4
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
Introduction
First we shall study how different kinds of
motionsof particles are described and explained.
After that we shall extend that knowledge to the
motions of asystem of particles.
By particle we mean a point mass having a
definite position in space, but it occupies no
volume. Obviously particle is an abstract concept.
But we know that in manysituations large moving
body may be regarded as a particle of the same
mass situated at its centre of mass.
4.1 Basic kinemetics
In kinematics we learn how to describe motion
of a particle or a body.
To describe any motion of a particle, we first
require choosing a convenient frame of eference.
Frame ofreference: Frame of reference is the
body we take to be at rest and describe the motion
of any other body with respect to that body.
For example, we take the earth as the frame
of reference when we describe the motion of
different vehicles in earth. When we say the planets
are moving round the sun, we take the sun as the
frame of reference. When someone runs on the
deck of moving ship, we may describe his motion
with respect to the moving ship, which is then the
chosen frame of reference.
A frame of reference may not be at rest; in
fact allbodies in the universe have some kind of
motion. But to describe a motion, we require taking
a body at rest. Once the frame of reference is
chosen, a suitable co-ordinate system is set up in
that frame. Often the co-ordinate system or its
origin is taken to identify the frame of reference.
Hence all descriptions of motion are in
rcíerence to the chosen frame of reference. If
we change the frame of refercnce, the description
of motion changes.
For example, if we take the earth as thc frainc
35
of reference, the sun rotates round the earth and
the planets rotate round the earth in different
complicated orbits (epicycles). If we take the sun
as the frame of reference, the motions of the
planets are found to be very simple. The planets
rotate in different elliptic orbits and the motions
can be explained easily by Newton's law. We
generally choose the frame in which the
description and the explanation of the motion
are simple.
In Fig.4.l we can see a co-ordinate system with
the origin at Oon a chosen frame of reference S.
Suppose a particle P is moving along path C. At an
instant t the particle is at P and its position vector
S r(); obviously Yis a function of time.
T ( aA
+ )
Fig. 4.1
How fast a body moves and in which direction
it ismoving are described by its velocity. Velocity
is the time rate of displacement. Suppose at time
t+ Atit mnoves from P to Qand its new position
vector isY(t+ A).
.:. Displacement in time interval At is
AY= Y(t + A) -F().
To find the velocity at the instant t, we have to
take the limit At ’0.
Therefore itsvelocity at the instant is
dr
V= Lt ...(4.1)
dt

66
As M’0. the chord PO becoTes the tangent
at P to the curve C. Therefore Fis the vector
alorg tbe targent PT to C. Thus we prOve that
issateos velocity is alwzys tangential to the
rajectory.
Suppose F()isgiven in terns of the unit basis
vectors i.7k 5
-Velocity. T=
- yË+vj+í...3)
If the velocity changes with time, the particle
has acceleration. Acceleratícn is the time rate of
change of velocity. Therefose its 2cceleration at
the instart t is given by
AF d that the initial position vector of theparticle is .
...(4.4)
From eqn.3.3, we write
di di
- aíta,j+ af
In tems of positionco-ordinates, we can write
dt d dt d
-i.j.i.6)
d d
If acceleratíon of a particle is known and the
initial position and vclocity are known, we can
predict the posiiion and velocity at any later time
using the above relatios,
Motion along a siraight line with
Lniform acceleration
Let us consider the simplest kínd of motion of dírectíon.
a particle along a straíght line OP with uníform
acceleration ã , Fig4,2. From cqn.4.4, we have kincmatics for motions with uniform acceleration
dù = ã-dt.
Integrating both side we get : =£-t+d.
To find the integration constant ¿,we stuppoe 4.2
that initial velocity =k.
. Atf0, ù=ü. Putting thesc values, ín the its cause. Startngfoit is Newtor's laws ofnotion.
above cquation, we get =i.
. Velocity at timie I, ý=ü+it .s.....(4.7)
A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSICS
1=0
-Y
Fig. 4.2
Again from can. 4.3, we can write
dY =vdt = (k+ã-t)dt.
Integrating bothsides, we get:
i=üt+--t +,
To getthe integration constant . we suppose
:. At t= 0, F = F
Putting these values in the last equatíon, we
:.The position vector of the particle at time t,
. Displacement of the particle during the time
interval between t =01o (= t is
To get another uselul relation we find the dot
product
F-j=(k+ ã)-(k+ t)
=2+k-ãt +k-ãt+ u i u e
. = u ' +2as ...4.9)
Here -a=as, since j and ¿ are in the same
These are the well-known basic equations of
along a straíght line.
