minerals
Article
Coal Moisture Variations in Response to Rainfall Events in Mine
and Coal-Fired Power Plant Stockpiles—Part 2: Evaporation
Quentin Peter Campbell






Citation: Campbell, Q.P.; le Roux, M.;
Nakhaei, F. Coal Moisture Variations
in Response to Rainfall Events in
Mine and Coal-Fired Power Plant
Stockpiles—Part 2: Evaporation.
Minerals 2021, 11, 1366. https://
doi.org/10.3390/min11121366
Academic Editor: Carlito Tabelin
Received: 20 October 2021
Accepted: 19 November 2021
Published: 3 December 2021
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Minerals 2021, 11, 1366. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121366
, Marco le Roux and Fardis Nakhaei *
School of Chemical and Minerals Engineering, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2531, South Africa;
quentin.campbell@nwu.ac.za (Q.P.C.); Marco.LeRoux@nwu.ac.za (M.l.R.)
* Correspondence: 36598704@nwu.ac.za; Tel.: +27-661-031-248
Abstract: Additional moisture added in coal stockpiles due to rain and other climatic processes
causes a significant problem worldwide, which leads to not only decrease in the heating value of the
coal but also creates an extra efficiency penalty. Therefore, it is important to make some predictions
for control of coal moisture within stockpiles after the rainfall. When the rain falls on the stockpile,
it either runs off the surface or infiltrates the stockpile. The infiltrated water may evaporate from
the surface, drain or stay within the stockpile. The aims of this study (parts 1 and 2) are to describe
and compare the changes in coal moisture content following rainfall events. The mechanisms of
runoff, infiltration and drainage after rainfall were described in the first paper of this series. In
part 2 the influence of coal particle size and ambient conditions on the rate and depth of moisture
evaporation within the stockpile is investigated. The laboratory experiments showed cyclic events of
adsorbing moisture overnight and desorbing this moisture during the day as part of the coal surface
evaporation process. The rate of evaporation from the surface of the fine coal stockpile was faster
than the coarse stockpile; however, the coarse stockpile experienced a more efficient evaporation
process because of its porous structure. Fine coal beds experienced evaporation only near the surface,
while the maximum influencing layer of evaporation is a depth of 0.4 cm below the surface in coarse
coal beds.
Keywords: coal stockpile; rainfall; simulation; moisture; evaporation
1. Introduction
As many thermal power plants are placed far away from coal mines and concentrators,
for balanced operations, storage of coal in an open stockpile for a month of electricity
generation is essential to dealing with any problems in coal mines or transport networks.
Similar actions are also considered for coast-based utilities which depend on imported or
exported coal. Additionally, depending on the fluctuations in the international prices of
coal, big plants purchase large amounts of coal when the price is low and then store it for
a long time (120 days). Coal stockpiles are generally left uncovered due to the need for
frequent loading and unloading [1]. Coal stockpiling for a long period causes the coal to be
exposed to atmospheric conditions such as rainfall.
In South Africa, about 92% of total electricity generation comes from coal-based
thermal power plants; the country is the world’s seventh largest coal consumer. The total
coal consumption in South Africa was 202 Million Tons (MT) during the year 2016–2017,
which was about 17.5 MT per month [2]. Coal is generally stored in open stockpiles
in the storage yard with capacities of about 50,000–200,000 tons for an average of 10 to
30 days’ requirement of the power plant. Unfortunately, coal stockpiles are almost always
susceptible to rain, which influences the final moisture content of the coal. Excessive
moisture of coal is one of the serious problems within coal yards of power plants. It results
in an economic loss and a reduced calorific value of the coal.
When rain falls on the surface of an uncovered stockpile, the water infiltrates into the
pile, evaporates back to the atmosphere, or flows off the pile surface as runoff [3,4]. The
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Minerals 2021, 11, 1366 2 of 8

