovery methods
made it obvious that computations made from wellhead or surface
data were generally misleading.” Dake2, in his text "The Practice of
Reservoir Engineering", comments that “Reservoir Engineering
shares the distinction with geology in being one of the ‘underground
sciences’ of the oil industry, attempting to describe what occurs in
the wide open spaces of the reservoir between the sparse points of
observation - the wells”
The reservoir engineer in the multi-disciplinary perspective of
modern oil and gas field management is located at the heart of many
of the activities acting as a central co-ordinating role in relation to
receiving information processing it and passing it on to others. This
perspective presented by Dake2 is shown in the Figure below.
The responsibility of the first is shared with other disciplines
whereas the second is primarily the responsibility of the reservoir
engineer. Attaching a time scale to recovery is the development of a
production profile and again is not an exclusive activity. The day-to-
day operational role is on going through the duration of the project.
A project can be conveniently divided into two stages and within
these the above activities take place, the appraisal stage and the
development phase. The appraisal phase is essentially a data
collection and processing phase with the one objective of
determining the ‘viability’ of a project. The development phase
covers the remaining period if the project is considered viable from
the time continuous production commences to the time the field is
abandoned. Reservoir engineering activity in various forms takes
place during both of these stages. The activities of reservoir
engineering fall into the following three general categories: (i)
Reserves Estimation (ii) Development Planning (iii) Production
Operations Optimisatio

• Sketch a diagram showing the probability versus

recoverable reserves indicating, proven, proven + probable and
proven + probable + possible reserves.

Reserve Status Categories. Reserve status categories define the

development and producing status of wells and reservoirs.
Developed: Developed reserves are expected to be recovered from
existing wells including reserves behind pipe. Improved recovery
reserves are considered developed only after the necessary
equipment has been installed, or when the costs to do so are
relatively minor. Developed reserves may be sub-categorised as
producing or non-producing.
Producing: Reserves subcategorised as producing are expected to
be recovered from completion intervals which are open and
producing at the time of the estimate. Improved recovery reserves
are considered producing only after the improved recovery project is
in operation.
Non-producing: Reserves subcategorised as non-producing include
shut-in and behind-pipe reserves. Shut-in reserves are expected to be
recovered from (1) completion intervals which are open at the time
of the estimate but which have not started producing, (2) wells
which were shut-in for market conditions or pipeline connections, or
(3) wells not capable of production for mechanical reasons. Behind-
pipe reserves are expected to be recovered from zones in existing
wells, which will require additional completion work or future
recompletion prior to the start of production. 3.4.2.
Undeveloped Reserves: Undeveloped reserves are expected to be
recovered: (1) From new wells on undrilled acreage, (2) From
deepening existing wells to a different reservoir, or (3) Where a
relatively large expenditure is required to (a) Recomplete an existing
well or (b) Install production or transportation facilities for primary
or improved recovery projects.
Whereas in the deterministic approach the volumes are determined
by the calculation of values determined for the various parameters,
with the probalistic statistical analysis is used, using tools like
Monte Carlo methods. The curve as shown in the Figure below
presents the probability that the reserves will have a volume greater
or equal to the chosen value.

The proven reserves represent the reserves volume corresponding to

90% probability on the distribution curve.
The probable reserves represent the reserves volume corresponding
to the difference between 50 and 90% probability on the distribution
curve.
The possible reserves represent the reserves volume corresponding
to the difference between 10 and 50% probability on the distribution
curve

• Present a simple equation for volumes of oil and gas in-

place.

