NOTES: STEEL AND TIMBER DESIGN ( WEEK 1)
1. Functional design – ensures that
Module 1: Introduction to Steel Design and
Steel Shapes Properties
 Principles of Design
 Structural Design - Structural
design may be defined as a mixture
of art and science, combining the
engineer’s judgment (experienced
engineer’s intuitive feeling for the
behavior of a structure) with a
sound knowledge of the mechanics
(principles of statics, dynamics,
mechanics of materials, and
structural analysis), to produce a
safe, economical structure that will
serve its intended purpose.
 Structural Analysis - Structural
analysis is the process of
determining the “response” of a
structure due to external “actions”.
Response of the structure
includes changes in the geometry
(displacements or deformations)
and/or changes in the state of stress of
the structure.
Actions are the anticipated
forces or loads during the lifetime of
the structure.
 Design Criteria - Design criteria are
established to evaluate whether an
optimum has been achieved.
Typical criteria includes:
a. Minimum cost
b. Minimum weight
c. Minimum construction time d.
Minimum labor
e. Minimum cost of manufacture of
owner’s products
f. Maximum efficiency of operation
to owner.
 Design Procedure
intended results are achieved, such
as:
a. Adequate working areas and
clearances
b. Proper ventilation and/or air-
conditioning
c. Adequate mobility or
transportation facilities such as
elevators, stairways, and cranes, etc.
d. Adequate lighting, and e.
Aesthetics
2. Structural framework design –
the selection of the arrangement
and sizes of structural elements so
that the service loads may be safely
carried, and displacements are
within acceptable limits.
 Structural Design Procedure
1. Planning– establish functions of
the structure and set criteria for
arriving at an optimum design.
2. Preliminary structural
configuration– arrangement of the
elements to serve the function in 1.
3. Establish the loads to be carried.
4. Preliminary member selection–
based on steps 1, 2, and 3, select
member sizes to satisfy an objective
criterion, such as least weight or
cost.
5. Analysis– structural analysis
involving modeling the loads and
structural framework to obtain
internal forces and any desired
deflections.
6. Design– structural member sizes
are determined to satisfy the
requirements of the structural
analysis.
7. Evaluation – are all strength and
serviceability requirements satisfied
 and is the result optimal? Compare
with predetermined criteria.
8. Redesign – repetition of any part
of 1 through 7 found necessary or
desirable after the evaluation.
Usually, only steps 3 through 7 will
be subject to iteration.
9. Final decision – the
determination of whether or not an
optimum design has been achieved.
 Philosophies of Design
Basic Design Principle
Capacity ≥ Demand
Resistance ≥ Load
R≥Q
Structural Loadings
1. Dead Load– are static forces that
are relatively constant for an
extended time.
a. Self-weight– the dead weight of a
structure includes its full weight.
Examples: floors, walls, slabs,
ceilings, columns, beams, staircases
b. Superimposed Dead Loads (SDL)–
permanent appliances and any fixed
decoration.
2. Live Load– are usually variable or
moving loads and are usually
referred to occupational forces from
occupancy and intended use.
3. Wind Load
4. Earthquake Load
5. Snow Loads
6. Hydrostatic Loads
7. Special Loads
Limit States - t is a condition of a
structure at which it ceases to fulfill
its intended function. (Note: rather
than “failure”, the term “limit state”
is preferred.)
Two Categories:
1. Strength Limit State – maximum
ductile strength, buckling, fatigue,
fracture, overturning, and sliding.
2. Serviceability Limit State –
deflection, vibration, permanent
deformation, cracking.
Types and Properties of Structural Steel
STRUCTURAL STEEL - The term structural steel
refers to a number of steels that, because of
their economy and desirable mechanical
properties, are suitable for load-carrying
members in structures.
The customary way to specify a structural steel
is to use an ASTM (American Society for Testing
and Materials) designation.
Three groups of hot-rolled structural steels for
use in buildings:
1. Carbon steels
• Uses carbon as chief strengthening
element with minimum yield stresses
ranging from 220 MPa to 290 MPa.
• An increase in carbon content raises the
yield stress but reduces ductility, making
welding more difficult.
2. High-strength low-alloy steels (HSLA)
• Have yield stresses from 480 MPa to 840
MPa.
• In addition to carbon and manganese,
these steels contain one or more alloying
elements such as columbium, vanadium,
chromium, silicon, copper, and nickel.
3. Quenched and tempered alloy steels
• Have yield stresses of 480 MPa to 690
MPa.
 • These steels of higher strength are
obtained by heat-treating low-alloy steels.
Structural steel sections used in construction
• The heat treatment consists of
are classified as follows:
quenching (rapid cooling) and tempering
(reheating).
Properties of Steel
1. Yield stress, Fy – is that unit tensile stress at
which the stress-strain curve exhibits a well-
defined increase in deformation without an
increase in stress.
2. Tensile stress, Fu – is the largest unit stress
that the material achieves in a tension test.
3. Modulus of elasticity, E – is the slope of the
initial straight-line portion of the stress-strain
diagram and is usually taken as 200,000 MPa
for design calculation for all structural steel.
STRUCTURAL SHAPES
1. Hot-rolled sections
• Manufacturing of hot-rolled sections
involves casting molten steel and then
rolling into desired shapes while
preventing it from cooling completely.
• Geometric properties of these
sections may be looked up at ASEP
Steel Handbook Volume 1 or AISC
Construction Manual.
• Some common hot-rolled steel
sections are as follows: The dimension
and weight must be added to the
designation to uniquely identify the
shape.