amount of runoff water from the pile depends on the hydraulic properties of the stockpile
surface. When water infiltrates the stockpile, it can either by stored by the capillary
properties of waste rock material or it can flow directly through the pile as outflow. The
amount of water that infiltrates into the stockpile depends on the infiltration capacity of the
surface, coal particle size distribution (PSD), amount and intensity of rainfall, and internal
moisture content of the stored coal [5,6]. The rate of evaporation is mainly influenced by
the weather conditions, such as sunlight, temperature, wind speed and relative humidity
as well as physical and chemical characterization of coal particles [7,8].
To control the moisture content in coal stockpiles after rainfall, the mechanisms by
which water moves within a stockpile must be properly understood. It is very important
for coal washing and power plants to understand the effect of coal particle size, rate of
compaction and weather conditions on runoff, infiltration, drainage and evaporation rates
within stockpiles. The amount of time required for the requisite amount of drainage and
evaporation as well as removing moisture is unique to every stockpile and set of envi-
ronmental conditions. Moreover, the operators need to know which part of the stockpile
should be used with the least moisture after a rainfall. These issues are not obvious to
coal-fired plant operators, who face serious problems due to the coal moisture. Therefore,
extensive research is needed in this area. There are some studies that investigate the
changes in soil moisture content following rainfall. These surveys simulated the phenom-
ena of evaporation and infiltration in terms of soil water resources, which play critical
roles in the hydrological cycle system, agriculture or plantations and improvement of
ecosystems [9–11]. Experimental data relating to the characteristics and processes of water
movement after rainfall in coal stockpile are limited [12,13].
There is a need for more detailed investigations of the general behavior of moisture
movement and multi-factor effects on coal moisture levels after rainfall which are the main
objective of this series of papers. The mechanisms of runoff, infiltration and drainage
within a coal stockpile after rainfall have been experimentally investigated in the first
paper of this series. The results showed that rainfall intensity, stockpile slope, fines content
and the degree of compaction can strongly affect the surface runoff and infiltration rates.
Particle size distribution, the height of the stockpile and coal type have also been found
to have a significant influence on the dewatering efficiency of drainage. The purpose of
Part 2 of this study is to evaluate the influences of coal particle size and ambient conditions
on the rate and depth (zone) of moisture evaporation within the stockpile that was not
investigated in part A of this paper. This study will provide a comprehensive guide for the
prediction and control of excessive moisture in a coal stockpile.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
During this investigation, a coal B (fairly low rank) sample obtained from Witbank
region of South Africa was used. The particle size, proximate analysis, calorific values and
XRD analysis of sample were detailed in the first paper of this series.
The proximate analysis indicated that the representative sample contained 15.9% ash
and 56. 4% total fixed carbon. The inherent moisture content of the coal was 2.6% wt. XRD
analysis revealed that the main mineral composition of coal gangue is kaolinite (about
13%). Three different particle sizes, 13.2 + 6.7 mm, −13.2 + 0 mm and −6.7 + 0 mm, were
used in the present study.

2.2. Experimental Design

The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of coal stockpile bed particle size
and weather conditions on the rate and depth of moisture evaporation. The experiments
were divided into two parts. For the first part of the experiment, wet coal samples were
loaded into two containers (34 cm × 25 cm × 20 cm) to simulate the rate at which moisture
evaporates from a coal stockpile surface. The second part was conducted to estimate
the depth to which evaporation extends. In both parts, water-saturated samples of three
 2.2. Experimental Design
The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of coal stockpile bed particle size and
weather conditions on the rate and depth of moisture evaporation. The experiments were
divided into two parts. For the first part of the experiment, wet coal samples were loaded
Minerals 2021, 11, 1366 3 of 8
into two containers (34 cm × 25 cm × 20 cm) to simulate the rate at which moisture evapo-
rates from a coal stockpile surface. The second part was conducted to estimate the depth
to which evaporation extends. In both parts, water-saturated samples of three different
size ranges:
different size−13.2 + 6.7−mm,
ranges: 13.2 −13.2
+ 6.7 +mm,
0 mm and +−6.7
−13.2 + 0 mm,
0 mm and −were
6.7 +used
0 mm,as awere
starting
usedcondi-
as a
tion. condition.
starting
Evaporationrate
Evaporation ratefrom
froma coal
a coal surface
surface waswas determined
determined by measuring
by measuring the mass
the mass loss
loss from
from containers
containers (placed(placed
on loadon loadexposed
cells) cells) exposed to the atmosphere
to the atmosphere (Figure
(Figure 1a), while1a),
thewhile
weather the
weather conditions,
conditions, such ashumidity
such as relative relative and
humidity and temperature,
temperature, were at
were measured measured
the sameat the
time.
Coal samples with known mass and PSD were placed into the containers to a depth ofa
same time. Coal samples with known mass and PSD were placed into the containers to
depth25
about ofcm
about
and25 cm and with
saturated saturated
water.with
The water. The extra
extra water water was
was drained off, drained off, and
and a sample wasa
sample
taken aswas takenmoisture
an initial as an initial moisture
content. The content. The experiments
experiments were run for were run for 10 days.
10 days.