We shall discuss mre aboul kinenatics lalur.
Baslc dynainits
In dynamícs we explain different motions from
4.2.1 Newto.t's laws of motion
First luw : Unless a iorce acts, a particle
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion
in a straight line.
Second law : Rate of change of momentum
of a particle is proportional to net external force
actíng on it and the change of rnornentum takes
place in the direction of the force,
Third lac :To every action there is an equal
and opposite reaction.
We have used the word partícle instead of body.
because though Newton used the word body.
Neton's laws are to be applied to cach and every force.
particle ofa body.
4.2.2 Implications of first law
First law tells about thz universal property of to 1. When n = i and a = 1, the force F= 1.
all partícles called inertia. Because of inertía the .K= 1.
state of motion (or of rest) of a partícle perSÍsts as
Jong as no force acts on it.
Force is an external influence necessary to
change thís state of motion or of rest,So we geta
qualitative definition of force fron first law.
Inertial frame : The most ímportant
contribution of first law. however, is that we get
the ídea of inertial frarne of refereNce from thís
law.
Inertial frame may be defincd as the frame of
reference in which a body not acted upon by
any forcewill be either at rest or move with uniform
velocity. Inertial frane of refercnce does not have external force Y acts on a body of mass m, it
any acceleration.
We must notice that the above definition ís
essentíally the statement of first law. Hence the
above definition implíes that Newton's laws holds
other words, force produces acceleration in its own
t only in inertial frames. Aframe of reference which
has any kind of accelcratíonis a non-inertial frame. direction.
It is found that in non-inertial frames Newton's
laws are not valid, the motion of body changes
without any real fo: ce acting on it. There are many
Such frames of reíerence we find in real world.
We shall discuss more about such frames later.
But we should rernember that whenever we are
to apply Newtons law, we must choose an
inertial frame.
4.2.3 Consequences of second law
Second law starts with the idea of momentum.
If aparticle of mass m has velocity V, its
momentum is p= mù, Momentum is a very
Important property ofa nioving particle. We shall
learn more about momentum below.
67
If force acts on a particle, then according
to second law:
...(4.10)
Here Kis the constant of proportíonality.
If m is independent of time t, then we have
F=KP= dt Km =Kmã.....(4.10a)
Here is the acceleration produced by the
Absolute unit of force : Thís unít ís so
chosen that the proportionality constant (K) is equal
Therefore ifa force produces unít acceleration
(a= Ims or Icms2) when acts on a unit mass
(m = lkg or lg) that force is taken to be a unit
force.
In MKS system it ís newton (N), in CGS systern
it is dyne. Therefore in absolute unit, we can
write
Ë-P_dn+)
dt dt -=m d) =m =mã14.11)
Here isthe positíon vector of the particle.
The equation 4.11 tells that whenever a net
has acceleratíon given by ã =m
We find that acceleratíon (ã) takes placein
the direction of the force (F) acting on it. In
Rarely do we find uniform motion ín nature. So
whenever there ís any motion, one or more forces
are acting behind as the cause of the motion. First
we have to find all the different forces acting on
the particle. Then we calculate net or resultant
force F. After that we can write down the eqn.
4.11 for thís particle. Solving theequation we can
explain and predict all fuure motion of the particle.
Hence, equation 4.1I is the basic equation of
dynamics and it is called the equation of motion
for the particle.
We see it is a second order differential
equation. To solve it vwe have to integrate it twicc.
Two integratien constants appcar in the prcess.
Hence we can have a unique sclution oniy w

68
can specify tvo initial conditions, required to find
the two integration constants. The initial conditions
are usually the initial position and velocity.
Also we note that it is vector differential
equation. Hence it is, in fact, consisted of three
coupled diflerential equations, one for each
component.
Idea of mass : Before the formulation of
second law we had only an intuitive idea about
mass. It is the amount of matter contained in a
body, but we do not have any method to measure
it. From second law we get a quantitative
definition of mass.
Suppose, the same force F is applied to two
particles of different masses m and m, and
accelerations produced are a, and a, respectively.
Then from egn. 4.11, we can write F = ma, =
Suppose m, is a standard
mass (1 kg), and m, is unknown, then m, =- kg.