As with the deterministic approach there is also some measure of

subjectivity in the probalistic approach. For each of the elements in
the following equation, there is a probability function expression in
low, medium and high probabilities for the particular values. A
schematic of a possible distribution scenario for each of the
elements and the final result is given below in the Figure below.
 • Illustrate with a sketch the impact of different technical
parameters on the associated uncertainties on a project.
Coping with Uncertainty
The challenge to the exploration & production business of the oil &
gas industry is considerable. The looking for the “needle in the
haystack” scenario is not too far from the truth, when compared to
other industrial sectors. With the challenge of reserves being found
in technically challenging areas and the oil price moving in response
to political as well as demand scenarios, there is the need to define
more accurately forecasts of production and recovery. Reducing
uncertainty is the message of the current decade and not least in
reservoir engineering and its related disciplines. It is clear from what
we have overviewed in this chapter and the topics which will be
covered in the subsequent chapters that there are many parameters
which contribute to the viability of the various aspects of successful
oil and gas production. It is also clear that the various forms of data
required, the confidence in the absolute values vary according to the
type, and therefore the final impact on the final result will vary
according to the particular parameter. The following list summarises
some of the principal uncertainties associated with the performance
of the overall reservoir model. The type of data can for example be
subdivided into two aspects “static” and “dynamic” data . Static
Properties • Reservoir structure • Reservoir properties • Reservoir
sand connectivity • Impact of faults • “thief” sands Dynamic
Properties • Relative permeability etc • Fluid properties • Aquifer
behaviour • Well productivity (fractures, welltype, condensate drop
out etc.) The impact of each of these parameters will vary according
to the particular field but it is important that the company is not
ignorant of the magnitude of the contributing uncertainties, so that
resources can be directed at cost effectively reducing specific
uncertainties. Figure 33 illustrates an outcome which might arise
from an analysis of various uncertainties for a particular field. It
demonstrates for this particular field and at the time of analysis the
impact of the various data has on the final project cost. Clearly in
this case the aquifer behaviour uncertainties has the least impact
whereas reservoir structure and well productivity uncertainties had
the most significant. Another field would result in different impact
perspectives, and therefore a different strategy to reduce overall
project uncertainty would be required

• Describe in general terms, in the context of production

operations optimization, history matching.
History Matching
Throughout the production phase the comparison of the actual
performance with that predicted during the appraisal stage and more
recent predictions is made. It is during this stage that the quality of
the reservoir simulation model comes under examination. The
production pressure decline is compared to that predicted and the
reservoir simulation model adjusted to match. This process is called
history matching. Clearly if the simulation cannot ‘predict’ what has
happened over the recent past it cannot be used with much
confidence to forecast the future! More simple approaches not
requiring the resources of a complex simulator can also be used to
up date early predictions, for example material balance studies.
Once production has been obtained, the additional data becomes
available and makes an important contribution to the refining of the
initial reserves estimates. Two techniques historically used are
decline curve analysis and material balance studies. In material
balance studies, the pressure-volume behaviour of the entire field is
studied assuming an infinite permeability for the reservoir. By
assuming an initial oil-inplace from volumetric calculations, the
pressure is allowed to decline following fluid withdrawal. This
decline is matched against the observed pressure behaviour and, if
necessary, the original oil-in-place Figure is modified until a match
is obtained. In the presence of a water drive, additional variables are
included by allowing water influx into the ‘tank’. Water influx is
governed by mathematical relationships such as van Everdingen and
Hurst (These concepts are covered in Chapters 15, 16 and 17 MB
Applications and Water Influx). Decline curves are plots of rate of
withdrawal versus time or cumulative withdrawal on a variety of co-
ordinate scales. Usually a straight line is sought through these
observations and extrapolated to give ultimate recovery and rates of
recovery. Decline curves only use rates of withdrawal and pay
relatively little attention to the reservoir and flowing pressures. A
change in the mode of operation of the field could change the slope
of the decline curve; hence, this is one of the weaknesses of this
technique. A noteworthy feature of these two approaches is that the
engineer in fact ‘fits’ a simple model to observe data and uses this
model to predict the future by extrapolation. As more data becomes
available the model gets ‘updated’ and predicted results are adjusted.
Decline curve analysis has not been used to the same extent as in the
60’s and 70’s. With the power of computing and the efforts made to
integrate geological understanding , the physics of the flow and
behaviour of rock and fluid systems into reservoir simulation, the
‘fitting” and the uncertainty of earlier methods are being superseded
by integrated reservoir simulation modelling. The routine company
function will generate the need for on going production profile
updates. The generation of these is generally the responsibility of
the reservoir engineer, who might chose simple analytical
approaches to the more costly reservoir simulation methods.

• Draw a sketch showing the various phases of production

from buildup to economic limit.

Phases of Development During the development there are a number

of phases. Not all of these phases may be part of the plan. There is
the initial production build up to the capacity of the facility Res Eng
09/08/10 38 as wells are brought on stream. There is the plateau
phase where the reservoir is produced at a capacity limited by the
associated production and processing facilities. Different companies
work with different lengths of the plateau phase and each project
will have its own duration. There comes a point when the reservoir
is no longer able to deliver fluids at this capacity and the reservoir
goes into the decline phase. The decline phase can be delayed by
assisting the reservoir to produce the fluids by the use of for
example ‘lifting’ techniques such as down-hole pumps and gas lift.
The decline phase is often a difficult period to model and yet it can
represent a significant amount of the reserves. These phases are
illustrated in Figure 34
 • Draw a sketch illustrating the various recovery scenarios
from primary to tertiary recovery.