Figure 1.1.Evaporation
Figure Evaporationexperimental
experimental setup.
setup. (a) (a)
TheThe shallow
shallow containers
containers (b) multiple
(b) multiple evaporation
evaporation pipes.
pipes.
Both Both structures
structures were covered
were covered with Perspex
with Perspex roofs. roofs.

The
The depth
depth to to which
which evaporation
evaporation occurs
occurs waswasinvestigated
investigated by byusing
usingthe
theexperimental
experimental
setup
setup shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 1b.
1b. Samples
Samples werewere loaded
loaded into
into 36
36 sectioned
sectioned 70 70cm
cmlong
longPVCPVCpipespipes
(12
(12 pipes
pipes for
for each
each particle
particle size
size range)
range) and
and located
located outside
outside forfor 10
10 days
days while
while exposed
exposed to to
ambient conditions. Each pipe consisted of 7 segments with a height
ambient conditions. Each pipe consisted of 7 segments with a height of 10 cm that were of 10 cm that were
taped
taped together
together to to form
formaacohesive
cohesivepipe.pipe.Water
Water was
was added
added to each
to each pipe
pipe to saturate
to saturate the
the coal
coal
and the free water was allowed to drain out at the bottom covered with filter cloth to
and the free water was allowed to drain out at the bottom covered with filter cloth to
prevent
prevent fine
fine and
and ultrafine
ultrafine particles
particles from
from exiting
exiting with
with the
thefree
freewater.
water.Once
Oncedrainage
drainagehad had
ceased,
ceased, the
the bottoms
bottoms of of the
the pipes
pipes were
weresealed.
sealed. Therefore,
Therefore, thethe change
change ininthe
thewater
waterstorage
storage
was
was due only to the water loss of evaporation from the coal, namely the water lossin
due only to the water loss of evaporation from the coal, namely the water loss inthe
the
coal
coal should be equal to the amount of evaporation. The first pipe was sampled beforeany
should be equal to the amount of evaporation. The first pipe was sampled before any
evaporation
evaporation could
could occur
occur to
to establish
establish thethe initial
initial moisture
moisture profile.
profile. One
One pipe
pipe per
per size
size was
was
selected for determination of coal moisture content every
selected for determination of coal moisture content every day (at 13:00).day (at 13:00).