Inus, we get a method of measuring maZs by
measuring the accelerations.
Also we find if n >m, a <a,, that is a body 4.3
of greater mass has proportionally lesser
acceleration. Lesser acceleration means greater
inertia (greater resistance to any change of motion
or acceleration). Therefore greater mass has
proportionally greater inertia. Hence mass is a
quantitative ineasure of inertia. So this mass may
be called the inertial mass.
dp
We notice that from equation F= dt we get
the equation F = mã, on the assumption that mass
mdoes not change with time. That means as the
velocity of the body increases due to acceleration,
its mass is not affected. Though it may appear
obvious, it was found much later that mass changes Immediately a force develops along the surface
with velocity. When the velocity is not very large,
we may ignore this fact, but the variation of mass
with velocity is quite significant when velocity is
comparable to that of light. We shall study these
facts in detail in special theory of relativity.
We may note that Newton's laws are valid for
big bodies and for sma!! velocities. If the bodies
are smal ike nolecules,aons. electrons. lo ,
etc.. Newton's theory fails. Also it reqrires naj0.
mcitcatiors when veio:tics ae conparabie io
the spct ofight in vavuv.
A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSICS
4.2.4 Discussions of third law
Third law may be stated in more specific terms
on a
as follows: If a body A exerts a force FR
body B. then immediately B exerts a force FA
on AandFn=-Fpa
AB
,Fig.4.3. In other words, in
all interaction between two A B
bodies, forces are created in
equal and opposite pairs Fig. 4.3
acting along the same line.
reaction.
If one is called the action, the other is the
Therefore in nature two equal and opposite forces
on
are always produced together and they act
different bodies.
Here action and reaction are supposed to be
produced instantaneously. While this law is alright
for bodies in contact or very near to each other,
for two interacting bodies at a large distance or
bodies moving with large speeds, this law is not
consistent with special theory ofrelativity. We know
that interacting forces between two bodies can
propagate with finite speeds and so instantaneous
interaction cannot happen.
Several common forces in nature
We shall now discuss several well-known
Simple examples of the extermal force (F) and
see how the equations of motion are constructed
in each case.
1. Push or pull type force: Suppose we
push or pull a body of mass m by a force to
slide over another body, Fig. 4.4,along the X-axis.
tat m m
X
Fig. 4.4
of contact, opposing the relative motion. This force
of friction()isessentially due to intermolecular
force of attraction between the two bodies in
contact. Frictional force (F) is proportional to the
normal reaction (R) between the two bodies.
.:.F=-Ri. Here i is the unit vector along X
avis ard : s the coeticient of friction of the
Surfaces in contact.
.. Nct cxternal force= P-F=P-uRi.
.:. From eqn. 4.11, as the motion takes place
 CLASSICAL MECHANICS
along X-axis,cquation of motion of the particle is
Þ-uRi = m£=m dN.........4. 12)
d1
This is an example of very simple rectilincar
motion under a constant force.
2. Spring-like force : Supposea mass m is
attached to aspring of spring constant k. The other
end of the spring is fixed to a rigid wall and the
floor is frietionless, Fig. 4.5. Ifthe body is pulled
00088000
-X-axis
Fig. 4.5
towards right by a distance x and then released,
the spring pulls the body back with a force
F=-kri. The negative sign indicates that the
force tends to decrease x. This force is called
restoring force. This isthe only force.
From eqn. 4.11, equation of motion of the
body is F=mj=-ki .....4.13)
di2
We know that this is the equation of motion of
simple harmonic vibration along X-axis. Almost
always different kinds of frictional force arise
during such vibrations. Allthese forces are called
damping forces. In many examples the damping
force (F) acting on abody are proportional to
velocity of the body.
di
The -ve sign indicates that the force opposes
the motion. K is a constant
.:. Equation ofmotion of such damped vibration
md'xi=-kxi
d2
Ki .... 4.14) mhaving electric clharge q is situated in a uniform
3. Gravitational force : Ifa particle of mass electric field E,the constant force acting on it is
m, is at distance r from
another particle of mass
Fig.4.6, the n,
Fig. 4.6
gravitational force of
attraction on m, exerted by m, is
F=-G ...(4.15)
Here is unit vector directed from m, to m,
and Gis the universal gravitational constant.
