Chemistry Topic 4: Summary Notes

1a) Salt Preparation:

Salt Reactions
Salts can be made in many different reactions
Acid + metal carbonate →SALT + WATER + CARBON DIOXIDE
Acid + metal hydrogen carbonate →SALT + WATER + CARBON DIOXIDE
Acid + metal hydroxide →SALT + WATER
Acid + metal oxide → SALT + WATER
Acid + metal → SALT + HYDROGEN
Base + ammonium salt → salt + ammonia gas + water
Acid + Ammonia -> Ammonium Salt
BUBBLES observed with the metal, carbonate/hydrogen carbonate reactions?

Salt Preparation 1
Soluble acid + soluble BASE → soluble salt + water
Procedure: Neutralisation by TITRATION
It uses a known concentration of a soluble acid, which is neutralised by an
alkali/soluble base (or vice versa)
Forms a salt solution (dissolved in water)

Salt Prep 2
Purification: Evaporation
Since a salt solution is produced, the salt needs to be isolated
This is done by evaporation, to remove the water. The dry salt will be
collected in the evaporating basin
Soluble acid + soluble BASE → soluble salt + water
Salt Prep 3
Soluble acid + insoluble BASE → soluble salt + water (+ carbon dioxide)
Procedure: Neutralisation
Add excess insoluble base so that ALL acid fully reacts
Forms a salt solution (dissolved in water)
Purification: Filtration THEN Evaporation Filter off excess insoluble base, allowing salt
solution to be collected as the filtrate
Followed by evaporation, to remove the water. The dry salt will be collected in the
evaporating basin

Salt Prep 4
Soluble salt + soluble salt → insoluble salt + soluble salt
When two soluble ionic salts are combined, they will sometimes form an insoluble salt,
called a precipitate.
You can predict whether a precipitate will form using solubility rules
1b) Salt Preparation:
Solubility Rules
Soluble Insoluble
All sodium, potassium and ammonium salts
All nitrates
Most chlorides, bromides and iodides
Silver and lead halides
(halides)
Most sulphates, except lead, barium and
Lead, barium and calcium sulphates
calcium
Sodium, potassium and ammonium Most carbonates, except sodium, potassium
carbonates and ammonium
Sodium, potassium, ammonium and calcium Most hydroxides, except sodium, potassium
hydroxide and ammonium

2a) Acids and Bases:

An acid is a Proton Donor

Acid must have a HYDROGEN to donate (give away) an H+ ion (proton)

2) Acids and Bases

Acids dissociate (split up) into H+ ions and negative ions (anion) when added to water
Common acids are:
HCl
H2SO4
HNO3
CH3COOH (ethanoic acid)

A base is a Proton acceptor

Bases must be able to accept (gain) an H+ ion (proton)
The H+ ion is donated TO BASE from acid
Bases dissociate (split up) into OH- ions and positive metal ions
(cation) when added to water
Common bases are:
Hydroxides, e.g. NaOH
Carbonates, e.g. Na2CO3

STRONG V. WEAK ACIDS

STRONG ACIDS have MORE H+ ions in
solution that WEAK ACIDS
The strength of an acid is not related to its
concentration.
A strong acid fully dissociates in water into
H+ ions
ALL H+ ions are donated and separate from
the anions
HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
A weak acid only PARTIALLY DISSOCIATES in water into H+ ions
SOME H+ are donated and the system forms an EQUILIBRIUM
CH3COOH(aq) H+(aq) + CH3COO- (aq)

AMPHIPROTIC v AMPHOTERIC
Some species are able to donate and accept protons
Water (H2O) is an example, as it can accept a proton to become H3O+ or donate a proton to
become OH-
These species are amphiprotic

Some species are able to react like an acid AND a base

Aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)3) is an example
These species are amphoteric

INDICATORS
3) Oxides and Lime
Types of Oxides:
Most NON METAL oxides are ACIDIC e.g. sulphur (IV) oxide (SO2), sulphur (VI) oxide (SO3),
carbon dioxide (CO2)
Most METAL oxides are BASIC, e.g. calcium oxide (CaO), sodium oxide (Na2O)
Some NON METAL oxides are NEUTRAL e.g. nitrogen (I) oxide (N2O), nitrogen (II) oxide (NO)
and carbon monoxide (CO)
Some METAL oxides are AMPHOTERIC and react as both an acid and base, e.g. aluminium
oxide, Al2O3 and zinc oxide, ZnO