3. Results
3. Results
3.1. Evaporation from the Coal Stockpile Surface
3.1. Evaporation from the Coal Stockpile Surface
The evaporation of moisture from coal particles is a diurnal cyclic event (Figure 2) and
The to
is related evaporation
the ambient ofconditions
moisture from
due tocoal particles is
equilibrium a diurnal
with cyclic event
the surrounding (Figure 2)
atmosphere.
and diurnal
This is related to thefor
pattern ambient
surfaceconditions due to derived
moisture content equilibrium
fromwith the surrounding
evaporation atmos-
during daytime
phere.
and This diurnal
subsequent coalpattern for surface
rewetting during moisture
nighttime. content derived from
The evaporation evaporation
rate during
is higher during
daytime
the and subsequent
day when coal rewetting
the temperatures during
are higher, but atnighttime.
nighttime,The evaporation
reabsorption rate is higher
of moisture into
during the day when the temperatures are higher, but at nighttime, reabsorption
the porous particles occurs due to lower temperatures and the higher relative humidity of mois-
ture
of theinto the porous It
surroundings. particles occurs
can be seen due
that thetocycles
lowerare
temperatures andasthe
small initially, thehigher
bed wasrelative
still
humidity of
somewhat the surroundings.
saturated. It can
A high rate be seen that the
of evaporation cycles
during theare small
day willinitially, as thecoal
lead to drier bed
was still somewhat
particles, meaning that saturated. A high rate
the reabsorption of evaporation
capacity of the coalduring
bed willthebeday will This
higher. lead pattern
to drier
during evaporation process was consistent with the results from previous studies [9,14].

3.2. Influence of Weather Conditions

Figure 3 shows the influence of environmental temperature, relative humidity and the
resultant partial pressure of water on the evaporation rate from a flat coal bed. An increase
in temperature led to an increase in the rate of evaporation, as was expected (Figure 3a).
The moisture content near the coal surface showed a diurnal pattern, which decreased from
Minerals 2021, 11, 1366 4 of 8

mid-morning through the afternoon and then increased from afternoon to mid-morning on
the next day. Evaporation happened between 09:00 and 17:00, with a maximum around
Minerals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 8
12:00. After sunset, the temperature dropped and there was a corresponding increase in the
relative humidity. The troughs seen in the rate of evaporation in Figure 3 occurred during
Figure 2. Decrease in moisture content for coal B (14–24 July) at different particle size distributions
these conditions, which led to the coal particles reabsorbing moisture from the atmosphere.
(−13.2 + 6.7 mm, −13.2 + 0 mm and −6.7 + 0 mm).
coal
Thisparticles,
resultedmeaning that the
in a negative reabsorption
evaporation capacity
rate. of therelationship
An inverse coal bed willbetween
be higher.theThis
rate
pattern
of during evaporation
evaporation and relativeprocess
humidity wasisconsistent
evident with
in the results
Figure 3b. The from previous
ratios of studies
evaporation
3.2. Influence of Weather Conditions
[9,14].
showed a clear tendency to increase with a reduction in the relative humidity.
Figure 3 shows the influence of environmental temperature, relative humidity and
the resultant partial pressure of water on the evaporation rate from a flat coal bed. An
increase in temperature led to an increase in the rate of evaporation, as was expected (Fig-
ure 3a). The moisture content near the coal surface showed a diurnal pattern, which de-
creased from mid-morning through the afternoon and then increased from afternoon to
mid-morning on the next day. Evaporation happened between 09:00 and 17:00, with a
maximum around 12:00. After sunset, the temperature dropped and there was a corre-
sponding increase in the relative humidity. The troughs seen in the rate of evaporation in
Figure 3 occurred during these conditions, which led to the coal particles reabsorbing
moisture from the atmosphere. This resulted in a negative evaporation rate. An inverse
relationship between the rate of evaporation and relative humidity is evident in Figure
3b. The ratios of evaporation
Decrease showed acoal
clear tendency to increase with a size
reduction in the
Figure
Figure 2.2.Decrease ininmoisture
moisturecontent
content forcoal
for BB(14–24
(14–24 July)at
July) atdifferent
differentparticle
particle distributions
size distributions
relative
(−13.2
(−13.2 + 6.7humidity.
mm,
+ 6.7 mm, −13.2
−13.2 + 0+mm −6.7−+6.7
andand
0 mm 0 mm).
+ 0 mm).