The challenge facing the industry is the issue of the proportion of

hydrocarbons left behind. The ability to extract a greater proportion
of the in-place fluids is obviously a target to be aimed at and over
recent years recoveries have increased through the application of
innovative technology. Historically there have been three phases of
recovery considered. Primary recovery, which is that recovery
obtained through the natural energy of the reservoir. Secondary
recovery is considered when the energy is supplemented by
injection of fluids, for example gas or water, to maintain the
pressure or partially maintain the pressure. The injected fluid also
acts as a displacing fluid sweeping the oil to the producing wells.
After sweeping the reservoir with water or gas there will still be
remaining oil; oil at a high saturation where the water for a range of
reasons, for example; well spacing, viscosity, reservoir
characteristics to name just a few, has by-passed the oil. The oil
which has been contacted by the injected fluid will not be
completely displaced from the porous media. Because of
characteristics of the rock and the fluids a residual saturation of fluid
is held within the rock. Both of these unrecovered amounts, the by-
passed oil and the residual oil are a target for enhanced recovery
methods, EOR. Much effort was put into enhanced oil recovery
(EOR) research up until the mid seventies. Sometimes it is termed
tertiary recovery. When the oil price has dropped the economics of
many of the proposed methods are not viable. Many are based on
the injection of chemicals which are often oil based. The subject of
EOR has not been forgotten and innovative methods are being
investigated within the more volatile oil price arena. Figure 35 gives
a schematic representation of the various phases of development and
includes the various improved recovery methods. More recently a
new term has been introduced called Improved Oil Recovery (IOR).
IOR is more loosely defined and covers all approaches which might
be used to improve the recovery of hydrocarbons in place. Clearly it
is not as specific as EOR but provides more of an achievable target
than perhaps some of the more sophisticated EOR methods.

As we have entered into the next millennium it is interesting to note

that a number of major improved recovery initiatives are being
considered particularly with respect to gas injection. One
perspective which make a project more viable is that of the disposal
of gas for example which is an environmental challenge in one field
can be the source of gas for another field requiring gas for a gas
injection improved oil recovery process.

1.1 OCEAN BASELINE

Oceans cover almost three-fourths of the earth’s surface, and the
land beneath them can meet the energy requirements of the world
for years to come. Beaches extend from the shore into the ocean on
a continental shelf that gradually descends to a sharp drop called the
continental slope. The continental shelf can be as narrow as 20 km
or as wide as 400 km. Water on the continental shelf is usually
shallow and rarely more than 150–200m deep. Continental shelf
drops off at the continental slope, ending in abyssal plains up to 3–5
km below the sea level. While many plains are flat, others have
jagged mountain ridges, deep canyons, and valleys. The tops of
some of these mountain ridges form islands where they extend
above the water. Our borders extend 200 miles into the water from
coastlines, encompassing areas larger than some countries. This
large underwater area is called the exclusive economic zone (EEZ).
Territorial sea baseline is defined by the United Nations (UN) as
“the line from which the seaward limits of a State’s territorial sea
and certain other maritime zones of jurisdiction are measured”.
These zones include the breadth of the territorial sea; the seaward
limits of the contiguous zone, the EEZ; and, in some cases, the
continental shelf. The territorial sea baseline varies according to the
shape of the coastline as follows: • The normal baseline corresponds
with the low-water line along the coast, including the coasts of
islands. According to the Convention, a normal baseline can be
drawn around low-tide elevations defined as naturally formed areas
of land surrounded by and above water at low tide but submerged at
high tide, provided they are wholly or partly within 12 nautical
miles of the coast [1]. • Straight baselines are straight lines joining
specified or discrete points on the low-water line, usually known as
straight baseline endpoints. These may be used in localities where
the coastline is deeply indented and cut into or where there are a
fringe of islands along the coast in the immediate vicinity [1]. • Bay
or river closing lines are straight lines drawn between the respective
low-water marks of the natural entrance points of bays or rivers
1.2. OCEAN ENVIRONMENT The ocean environment greatly
influences the structural design, logistics, and operational safety.
1.2.1 Metocean. Condition and Study Environmental
conditions/metocean conditions have a direct bearing on any coastal
or offshore project, as well as the project’s operation and
maintenance. The selection of equipment, system, location,
operational strategy, etc. also depends on these conditions. In
addition, environmental conditions influence the financial
decisionmaking regarding the project and operation. It is essential to
understand the environmental/metocean conditions by studying all
the parameters, including waves, wind, current, seasonal variation,
and probability of cyclones and storms. These studies may be
conducted as per the requirements of the job (Figure 1.2)
1.2.2 Meteorology • Wind analysis including speed, direction,
gustiness, seasonal variance, and spectrum. • Air temperature
profiling including seasonal variance, humidity, and precipitation. •
Sea water temperature profiling from mean sea level to sea bottom
including seasonal variance. • Sea current analysis. • Adverse
weather analysis including typhoons, hurricanes, cyclones, and
tsunamis.
1.2.3 Physical Oceanography • Sea water level changes including
historical, expected, and seasonal tides and wave and storm surge
analysis. • Seiches. • Wind waves – wind seas and swells –
characterized by significant wave heights and periods, as well as
propagation direction and spectra (Figure 1.3). • Bathymetry. •
Analysis of salinity, sea water temperature at different depths, and
other parameters. • Analysis of ice occurrence including extent,
thickness, and strength.