4. Ductility – is the ability of the material to

undergo large inelastic deformations without
fracture.

5. Toughness – is the ability of the material to

absorb energy and is characterized by the area
under a stress-strain curve.

6. Weldability – is the ability of steel to be

welded without changing its basic mechanical
properties.
1. S- Shape
7. Poisson’s ratio – is the ratio of the transverse - Structural beams
strain to the longitudinal strain, is essentially - Structural Columns
the same for all structural steels, and has a
value of 0 in the elastic range.

8. Shear modulus – is the ratio of the shearing

stress to shearing strain during the initial
elastic behavior.
 4. C Shape
- Purlins
- Support for Framing System

2. W – Shape
- Structural Beams / Girders

5. WT – Shape
- Bridge Girders/ Deck Support

3. HP- Shape
- Structural Columns
- Deep Foundation
6. P- Shape (Pipe)
- Poles, transmission towers
- Pipelines, hvac (heating,
ventilation, air conditioning)

7. PL – Shape (Plate)
- Panels, Road Platforms, decks
- Construction of storage tanks
Formulas:

2. Cold-rolled sections
• Manufacturing of cold-formed
structural steel sections involves
bending thin sheets of steel into desired
shape without heating.
• Advantages: versatility and increased
yield strength
• Disadvantages: limited applications
and reduced ductility (In the Philippines,
it is only used for light structures and
for walls and roof purlins)
• Geometric properties of these
sections may be looked up at 2004 ASEP
Steel Handbook.

LRFD AND ASD

 LRFD ( Load Resistance Factor Design)

Load factors are applied to the service
loads, and a member is selected that
will have enough strength to resist the
factored loads. In addition, the
theoretical strength of the member is
reduced by the application of a
resistance factor.

𝑅𝑛 − nominal resistance
∅ − resistance factor< 1.0
𝑅𝑢 − ultimate resistance (required
strength = summation of factored Load
or moments)
𝛾𝑖 − load factor > 1.0
𝑄𝑖 − load effect (force of moment)
Notice that different factors are used to
account for uncertainties in resistance
and for different types of loads, i.e. D, L,
W, E, etc.
1. Nominal Capacities and Resistance
Factors – for uncertainties in
material properties, construction
tolerances, etc.
2. 2. Load Factors – for uncertainties in
various loads.

The load factors and load

combinations in this standard are
based on extensive statistical studies
and are prescribed by most building
codes.

D = dead load
F = Fluid load
L = live load due to occupancy
Lr = roof live load
H = earth load
R = rain load
W = wind load
E = earthquake load
Allowable Stress Design (ASD)

ASD uses a single factor of safety, typically

applied to the allowable stress or strength of
materials. The factor of safety is a margin of
safety applied to the expected loads to ensure
that the structure remains within safe limits
under all anticipated conditions.

Notice that only one factor is used to account

for uncertainties, that is the Factor of Safety (FS)

Factor of safety – a single variable is used to

handle uncertainties in both load and capacity

Note: The traditional AISC value of FS = 1.67

Uncertainties are handled in LRFD used in the ASD
design codes through:
LRFD and ASD

Additional uncertainties for both design codes:

1. Design errors

2. Construction errors – these cannot be

incorporated into the design codes but are
addressed through proper quality assurance
techniques.