3.2. Influence of Weather Conditions

Figure 3 shows the influence of environmental temperature, relative humidity and
the resultant partial pressure of water on the evaporation rate from a flat coal bed. An
increase in temperature led to an increase in the rate of evaporation, as was expected (Fig-
ure 3a). The moisture content near the coal surface showed a diurnal pattern, which de-
creased from mid-morning through the afternoon and then increased from afternoon to
mid-morning on the next day. Evaporation happened between 09:00 and 17:00, with a
maximum around 12:00. After sunset, the temperature dropped and there was a corre-
sponding increase in the relative humidity. The troughs seen in the rate of evaporation in
Figure 3 occurred during these conditions, which led to the coal particles reabsorbing
moisture from the atmosphere. This resulted in a negative evaporation rate. An inverse
relationship between the rate of evaporation and relative humidity is evident in Figure
3b. The ratios of evaporation showed a clear tendency to increase with a reduction in the
relative humidity.

Figure3.3. Comparison
Figure Comparison between
between the
the rate
rate of
of evaporation
evaporation and
and (a)
(a) temperature,
temperature, (b)
(b) relative
relative humidity
humidity and
and (c)
(c) partial
partial pressure
pressure
(Coal B;−
(CoalB; 13.2 ++ 6.7
−13.2 6.7 mm;
mm; 14–24
14–24 July).
July).

The vapor pressure at the surface of the coal bed is totally higher than the atmospheric
vapor pressure or relative humidity (Figure 3c), which resulted in the water molecules
moving from the high to the lower pressure. The temperatures at which evaporation started
on a daily basis ranged from 16 ◦ C to 24 ◦ C, while relative humidity ranged from 4% to
53%. The moisture content available for evaporation played a large role in determining the
rate of evaporation.
Figure 4a shows that, during the day, the rate of evaporation increased as the tempera-
ture increased up to a maximum and then decreased until no further evaporation occurred.
This decrease is attributed to the decline in moisture content available for evaporation
as the day progressed. It is shown in Figure 4b that the maximum rate of evaporation

Figure 3. Comparison between the rate of evaporation and (a) temperature, (b) relative humidity and (c) partial pressure
(Coal B; −13.2 + 6.7 mm; 14–24 July).
 cules
culesmoving
movingfromfromthe thehigh
hightotothe
thelower
lowerpressure.
pressure.The Thetemperatures
temperaturesatatwhich
whichevaporation
evaporation
started
startedon
onaadaily
dailybasis
basisranged
rangedfromfrom16 16°C°Ctoto2424°C,
°C,while
whilerelative
relativehumidity
humidityranged
rangedfrom
from
4%
4%toto53%.
53%.TheThemoisture
moisturecontent
contentavailable
availablefor forevaporation
evaporationplayedplayedaalarge
largerole
roleinindeter-
deter-
mining
miningthetherate
rateofofevaporation.
evaporation.
Figure
Figure4a 4ashows
showsthat,
that,during
duringthe theday,
day,thetherate
rateofofevaporation
evaporationincreased
increasedasasthethetem-
tem-
Minerals 2021, 11, 1366 5 of 8
perature
peratureincreased
increasedup uptotoaamaximum
maximumand andthen
thendecreased
decreaseduntil
untilno
nofurther
furtherevaporation
evaporation
occurred.
occurred.This
Thisdecrease
decreaseisisattributed
attributedtotothe
thedecline
declineininmoisture
moisturecontent
contentavailable
availablefor
forevap-
evap-
oration
orationasasthe
theday
dayprogressed.
progressed.ItItisisshown
shownininFigure
Figure4b 4bthat
thatthe
themaximum
maximumrate rateofofevapo-
evapo-
ration
rationoccurred
occurred earlierearlier
occurred earlier
at atatthe
the start ofstart
the runofof
astart aarun
than run than
than
at the atatthe
end. theend.
The end.The
Themaximum
maximum maximum rate
rateofofevapo-
rate of evaporation evapo-
also
ration
rationalso
alsodecreased
decreased the coalas
decreased
as asthe
bed thecoal
coalbed
becomes bedbecomes
over drier
becomes
drier drierover
time. overtime.
time.