1.4.1 Notable Offshore Fields across the Globe Some of the

notable offshore fields are [11] • The North Sea • The Gulf of
Mexico (offshore Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama) •
California (in the Los Angeles Basin and Santa Barbara Channel,
Ventura basin) • The Caspian Sea (notably some major fields
offshore Azerbaijan) • The Campos and Santos Basins off the coast
of Brazil • Newfoundland and Nova Scotia (Atlantic Canada) •
Several fields off West Africa most notably west of Nigeria and
Angola • Offshore fields in Southeast Asia and Sakhalin, Russia •
The Persian Gulf including Safaniya, Manifa, and Marjan belonging
to Saudi Arabia • India (Mumbai High, K G Basin, East Coast of
India, Tapti Field, Gujarat) • The Taranaki Basin in New Zealand •
The Kara Sea, north of Siberia
1.4.2 Major Offshore Oil Producing Countries According to the
analysis, Saudi Arabia will continue to be the number one offshore
producer with an estimated 4.8 MMb/d, of which 3.9 MMb/d is
liquid production. The Safaniya, Manifa, and Qatif oil fields, as well
as Berri, will continue to contribute the most in terms of production.
Norway is estimated to produce just over 4 MMb/d, of which
approximately 50% is gas production, most noticeably from Troll
and Ormen Lange. The gas-dominant countries of Qatar and Iran are
expected to produce 3.9 and 3.3 MMb/d of expected total offshore
production, respectively. Iran and Saudi Arabia show the strongest
production growth globally compared to 2016 (Figure 1.14)
1.4.3 Offshore Facilities (Installations/Platforms/Rigs) An
offshore installation can be an offshore process platform or an
offshore drilling rig. Normally, an offshore process platform is a
structure as well as a facility to process and transport petroleum and
natural gas produced from a producing well. Offshore drilling rig is
a structure as well as a facility to drill a wellbore below the seabed
to explore and extract petroleum and natural gas present in rock
formations beneath the seabed. Depending on the situation, the
offshore platform may have drilling rigs installed on the same
structure. Modular drilling rigs are also installed on offshore
platforms. Otherwise, standalone offshore process platforms and
offshore drilling rigs are deployed. Offshore facilities may be
manned or unmanned, with corresponding facilities depending
on the work requirement. Unmanned locations are operated
remotely.
1.4.4 Types of Offshore Installations/Platforms
• Fixed platform
• Compliant tower
• Tension leg platform
• Floating production unit (Conventional)
• Truss spar
• MiniDOC spar
• Classic spar
• Cell spar
1.4.5 Type of Offshore Rigs
• Jackup rigs
• Semi-submersible rigs
• Drillships
1.4.6 Challenges with Offshore Facilities
• Remote location and adverse environment make offshore oil and
gas operation much more difficult and challenging than onshore
operation. Several new and innovative technologies are being used
to meet the challenges associated with offshore operations.
• Well depth along with ocean depth adds up to significant
hydrostatic head for fluid circulation in case of drilling operation, as
well as for lifting production fluid, which in turn requires large
amounts of power.
• Transfer of man and material and accommodation of manpower
are also challenges associated with offshore production. • Safe
working/living conditions need to be ensured even during extreme
weather and environmental scenarios. The asset and equipment
above and below the water level need to be kept in safe working
conditions, which is a significant challenge due to limited logistical
support.
• Oil prices are highly volatile and susceptible to large price drops as
observed recently due to world geopolitics. Compared with onshore
energy projects, offshore oil and gas projects involve heavy
investments and are much more sensitive to price variability. Hence,
offshore energy production needs to optimize its production and
operation costs. This can be achieved by deploying and utilizing
appropriate new technologies and systems without compromising
safety, efficiency, operability, maintainability, and reliability.
• Accidents are very difficult to deal with in offshore oil and gas
industries due to logistical constraints. Fire accidents are arguably
one of the most dangerous incidents and the most feared by the
offshore crew. Ensuring adequate safety equipment and detection
systems is essential for all offshore installations.
• Communication is a critical aspect of business operations.
1.4.7 Ecological and Environmental Risks Extraction of
hydrocarbon involves dealing with volatile substances under varying
temperature and pressure conditions, sometimes even under extreme
pressure and temperature. Adverse/hostile environmental conditions
may result in unfavorable events such as accidents and loss of
human life. Therefore, the main aim should be to protect human life
and the surrounding environment from contamination by the
extracted fluids.
Some of the biggest oil platform accidents include:
1. Piper Alpha (167 fatalities). Cause: Condensate leakage
2. Alexander Kielland (123 fatalities). Cause: Harsh weather/strong
winds
3. Enchova Central Platform (42 deaths). Cause: Blowout, fire, and
explosion
4. Deepwater Horizon (11 deaths). Cause: Gas kick, leading to fire
5. Mumbai High North (22 deaths). Cause: collision with Multi
Support Vessel (MSV) and subsequent fire after gas leakage. Marine
life is also significantly affected by offshore facilities/platforms.
Offshore hydrocarbon operations are sometimes carried out near
water sport and commercial fishing destinations, such as the Gulf of
Mexico, which requires additional safety and security measures to
ensure trouble-free operations. Rigs to Reefs program is currently
being actively pursued by authorities in the United States and
Brunei. Decommissioned installations such as platforms or rigs are
either left in place in sea or towed to a new location to become a
permanent artificial reef. In addition to offshore fires, oil spills and
pipeline ruptures or leaks during transportation of liquid
hydrocarbon from offshore to onshore facilities by oil tankers or
pipelines or due to problems on platforms or rigs are major
environmental risks in offshore operations. Water is also produced
with hydrocarbons and brought to the surface. This water is called
produced water, which may be highly saline with possible presence
of hydrocarbons.