69
Suppose M is the mass of the carth and m that
of a body ncar carth. Then acceleration of the
body of mass m produced by the force of gravity
is the well-known acceleration duc to gravity,
a -g. The force ofgravity is moreor less constant
for a body ncar the surface of the carth. It is
vertically downward and so the acccleration duce
to gravity is also downward. If there is no othcr
force acting on the particle,the equation of motion
of m is
Ë=-GMMi=md'r
dy2
..(4.16)
Here, r =R th, R=radius of the earth and h=
height of the body from the surface of the earth
and k is the unit vector in the vertically upward
direction, Fig. 4.7. We know that it explains the
vertical motion of a body under gravity.
Z-axis
O R F
M
R
O (Centre of the carth
Fig. 4.7
By Newton's third law, the same force acts on
the earth in the upward direction and the upward
acceleration of the earth can be obtained in the
same way.
2
As M> m, g, <g.
4. Electrostatic force : Ifa particlc of mass
F=gE. Ifthere is no other force acting on it, the
cquation of motion of the particle is
qE = mä = m
dt ....(4.17)
Since the force is constant, the acceleration à
is constant in the direction of the ficld given by
å =gE/n. Therefore if the initial velocity (ü) of
the particle is zero and its initial position is h , is

70
velocity (T) and position (F ) at a later time t can
be written down from the kinematical relations 4.7
and 4.8 as follows.
P=k+t = gE,
and F= +t+är- =i, t9E,:
2m
For acomplicated situation of non-uniform field has the form :
and non-zero initial velocity, the differential
equation is to be solved taking into account the
initia! conditions and variation ofthe field.
5. Force in asteady Magneticfield : If a are central forces. But these can be strictly central
particle of mass mhaving electric charge q starts
moving with a velocity in a uniform and steady
magn:tic field B.then a force begins to act on it
given by F=çTxB.This force is perpendicular
to both magnetic field and velocit and its
magnitude depends on the angle (0) between B
and . To make the situation simple. we suppose
that the field and the velocity are pependicular to
cach oher ( = 90), Fig.4.8. Then the force has
the magnitude, Bqv. but it is
till perpendicular to both the
rield and velocity. A force
produccs acceleration in its
cwn direction. Therefore
acceleration, in this case. is
ulways perpendicular to Fig. 4.8
elocity. Hence the
imagnitude of the velccity does not change; only
its direction changes continuously. Such a force is
called, we know, the centripetal force. When such
a force acts. the particle rotates in a circular path.
Centripetal force necessary to rotate a particle of
mass mina circle of radius rwith vclocity vis, we
know. given by my²r. Hence the charged particle surroundings, only then no force can act on it.
has no other option; it rotates in a circular path of Similarly if a system of particles is isolated from
radius rgiven by
Bqy = my²
........ (4.18)
:Radius of the circular path, r= Ra
my
We know that such a motion is utilised in
accelerating a charge particle in cyclotron.
In more gcneral conditions, whcn the force and
the velocit r not perpendicular to each other.
the quation cfmeicn and natutaliv the otion of
uitcle al also more conplicat .d.
AHAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSICS
6. Central force : Ifa force (F) acting on a
particle is always directed towards or away from
afixed point (0) and its magnitude depends
only on the distance (r) from the fixed point.
then it is called central force and the fixed point is
called the centre of force. Hence acentral force
F=f()f .(4.19)
Gravitational force between two masses and
electrostatic forces between two charged bodies
force, if one of the two interacting bodies is at rest
at the fixed point (O) and the other is free to move.
This condition approximately holds in the motions
of planets round the sun or satclites round the
earth.
Such central force also causes the motions of
electrons round the nucleus in an atom or a
particles moving past a nucleus. However
Newton's law cannot be applied for these motions.
In the above examples we have seen how
equations of motion are to be constructed and how
B the force acting on a particle deternines its motions.
4.4 Conservation of momentum
If net external force acting on a particle is zero,
F=0, from egn.4.il. wc have
dt
.:. Momentum, p= Constant .(4.20)
Only external force can change momentum.
If there is no force from outside, it is quite expected
that momentum remains unchanged. In fact the
situation is already stated in First law.
If a particle or a body is isolated from the
the surroundings, no external force can act on it.
The forces of action and reaction between the
particles within the system cancel each other by
Newton's third law. As a result, (4.20) is also true
for a system of many particles.
Thus we arrivc at the principle of conservation
of momcntum from Newton's laws.