Figure
Figure4.
Figure 4.4.(a)
(a)A
(a) AAdaily
dailycycle
daily cycleof
cycle ofthe
of therate
the rateof
rate ofevaporation
of evaporationfrom
evaporation fromaaacoal
from coalBBBsurface
coal surfacein
surface in2nd
in 2ndday
2nd dayand
day and(b)
and (b)A
(b) AAcomparison
comparisonbetween
comparison betweenthe
between the
the
daily
dailyrate
daily rateof
rate ofevaporation
of evaporationfor
evaporation foraaacoal
for coalBBB−13.2
coal 13.2mm
−−13.2 mm+ ++0 00mm
mmsurface.
mm surface.

3.3.
3.3.Influence
3.3. Influenceofof
Influence ofPSD
PSD
PSD
Figure
Figure55illustrates
Figure illustratesthe
illustrates the
theeffect
effect
effect ofofof
PSD
PSDPSDon
ononthe
the daily
thedaily evaporation
daily evaporation
evaporation rate.
rate.The
Thecoal
rate. coalbed
The bedcon-
coal con-
bed
sisting
sistingofoffine
consisting fine particles
of fine
particles (−6.7
particles(−6.7(−mm
6.7 +mm
mm +00mm)+
mm) initially
0 mm) evaporated
initially
initially evaporated
evaporated atataahigher
athigher rate
a higher than
raterate
than the
than
the
other
the
other coal
coalsamples.
other coal This
Thisoccurrence
samples.
samples. This occurrence
occurrence isisattributed totothe
is attributed
attributed the fact
to thethat
fact factthe
that fine
that
the thecoal
fine finesample
coal has
hasaa
coal sample
sample
has
largera larger
larger surface
surface surface
area area which
areawhich
which leads
leadsto leads to a higher
toaahigher
higher rate
rateofofrate of evaporation.
evaporation.
evaporation. However, However,
However, after after
afterthree three
threedays
days
days
the
theratetheofof
rate rate of evaporation
evaporation
evaporation of coarse
ofofcoarse
coarse particles
particles
particles (−13.2 (−mm
(−13.2 13.2
mmmm ++6.7 +mm)
6.7 6.7
mm) mm) waswas
was higherhigher
higher compared
compared
compared toto
to
thatthat
that of
ofofthe
thethe
finefine
fine coal
coal
coalbed.bed.
bed. ThisThis
This isascribed
ascribed
isisascribed tototo
thethe
the porousstructure
porous
porous structureofof
structure ofthe coarseparticles.
thecoarse particles.
Additionally,
Additionally,asasthe
Additionally, themoisture
the moisture
moisture front
front
front moved
moved
moved downwards,
downwards,
downwards, and went
and
and went deeper
went deeper intointo
deeper the the
into coal bed,
thecoal
coal
the
bed,expulsion
bed, the
theexpulsion of theofof
expulsion water
the vapor
thewater
watervaporfrom
vaporthefrombedthe
from was
the bed hindered
bed was by the small
washindered
hindered by
bythe spacing
the smallbetween
small spacing
spacing
the particles.
between
between the This resulted
theparticles.
particles. This in a reduction
Thisresulted
resulted in the rate
ininaareduction
reduction ininof
the
theevaporation.
rate
rateofofevaporation.
evaporation.

Figure Influence
Figure5.5.Influence
Figure Influence ofofof
PSDPSD
PSD onon
on thethe
the daily
daily
daily raterate
rate of evaporation
ofofevaporation
evaporation for forBcoal
forcoal
coal B at different
Batatdifferent
different particle
particle
particlesize size
sizedistri-
distri-
butions
butions(−13.2
(−13.2(+−+6.7
distributions 6.7mm,
13.2 mm, −13.2
+ 6.7 mm,+ +−
−13.2 0 013.2
mm
mm+ and
and −6.7
0 mm −6.7+ +0 0mm).
and −mm).
6.7 + 0 mm).