1.5 HOW ARE OFFSHORE OPERATIONS DIFFERENT

FROM ONSHORE
The basic difference between offshore and onshore installation is the
remote and harsh locations of offshore installations.
1. Offshore installations are mostly self-sufficient in terms of power,
water, and processing facilities. On the other hand, onshore
installation need not be self-sufficient in terms of power and water.
2. Logistical support to offshore installations is limited to air and
marine transportation, which is dependent on weather conditions
and may hinder continuous approach. On the other hand, logistical
support to onshore installations can be provided anytime without
any constraints.
3. On offshore installations there is limited availability for
manpower accommodation, which is not a concern on onshore
installations. 4. Processes and equipment are selected to meet the
harsh and corrosive environment of offshore operations.
1.5.1 Safety Requirements Safety adherence and management is a
requirement of the petroleum industry. In offshore sector, safety
becomes more demanding due to remote and adverse weather
conditions. Production and processing of oil and gas involves
handling volatile substances at varying temperatures and pressures.
Any accident in such a situation can turn into a disaster, resulting in
loss of human life and assets, as well as damage to the environment.
Protection of human life should always be the priority. Proper
training with awareness and alertness are key to avoid and minimize
any such unfortunate accidents. All companies operating offshore
have safety management systems to cover their entire operation.
1.6 TECHNOLOGY WAVE
Oil industry is currently facing the biggest challenge to increase well
productivity as oil consumption is increasing day by day,
particularly in the developed countries and developing countries.
Till now, we have produced most of the crude oil from shallow
water. To bridge the gap between consumption and production, we
need to explore deep sea and ultradeep sea, necessitating
technological advancements. It took the petroleum industry 50 years
of inching up the offshore learning curve before they placed the
historical creole platform at 30 ft in the Gulf of Mexico water in the
1947. In the next 50 years, remarkable technologies were developed
with the industry soaring nearly to the top of the curve. There is an
increasing need to reduce the cost for the economical monetization
of offshore marginal fields in India. In recent years, there has been
remarkable development in the technology for marginal offshore
fields. Some of the prospective new technologies/innovations at
various stages of implementation are discussed below. To meet the
ever-growing demand of hydrocarbons, we are left with no
alternative but to move to offshore operations (shallow to deep and
deep to ultradeep). To achieve this goal many joint research projects
(JRP) are currently ongoing to develop suitable technologies, some
of which are listed below:
• Riserless drilling
• Intelligent wells
• Subsea processing
• Dual activity drilling rigs
• Subsea pumping
• Surface blowout preventer
Although exploration and exploitation of oil and gas from offshore
fields have always remained cost and time intensive, it has not
stopped companies and countries from operating in offshore fields –
shallow, deep, and deepwater. Advancement in technologies along
with maturing technology, not only in the field of exploitation but
even in exploration, has resulted in making offshore operations very
interesting and lucrative, resulting in better economy for offshore.
New frontiers and fields such as Guyana or Deepwater Outeniqua
Basin Offshore South Africa are opening new avenues. Similarly,
new finds in matured fields in UK North Sea, such as Glengorm,
have brought back offshore operations in focus.