Statement of the principle of conservation
of monnentum:
If there no external torce. the momentum
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
71
of an isolated particle or an isolated svstem of such forces are studicd by its impulse and the
particles remains constant.
We have derived the law of conservation of change in momentum. Hence such forces are
called impulsive force.
momentum from Newton's law, but it has much
wider validity. Even where Newton's laws do not bat When we throw a body, a cricket ball hits the
or there is a collision between two bodies.
hold, principle of conservation ofmomentum holds. impulsive forces come into play.
We can explain or predict a large number of
phenomena by applying this principle. 4.6 Work, Power and energy
We shall consider some examples below.
4.6.1 Work, Path or line integral of force
4.5 Time Integral of force
If a constant force F acts on a particle and
From the eqn. of motion 4.11, we can write as a result the body has a
Fdt =dp. displacement j along a
IfforceF acts on a particle from time t, to t, straight line, Fig. 4.10. 0
and the momentum of the particle changes from then, work is done by the
force and, we know, that
P, to , we can write from above Fig. 4.10
work done by the force is
given by
W= F.s = Fscos .
But in all real situations, forces vary both in
magnitude and direction along the path and as a
The integral Fdt is called the time integral result the particle moves along a curved path.
Therefore this simple formula cannot be used.
To calculate work we have to find the values
of the force, as it is integrated over the time of
of that scalar product for
action of the force. It is also called the impulse infinitesimal
disnlacements all along the path in which the
(i) of the force F. particle moves and then sum them up. The summing
If the force varies with time, we must know
exactly how it depends on time to calculate impulse. up can be done by integration. So we get the more
general definition of work as follows.
:. Impulse of aforce, i=p, -p:..(4.22) Suppose a particle under the action of a variable
So. impulse of a force is the change of
force F moves along the curved path PORS,
momentum brought F Fig.4.11. We have to find the total work done (I")
about by the force i.e.,
total effect produced by
the action of the force.
If the initial and final
velocities of the particle
are v, and v, respec
tively, then Fig. 4.9
0=mù, -m ...(4.23)
If the force is plotted as a function of time, Fig.
4.9, then impulse is given by the area ABCD. Fig. 4.11
4.5.1 Impulsive force
by the force. For that purpose, we break up the
Often a force acts on a particle for a very snall path into three smaller segments like PQ, OR and
time and during that small time displacement of
RS. Suppose, force at is F and the particle
the particle is negligible. For these forces we
cannot calculate the acceleration and so effect of moves from Q to R along the curved path.
 72
Displacement is oF - OR. Work done for this
small displacement is
Summing up the smaller works for the three
segments we get the work I" for the straight paths acts and has influence on the motion, but does not
PO. QR and RS. which is equal only approximately do any work.
to the actual work. W.
From the figure it is obvious that as oF is made
smaller and smaller, the zigzag path becomes
nearer and nearer to the actual path and so the
ork W thus calculated becomes nearer and
rearer to the actual value W. If we take the limit
SF ’ 0. the work becomcs exactly equal to the
dwual work done.
Inthe limit Sr ’ 0 the summation becomes
:ntegration along the path.
Therefore exact value of the work () is given
by.
S S
I=
P P
Here j and , are initial and the final position
vectors OP and OS of the particle respectively.
The integralFdF is called the path integral
r
or line integral of force. It is so called because
the integration is carried all along the path or curve
Irav ersed by the particle. The general symbol for
of work the system can do before it is completely
line integral is .Here subscript cstands for curve. exhausted.
We have got a very important result :
The ath or line integral of a force is work
done hy the force.
...(4.25)
We know that work is ascalar hut it bos
sign. From the basic definition we have:
Work. =F.¡= Fs cos 0.
IfÇ<90°, Wis positive, then work is said to De
done the forc:
ife > 90. Wis negative. work is said to be
dne cguinst the force.
IfÇ = 90, =0. no work is done by the force.
1:rcecur d arv worket rigktang'e tots. produced by the force is
A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSICS
as its component in that direction is zero. In fact
often we find a force which acts always at right
angle to the displacement or velocity of a particle.
then that force is called no-work force. Centripetal
force is an example of a no-work force. This force
4.6.2 Power
Power ofa system the measure of how fast
it does work. Therefore. power is the time rate of
doing work. IfSW is the work done in time interval
between t and + St, the power of the system at
the instant is givcen by
P= Lt o (F-oF)
dt
Here F is the force Cxerted by the system
and is the velocity ofthe body on which the
force acts at that instant.