Acidic and amphoteric oxides will react with metal carbonates (base) to form CO2 gas
Acidic oxides dissolve in water and lower the pH (test with universal indicator)
Basic and amphoteric oxides will react with acids and be neutralised

Lime is a calcium-containing inorganic mineral composed primarily of oxides, and hydroxide,

e.g., calcium oxide and/or calcium hydroxide.3
Calcium Oxide, CaO is manufactured from limestone by thermal decomposition
Limestone is a sedimentary rock comprised mainly of calcium carbonate, CaCO3
Thermal decomposition is a chemical reaction that involves breaking a substance apart using
heat

Limewater is the common name for a saturated aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide. Calcium
hydroxide, Ca(OH)₂, is sparingly soluble in water, turns cloudy when CO2 is bubbled through
 1. CaO is formed by the decomposition of CaCO 3
CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

2. Ca(OH)2 is formed by the addition of water to CaO, also known as “slaked lime”
CaO (s) + H2O (l) → Ca(OH)2 (s)

3. CaCO3 is reformed by bubbling CO2 through a solution of Ca(OH)2, in the form of

limewater
Ca(OH)2 (aq) + CO2 (g) → CaCO3 (s)

FLAME TESTS

CALCIUM – brick red

TESTING GASES
5) Ion Testing
ANION TESTS

6) Reactivity of Metals and Displacement Reactions

→ K 2,8,8,1 Na 2,8,1 Li 2,1
→ ALL have one valence electron
→ BUT the further the valence electron is from the nucleus, the easier it is to lose to
become a cation
→ Why is potassium more reactive than sodium and lithium? (HINT: atomic structure)
→ Potassium, sodium and LITHIUM are metals that react vigorously with water

→ When a metal reacts with water, the products are a metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas
→ General equation for a metal with water:
o Metal + Water → Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen
→ What is the test to show that a HYDROXIDE has been produced?
o Universal indicator turns blue-purple/red litmus turns blue
→ What is the test to show that HYDROGEN gas has been produced?
o Lit splint produces a squeaky pop
Displacement Reactions

In a displacement reaction, the metal is a compound is replaced by the MORE REACTIVE metal
to form a new compound.
MAGNESIUM + copper sulfate → Magnesium Sulfate + Copper
Mg + CuSO4 → MgSO4 + Cu
7) Extraction of Metals
Ores
→ Most metals are found naturally in rocks called ores. They are in compounds, chemically
bonded to other elements, e.g. oxygen as metal oxides
→ Some unreactive metals can be found as elements. They are called native metals.

→ In order to isolate the pure metal it is necessary to extract it from its ore.
→ The metal compound must undergo REDUCTION to free the metal.
→ Reduction is the LOSS of oxygen from the metal oxide.
→ The method of extraction depends on the position of the metal in the reactivity series

Extraction of Metals: Aluminum

Why is aluminium used for foil and food cans if it’s such a reactive metal?
It does not corrode easily due to having a strong oxide coating on its surface, which protects the
aluminium from further reaction.

Why is aluminium used in the aerospace industry?

It has a low density (light

ALUMINIUM EXTRACTION
Bauxite is the most common aluminium ore (aluminium oxide, Al2O3)
Aluminium is so reactive, carbon is not able to remove oxygen by reduction.
Extracted using electricity - by electrolysis of molten bauxite.
Bauxite has a very high melting point. A second aluminium ore, Cryolite, is mixed with bauxite to
help it melt more easily.
Bauxite is heated with sodium hydroxide.
This dissolves the aluminium oxide, but not any other minerals.
The residue (‘red mud’) is filtered off and disposed of.
The filtrate is acidified and heated to produce pure aluminium oxide powder.

At the positive anode

Negative oxide ions (O2-) drift to the positive anode.
They lose electrons and become oxygen gas molecules.
2O2- → O2 + 4e-
At the negative cathode
Positive aluminium ions (Al3+) drift to the cathode.
They gain electrons and become aluminium atoms
Al3+ + 3e- → Al
Overall
2Al2O3(l) → 4Al(l) + 3O2(g)

Opposites attract:
Cations move to – electrode
Anions move to + electrode

Extraction of Metals: Iron

→ The coke (carbon) reacts with oxygen in the hot air to make carbon dioxide
o C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g
→ The carbon dioxide reacts with more hot coke to form carbon monoxide
o CO2(g) + C(s) → 2CO(g)
→ The carbon monoxide then reduces (takes oxygen away) the iron oxide to iron
o Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
→ Limestone reacts with the impurities to form slag.
o CaCO3(s) + SiO2(s) → CaSiO3(s) +