CONCLUSION
In order to accomplish these objectives the Petroleum Reservoir
Engineer should have a broad fundamental background both
theoretically and practically in the basic sciences and engineering.
The basic areas are: (i) The properties of petroleum reservoir rocks
(ii) The properties of petroleum reservoir fluids (iii) The flow of
reservoir fluids through reservoir rock (iv) Petroleum reservoir drive
mechanisms It is also important that the Petroleum Reservoir
Engineer has a thorough basic understanding in general, historical
and petroleum geology. The influence of geological history on the
structural conditions existing in a reservoir should be known and
considered in making a reservoir engineering study. Such a study
may also help to identify and characterise the reservoir as to its areal
extent, thickness and stratification and the chemical composition,
size distribution and texture of the rock materials. In his latest text,
Dake2 comments on some of the philosophy of approach to
reservoir engineering, and identifies the importance of pinning down
interpretation and prediction of reservoir behaviour to well grounded
laws of physics. Reservoir forecasting has moved on considerably
since wells were drilled with little interest and concern into the
production and forecasting of what was happening in the reservoirs
thousands of feet below. The approach to coping with uncertainty as
jokingly reflected in the cartoon below, (Figure 38) is no longer the
case as sophisticated computational tools enable predictions to be
made with confidence and where uncertainty exists the degree of
uncertainty can be defined.

2. Hydrocarbon volume in-place calculations (reservoir area,

porosity, water saturation, reservoir oil and gas volume factor, oil,
gas and condensate recovery factor estimation).
3. Reservoir pressure and temperature (determining the
magnitude and variation of pressures and temperatures in a
reservoir are the important parameters in understanding
various aspects of the reservoir, both during the exploration
phase but also once production has commenced)
4. Reservoir fluid composition (description of the origin, nature
and appearance of gas-condensate and other petroleum fluids,
including properties of reservoir liquids)
5. Phase behavior of hydrocarbon systems, gases and gas-
condensate (define system, components, phases, equilibrium,
intensive and extensive properties, estimation of gas and gas-
condensate reservoir factor)
 SinglePhaseRegion(Liquid) SingiePhaseRogion(Gas)

ine
Po irtL
tle
But
%Liquid
100
TwoPhaseRogion
751
纷

a
ointLe
DewP
SinglePhaseRegion
Tomocraturel

Figure16Phasediagramforreservoirfluids

5.1OilSystems(BlackOilsandVolatileOils)
Figures17&18illustratethePTphasediagramsforblackandvolatileoils.

9 25
reservoirtemperaturepressurereductionthatoccursinthereservoirascrudeoilis
producedforablackoil.Theseoilsareacommonoiltype.Thedottedlineshows
theconditionsencounteredasthefluidleavesthereservoirandflowsthroughthe
tubingtotheseparator.

Iftheinitialreservoirpressureandtemperatureareat2,theoilisatitsreservoir
bubblepointandissaidtobesaturated,thatis,theoilcontainsasmuchdissolved
gasasitcanandafurtherreductioninpressurewillcauseformationofgas.Ifthe
initialreservoirpressureandtemperatureareat1,theoilissaidtobeundersaturated,
i.e.thepressureinthereservoircanbereducedtoP,beforegasisreleasedintothe
formation.Foranoilsystemthesaturationpressureisthebubblepointpressure.
 Mole%Liq
Liquid calPoint
saturated
-Ры
Pressure

Temperature

Figure17PhaseDiagramforaBlackOil

Asthepressureisdroppedfromtheinitialconditionasaresultofproductionof
fluids,thefluidsremaininsinglephaseinthereservoiruntilthebubblepointpressure
correspondingtothereservoirtemperatureisreached.Atthispointthefirstbubbles
ofgasarereleasedandtheircompositionwillbedifferentfromtheoilbeingmore
concentratedinthelighter(morevolatile)components.Whenthefluidsarebrought
tothesurfacetheycomeintotheseparatorandasshownonthediagram,theseparator
conditionsliewellwithinthetwophaseregionandthereforethefluidpresentsitselfas
bothliquidandgas.Thepressureandtemperatureconditionsexistingintheseparator
indicatethataround85%liquidisproduced,thatisahighpercentageandasaresult
thevolumeofliquidatthesurfacehasnotreducedagreatamountcomparedtoits
volumeatreservoirconditions.Hencethetermlow-shrinkageoil.