4.6.3 Unit of work and powver
The unit of work in SI unit is joule (J). If IN
force produces Im displacement of abody in the
direction of the force, work done by it is 1J.
The unit of power in Sl unit is watt (W), If 1J
ofwork is donc by a system in Is, its power is 1W.
watt = joule/sec.
4.6.4 Energy
We know that a system can do work only if it
has energy. Energy ofa system is the total amount
So, energy and work are the same
physical quantity. Unit of both is joule.
A body can have two kinds of energy :
(i) kinetic energy and (ii) potential energy.
Kinetic energy :
Kinetic energy of a particle is the energy
possessed by a body by virtue ofits motion. Kinetic
energy is measured by the total work it can do
before it stops.
From this definition, we can calculate the kinetic
energy of a body of mass mand velocity v.
To find the kinetic energy, we imagine a
constant force F applied in
opposite direction to its F ;m-m;=+, -T ......4.28)
velocity. The retardation
Fig. 4.12
CLASSICAL MECHANICS 73
a=. Suppose the body stops after pushing the Thus we derive work-energy principle.
Work-energy principle: Work done on a
force back by a distance s, Fig.4.12.
particle by the net force is egual to the change
Then we have : 0 =-2as .. s= in kinetic energy of the particle.
2a
The total work the body has done against the If the force does positive work, the particle
force before coming to rest is accelerates and its kinetic energy increases. If the
force does negative work, i.e., the particle does
W=Fs = ma x
2a m.
From the definition, this work is the kinetic
work against the force, then the particle decelerates
and its kinetic energy decreases.
energy of the body. 4.8 Conservative and dissipatlve forces
:. Kinetic energy of the body,
There are two kinds of forces in nature.
T=m -..4.27) We start with two common examples.
1. Suppose abody of mass mis raised vertically
Here p= mV is the momentum of the body.
by a distance habove the carth's surface, Fig.4.13.
If the force is not constant, the total work (W) Work done against the force
done by the body against the force F before it of gravity is W= mgh.
comes to rest is to be calculated by integration. The body nced not be mg
raised along the vertical line
A; it can be raised by any
(0
path like B, C. If it is raised
to the same vertical height me
=m Jdt dt t= m
[ù-dù=mv'. h, work is done against Fig. 4.13
0 0
vertical force of gravity is the same mgh. Notice,
Now we shall derive avery important principle. force of gravity is vertical all throughout the motion.
4.7 Work-energy principle 2. Suppose we move a body against the force
We suppose that a particle moves under the
of friction on arough horizontal ground, Fig.4.14.
Force of friction F
action of a net force F from position Ato position always opposes the
B and its velocity changes from i, to V¡. From motion and so both
eqn.4.25, work done by the force is its direction and
B
magnitude changes
all along the path.
A
Therefore the work Fig. 4.14
Substituting for F, we can write done against friction in every small step are
B diferent. Therefore total work is different for the
W- [mdF .....) different paths A, B and C.
d
A Thus we can find that the force of gravity and
force of friction are of different nature.
Since df =dt=t:d4, d- d t At this point we can identify one important
difference between these two forces. The force
ofgravity is always vertically downward (towards
Substituting this in the above equation (i), we the centre of the carth) whatever may be the
get direction of motion. The force of friction always
B
changes its direction to oppose the motion.
The difference between these two forces is
much more profound. We know that the work W'=
mgh is stored up in the body as gravitational
potential energv. If the body is now released, it
-Change in kinetic energy
3251-5

74
falls down with increasing velocity, the stored up
potential energy is fully converted to kinetic encrgy
of the body. But the work done against friction is
not stored up as potential energy. It is dissipated along two paths ACB and ADB are cqual.
sthermal energy within the body and the ground.
Only a small part of this thermal encrgy can be
converted to useful work.
Thus we see that different forces in naturc can
be divided into two categorics:
1.Conservative force and (2) Dissipative or
non-conservative forcc
Force of gravity is conservative forcc. Other
examples are clectrostatic force, force of spring,
magnetic force ncar a bar magnct, ctc.
Different kinds of frictional forces and forces
associatcd with hysteresis phenomena, ctc. are
non-conservative forccs.
From the above observations we can definc
the conscrvative and non-conservativc forces as
follows.