The coarse coal bed was more porous, which means that the removal of water vapor
is less obstructed, and this aided the evaporation process. It can thus be inferred that the
evaporation in on surface of a fine coal stockpile is faster than that of a coarse stockpile;
however, the coarse stockpile will experience evaporation more efficiently because of its
porous structure. The mixed coal bed (−13.2 + 0 mm) generally experienced the slowest
rate of evaporation. This is attributed to the combination of the decreased surface area due
to the larger particles and the minimal void spacing between the smaller particles.
 The coarse coal bed was more porous, which means that the removal of water vapor
is less obstructed, and this aided the evaporation process. It can thus be inferred that the
evaporation in on surface of a fine coal stockpile is faster than that of a coarse stockpile;
however, the coarse stockpile will experience evaporation more efficiently because of its
porous structure. The mixed coal bed (−13.2 + 0 mm) generally experienced the slowest
Minerals 2021, 11, 1366 6 of 8
rate of evaporation. This is attributed to the combination of the decreased surface area due
to the larger particles and the minimal void spacing between the smaller particles.

3.4. Influence
3.4. of Depth
Influence of Depth
To investigate
To investigate the
the depth
depth to to which
which evaporation
evaporation will
will extend,
extend, several
several segmented
segmented pipes
pipes
were constructed and used to track the migration of moisture. It is shown
and used to track the migration of moisture. It is shown in Figurein Figure 6 that
6
the total
that moisture
the total content
moisture decreased
content over over
decreased time for
timeallfor
coal
allsamples, as theas
coal samples, moisture evap-
the moisture
orated from from
evaporated the surface of theof
the surface coal.
theWater contents
coal. Water near the
contents bedthe
near surface decreased
bed surface rapidly
decreased
for the first
rapidly fewfirst
for the days, caused
few days, by gravity
caused by drainage and evaporation
gravity drainage imposedimposed
and evaporation by the hot
by and
the
dry and
hot atmospheric conditions.
dry atmospheric Some drainage
conditions. occurred
Some drainage within within
occurred the samples, shown shown
the samples, by the
steady
by increase
the steady in moisture
increase towards
in moisture the bottom
towards of the container.
the bottom of the container.

Figure
Figure 6. Moistureprofile
6. Moisture profile(depth
(depth
of of evaporation)
evaporation) over
over time
time for coal
for coal (a) −
B (a)B−13.2 + 13.2 + 6.7(b)mm,
6.7 mm, +0−mm
−13.2(b) 13.2and
+ 0(c)
mm−6.7and
+0
(c)
mm.− 6.7 + 0 mm.

From Figure 6a, the surface of the coarse coal sample (−13.2 + 6.7 mm) reached a final
From Figure 6a, the surface of the coarse coal sample (−13.2 + 6.7 mm) reached a final
total moisture content of approximately 3.3% after two days of evaporation. It is assumed
total moisture content of approximately 3.3% after two days of evaporation. It is assumed
that some drainage also occurred within the first day, but the amount was not measured.
that some drainage also occurred within the first day, but the amount was not measured.
The coarse sample experienced evaporation up to 0.4 m below the coal surface. Moisture
The coarse sample
evaporation can be experienced
realized from evaporation
day two to up to The
four. 0.4 mact
below the coal surface.
of evaporation Moisture
is facilitated by
evaporation can be realized from
the porous structure of coarse coal sample. day two to four. The act of evaporation is facilitated by
the porous structure of coarse coal sample.
The surface of the mixed coal (−13.2 + 0 mm) reached a final total moisture content
The surface
of around of the mixed
4.5% within coalof
a period (−13.2 + 0 mm)
2 days, reached ainfinal
as indicated total6b.
Figure moisture content in
The decrease of
around 4.5% within a period of 2 days, as indicated in Figure 6b. The decrease
moisture content 0.2 m below the surface on the first day is attributed to the manifestation in moisture
content
of 0.2 mThis
drainage. below the surface
figure shows thaton the
thefirst
mixeddaycoal
is attributed to the manifestation
bed experienced drainage in aofsimilar
drain-
age. This figure shows that the mixed coal bed experienced drainage
manner to the coarse coal sample. The surface of the stockpile experienced a decrease ofin a similar manner
to thetotal
3.2% coarse coal sample.
moisture withinThe thesurface of days,
first two the stockpile experienced0.2
while evaporation a decrease
m belowofthe 3.2% total
surface
only commenced after two days. No evaporation deeper than 0.2 m below the surface was
observed. This result is in good agreement with the previous work carried out by Lian
et al., showing that the moisture content of shallow soil at a depth of 20 cm varied with
time, due to the dominant influence of evaporation [15].
Figure 6c displayed that the surface of the fine coal (−6.7 mm + 0 mm) dried from
8.7% to a total moisture content of around 4.7% over the course of this experiment. Less
drainage was seen in this coal bed, which is explained by the high content of fine particles.
Minerals 2021, 11, 1366 7 of 8