Asthepressureisfurtherreducedasoilisremovedfromthereservoir,point3will
bereachedand75%liquidand25%gaswillbeexistinginthereservoir.Strictly
speakingoncethereservoirpressurehasdroppedtothebubblepoint,beyondthatthe
phasediagramdoesnottrulyrepresentthebehaviourofthereservoirfluid.Aswewill
seeinthechapterondrivemechanisms,belowthebubblepointgasproducedflows
morereadilythantheassociatedoilandthereforethecompositionofthereservoir
fluiddoesnotremainconstant.Thesystemiscontinuallychanginginthereservoir
andthereforetherelatedphasediagramchanges.
shewaterarewe.setcouldthulafeelbutmishebetoedbeind
adeThingheheilonreedareineditherevontobabyby
thepressureabovethedewpoint.Clearlywiththisprocessthepressurewillstill
declinebecausethevolumeoccupiedbythegasvolumeoftheexportedliquidis
notbeingreplaced.Fullpressuremaintenanceisobtainedbyimportingdrygas
equivalenttothisexportedvolumefromanearbysource.Eventuallytheinjecteddry
gasdisplacesthe'wer'gasandthenthefieldcanbeblowndownasaconventional
drygasreservoir,ifasuitableexportrouteforthegasistheninplace.Theprocess
describedisverycostlyandcarrieswithitanumberofrisksnotleastthepossibility
ofearlydrygasbreakthrough.

'orasRunerion.

SurtaceSeparation

Condansaro Sales -

Figure20Gascyclingprocess

Petereseeanalastheconsideihei solationoumestingbigthis
inporousrockisdependantontherelativestrengthoftheinterfacialtensionand
viscousforcesworkingintherock.Iftherelativemagnitudeoftheseishighthenthe
fluidwillbetrappedhoweveriftheyarelowasaresultoflowinterfacialtension,
whichisthecasenearerthecriticalpoint,thenthecondensingliquidsmaybemobile
andmoveasaresultofviscousandgravityforces.Condensateliquidshavebeen
abletoflowatsaturationswellbelowthepreviouslyconsideredirreduciblesaturation
5.3WetGas
Thephasediagramforamixturecontainingsmallerhydrocarbonmoleculeslieswell
belowthereservoirtemperature,Figure21.Thereservoirconditionsalwaysremain
outsidethetwo-phaseenvelopegoingfrom1to2andthereforethefluidexistsasa
gasthroughoutthereductioninreservoirpressure.Forawetgassystem,theseparator
conditionsliewithinthetwo-phaseregion,thereforeatsurfaceheavycomponents
presentinthereservoirfluidcondenseunderseparatorconditionsandthisliquid
isnormallycalledcondensate.Theseliquidcondensateshaveahighproportion
oflightendsandsellatapremium.Theproportionofcondensatesdependonthe
compositionalmixofthereservoirfluidasrepresentedbytheiso-volumelineson
thePTdiagram.

CriticalPointal
Presire

Molo%Liq./
100

75,
50
Gas

Temperature

Figure21PhaseDiagramforaWetGas
5.5DryGas
Thephaseenvelopeofthedrygas,whichcontainsasmallerfractionoftheC2-C6
components,issimilartothewetgassystembutwiththedistinctionthattheseparator
alsoliesoutsidetheenvelopeinthegasregion(Figure22).Thetermdryindicates
thereforethatthefluiddoesnotcontainenoughheavierHC'stoformaliquidat
surfaceconditions.

Thesummarycharacteristicsforadrygasareasfollows.
GOR>100,000SCF/STB
Pressure

CriticalPoints

Liquid 75
Sep.
Gas

Temperature

Figure22PhaseDiagramforaDryGas

6. Fundamental properties of reservoir rocks (Define

porosity and express it as an equation in terms of pore, bulk
and grain volume. effective porosity, define permeability and
present an equation, Darcy’s Law, relating flow rate to
permeability in porous media. List the assumptions for the
applicability of Darcy’s Law etc.)
Theporespaces(orinterstices)inreservoirrockprovidethecontainerforthe
accumulationofoilandgasandthesegivetherockitscharacteristicabilitytoabsorb
andholdfluids.Mostcommercialreservoirsofoilandgasoccurinsandstone,
limestoneordolomiterocks,however,somereservoirsoccurinfracturedshaleand
eveninbasementrockssuchasinVietnam.Knowledgeofthephysicalcharacteristics
oftheporespaceandoftherockitself(whichcontrolsthecharacteristicsofthepore
space)isofvitalimportanceinunderstandingthenatureofagivenreservoir.