Conservative Force: In moving from onc point
to another, if work done by or against a force does
not depend on the path chosen between the two
points, but depends only on thc initial and final
positions, then the forcc is called conservative
force.
Non-conservativeforce : In moving from onc
point to another, if vwork done by or against a force
does depend on the path chosen, it is a non
conservative force.
The above statement can be expressed
mathematically as
follows. If a particle
moves from a point A to
another point B under the
action of a force F, Fig.
4.15, then work done by Fig. 4.15
the force is
If the force is conservative, the line integral
B
= constant, independent of path
between A and B ....(4.29)
If the force is non-conservative, the line
integral is different for different paths.
AHAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSIcs
From the above definition we can arrive at
another cquivalent definition as follows.
For a conservative forcc , its linc integrals
ACB ADB
Now supposc a particle gocs from Ato Balong
ACB and gets back to A from B by thc revcrscd
path BDA. We have Édi =-|Ë: di.
BDA ADR
Negativc sign appears because does not
change, but dY changes sign.
Therefore work donc to move lromA to Balong
ACB and coming back to Aalong BDAwould be
Zero.
ACB BDA ACB ADD
We find that the total wvork donc to move along
any closed path like ACBDA is zero. Thc sum of
the two line integrals in the LHS in above cquation
is, in fact, Iine integral over a closed path. Using
the symbol of line integral over a closcd path, for a
conservativc forcc we can write
C
Thus weget another cquivalent definition of a
conservative force.
Alternative definition of conservative force:
A
force is conservative in nature, ifthe nct work
done by the forceor its line integral around any
closed path is zero. In mathematical symbol
Y.di =0 .(4.30)
For a non-conservative force the above
integral is non-zero.
If we start from this second definition and apply
reasons in the reverse order, we get the first
definition. So the two definitions are equivalent.
Now let us understand why this force is called
conservative force.
According to work-energy principle, work done
by a force is equal to the change in kinetic energy.
Hence from equation 4.30, we can conclude
immediately that ifa particle moves round aclosed
path under the action of aconservative force, the
kinetic energy does not change.
CLASSICAL MECHANICS 75
In physics any property that does not change
in any process is called a conserved quantity. Here
Z
we find that kinetic energy conserved in any S
round trip under a conservative force.
4.9 Potentlal energy
Whencvcr therc is a conservative forcc and
some work is donc against that force, that cnergy
is storcd up in that body as potential energy, which Fig. 4.16
can bc fully converted to kinetic cnergy. The best We know that work is scalar. Therefore the
known example is gravitational potential encrgy
(mgh) of a body at a height h above the carth's RHS of the above eqn. can only be the difference
surface. Similarly a charged particle acquires betwcen the values of a scalar quantity at the two
end points Aand B.The value of that scalar quantity
clectric potential energy in an clcctrostatic ficld.
Within clastic limit, the clastic reaction force is at a point should depend only on the co
ordinates of the point. We choose to represent
conservative and clastic strain cnergy is storcd up
in the body as potential encrgy. This we shall study that scalar function as U(F)= U, y, z) and write
in chapter 7.
4.10 Conservatlve force fleld
-Up=UF4) -UC,)
Most conservativc forces are found to be the ..(4.31)
effcct or the manifestation of the presencc of a
Eqn. 4.31 defines a scalar function U, which
force ficld, which is conservative in nature. has definite values at cach and cvery point that
In the last chapter we have studied the scalar space. Hence U(F) is a scalar field.
and vector ficlds and their different propertics. So, Notice, we have taken the difference as
you willenjoy this scction more ifyou have already UE)-U(G) and not as U(F,)-UF). The
studied vcctor analysis of the last chapter.
We imagine a spacc in whích there is a reason for this deliberate choice willbe clear soon.
conscrvative force Fat cach and every point. We have scen in the previous chapter cqn.2.8,
Hence it is a conservative vector field. The force that change of a scalar field U for a displacement
may have different magnitudes and directions at dY can be written as dU = VU" dY , where is
different points. Therefore F is a function of vector differential operator given by
position vcctor F (x, y, z) of the different points in
that space. We express it as F=F(F)=Y x,y, 2). The vector quantity ÑU is called the gradient
We know that the work done by a conservative
of the scalar field U.
force to move a particle between two points A
and B does not depend on the path chosen. .. From eqn. 4.31 we can write
B
constant independent of the
A
From this cquation, we have
path of integration betwcen A and B.