No significant evaporation deeper into the coal bed was observed. This is attributed to the
low porosity of the coal bed.
The variabilities in the water content of deeper coal layers were lower than those of
shallow coal layers, which was due to the shallow coal layers being more susceptible to the
changes in the external environment. It can be concluded that the coal particle size range
had less influence on the amount of moisture evaporation at a depth > 0.4 m, but it had a
significant effect on the extent of evaporation from the coal surface.
All coal samples reached a steady state at day 4 because there was no more free
moisture for evaporation and the total moisture content remained nearly constant. In
addition, the maximum influencing depth of evaporation was 0.4 m, and no significant
differences were found at the 0.4–0.7 m depth between the coal water content and the
daily evaporation amount. It is suggested that a 0.4 m layer of coal can be reclaimed from
stockpiles and the residual coal should be exposed to weathering to dry for another four
days. In general, many small stockpiles are preferred to one big one.

4. Conclusions
Stockpiling of coal for a long time causes the coal to be exposed to atmospheric
conditions and rainfall. Since excessive moisture of coals results in economic loss and a
reduced calorific value of coal, it is essential to know a moisture movement pattern and the
parameters effective in the control of coal moisture stored in stockpiles before burning in
the boiler. The purposes of this study are (a) simulation of evaporation processes within
coal stockpiles and (b) investigation of the effect of coal particle size and ambient conditions
on the rate and depth of moisture evaporation. The following outcomes from this research
are summarized:
• An increase in temperature and a reduction in the relative humidity led to an increase
in the rate of evaporation. The coal stockpile surface moisture indicated cyclic events
of adsorbing moisture overnight (as the temperature fell and the relative humidity
increased) and desorbing this moisture during the day as parts of the evaporation
process. This occurrence is attributed to the coal particles trying to be in moisture
equilibrium with the surrounding air.
• The PSD of coal had smaller influence on the amount of moisture evaporation at a
depth > 0.4 m, but it had a remarkable effect on the extent of evaporation from the
coal surface.
• The evaporation on the surface of a fine coal stockpile is faster than that of a coarse
stockpile, but the coarse stockpile will experience evaporation more efficiently due to
its porous structure.
• The fine coal bed only experienced evaporation on the surface, while the coarse coal
showed signs of evaporation up to 0.4 m below the surface. The maximum effective
depth of evaporation is 0.4 m below the coal stockpile surface.
• This paper will be useful for coal producers and consumers to estimate the optimum
duration of time coal should remain in stockpiles after rainfall. The results of this
paper can be used for the effective management of coal stockpile to prevent excessive
moisture in stockpiles for best possible utilization of coal in power plants.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Q.P.C. and M.l.R.; supervision, Q.P.C.; methodology,

Q.P.C.; test and analysis, Q.P.C., M.l.R. and F.N.; writing—original draft preparation, F.N.; writing—
review and editing, F.N. and Q.P.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by [Coaltech Research Association NPC] and [the South Africa
National Research Foundation THRIP programme] grant number [TP14081289982] and The APC
was funded by North West University.
Data Availability Statement: Data sharing is not applicable.
Minerals 2021, 11, 1366 8 of 8

Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the Coaltech and Eskom
for this research.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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