Forthereservoirengineer,porosityisoneofthemostimportantrockpropertiesas
ameasureofthespaceavailableforaccumulationofhydrocarbonfluids.

3.POROSITY

Thefirststepinformingasandstone,forexample,istohaveasourceofmaterial
whichiserodedandtransportedtolowlyingdepressionsandbasinssuchaswould
befoundoffthecoastsofalandmass.Thematerialwouldconsistofamixtureof
minerals,butforasandstone,themajoritywouldbemadeofquartzintheformof
grains.Whentheseweredeposited,theywouldbesurroundedbyseawaterorbrine,
andasthesedimentthicknessincreased,theweightorthepressureproducedbythe
overlyingsedimentswouldforcethegrainstogether.Wheretheycontactedeachother
largestresseswouldbeproducedandaphenomenoncalledpressuresolutionwould
occurwhichdissolvedthequartzatthepointsofcontactbetweenthegrainsuntilthe
stressesreducedtoalevelwhichwassustainablebythegrains.Thedissolvedmaterial
wouldbefreetoprecipitateinotherregionsofthesediment.Inthiswaytheinitially
loosematerialwouldbesolidifiedwithdiscreteconnectionsbetweenthegrains.
Initially,ifsubsea,theporespaceswouldbefilledwithbrine,andasthelithification
processoccurred,someporespaceswouldbeisolatedwiththebrinetrappedinside.
Ifthevastmajoritywereinterconnectedthentheinitialporefluidwouldbefreetobe
sweptthroughtherockbyotherfluidssuchashydrocarbons.Inthiswaythegeometry
ofthegrainsproducesanassemblyofsolidswithvoidsinbetweenthem.Thegrains
varyindiameterbutmaybefromafewmicronstoseveralhundredmicrons.The
geometryoftheporespacesissuchthattheyhavenarrowentrances(porethroats)
wheretheedgesofthegrainstoucheachotherandlargerinternaldimensions(between
thegrains).Thecomplicatednatureoftheseinterconnectedporesisillustratedin
Figure1whichisametalcastoftheporesinasandstonerock.
 Offshore related aspects
1. Organization
2. Facility for collecting rock sampling
3. Facility for laboratory analyses

7. Gas and gas-condensate flow in porous medium -

Characterization and modeling of flow patterns (Describe
the nature of fluid flow in a porous medium and the relation
between time, position and saturation; the assumptions used in
the derivation of the diffusivity equation; the characterization
of the reservoir flow regime on the basis of time)
8. Gas and gas-condensate flow in porous medium - Basıc
solutıons of the constant termınal rate case for radıal
models (Apply the solutions of the diffusivity equation to
steady state flow, semi-steady state flow and transient flow;
Calculate the pressure in a reservoir at a specific radius and a
specific time under transient flow conditions; the effect of
multiple wells and multiple flow rates on reservoir pressure)
9. Gas and gas-condensate reservoir drive mechanisms (Natural
drıve mechanısm type, and gas-condensate reservoır performance of
dıfferent drıve systems)
Literature:
1. Heriot Watt Institute of Petroleum Engineering. Reservoir
Engineering. 2005.
2. Tarek Ahmed. Reservoir Engineering hand book. Elsevier, Gulf
Professional Publishing. 2019
3. Dake, L.P., The Practise of Reservoir Engineering. Elsevier. 1994
4. Danesh, A, "PVT and Phase Behaviour of Petroleum Reservoir
Fluids." 1998 Elsevier. pp 105-206
5. Amyx, J.W, Bass, D.M, Whiting, RL, Petroleum Reservoir
Engineering, McGraw Hill. New York 1960
6. McCain, W.D. The Properties of Petroleum Fluids. Pennwell, 2nd
Ed., 1990, p 414-436.
7. Dake ,L.P. “Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering” Elsevier
ISBN 0-444- 41667-6. 197
8. William C. Lyons. Working guide to reservoir engineering.
Elsevier Amesterdam-Tokyo, 2010.
9. Fundamentals of petroleum Reservoir Engineering. Anatoly B.
Zolotukhin, Jann-Rune Ursin. Stavanger, 1997.