Value of the integral depends only on the F=-ÑU= -gradU .(4.32)
We see a very important result :
positions (F, and Y) of the two end points Aand Aconservative force field F(F) can be
B, i.., on their co-ordinates (x Y Z) and (g derived from the scalar field U(F).
Yg Zg), Fig. 4.16. In the language of calculus we A conservative force F at a point is the
can say that when the force F is conservative, negative gradient of the scalar field U at that
a perfect diferential. point.

76
the force
As aconsequence, magnitude of
FF) at a point is equal to maximum space rate
of change of U(F) at this point and its direction
is that in which this maximum rate of change of
U
occurs.
Because of the negative sign we can infer previous chapter. We have seen :
that the fonce Fis directed from higher to lower
values ofU.
It is a common knowledge that conservative
forces of gravity & electric field is directed from
higher to lower potential energy.
Now we can easily identifi U(F)as the
potential energy of the particle situated at the
point Yin the field.
Now suppose that we add a quantity U, to U.
If U, is constant in space, then
(U+U,)=ù-U+Ü.U, =÷U
Thus we see that adding a constant quantity
U,to U, does not change the force field F(F).
Thus U is known up to an arbitrary constant.
What is really useful for our purpose is the
change of potential energy and the arbitrary
constant is cancelled out. Eqn. 4.31, therefore,
defines this difference in potential energy. If we
take A as the standard point of reference, we can
write the potential energy as a point as
UP)= [F)-dY +Uo.
where U, is an arbitrary constant.
Now let us apply Stokes' theorem to this
conservative force field.
From Stokes' theorem we know that ina vector
field, the line integral of the vector over a closed It may be stated as follows :
path C is equal to the surface integral of the curl conservative force field, the total energy (sum of
of the vector over the surface S bounded by the kinetic
path C.
From this theorem we can write,
S energy increases by equal amount and vice versa.
For conservativeforce, F-dF =0,eqn. 4.29.
Hence for any arbitrary surface S, we have
...., ....(4.33)
A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSICs
We see another important property of a
conservative field :
Curl of a conservative force field is zero at
ay point in the field.
In fact we have alrcady got this result in the
If curl ofa vector field is zero, it is equal to
gradient of a scalar field and coversely if a
vector field is generated by taking gradient of
a scalar field, the curl of the vector field is
zero.
Egn.4.33 can be used to verify whether a force
is conservative or not. For example, for a central
force, F= f(r)i. :. ùxF= 0. Therefore it is
conservative force.
We have seen (cqn.4.28) that work done in
going from Ato Bby the action ofa forcc is cqual
to the change in kinctic energy:
W=T;-1A
In eqn.4.31, we find that the same work is cqual
to the change in potential encrgy
IV= U-Ug
: U,-Ug= Tg-T¡
Or, T, + U4-Tg+ Ug
The sum of potential energy and kinetic energy
is total energy. Thus we arrive at a very important
result:
When conservative force acts, total energy
(potential plus kinetic) is conserved.
This is the principle of conservation of energy.
Principle of conservation of energy: In a
and potential energy) of a body is constant.
In symbols we can write
T+ V= Constant. .............(4.34)
When kinetic energy decreases, potential
Hence their sum remains unchanged.
Here we note that the definition of potential
energy by eqn. 4.32 is essential for the above
conservation of energy. For dissipative forces we
cannot define potential energy in that way, so energy
of the body is not conserved, the energy lost
doing work against the dissipative forces is lost to
the surroundings.
CLASSICAL MECHANICS 77
4.11 Problems of varlable mass Now let us calculate the power consumed by
From Newton's law, eqn. 4.11, we have, the conveyor belt to maintain its uniform velocity.
We know, eqn.4.26, instantaneous power is
Ë-p_d(mù)
d
There are situations where the mass (m) of the The rate of change of kinetic energy T of
conveyor belt is
body changes with time.
Examples:(1)As rain drops fall they coalesce dT
vith smaller drops and their masses increase, (2) dt
fmaterials are added to conveyor belts moving at We find an interesting thing that only half of
astcady velocities, mass of theconveyor increases, the power supplied to the system is utilised to
(3) As rockets move forward cjecting brunt fuels increase its kinetic energy. Where goes the other
at a high specd in the opposite direction, it mass half?
decreases continuously. We have assumed at the beginning that the
We shall now study the dynamics of these
sand particles acquire the velocity v immediately
situations. after falling on the belt, but in reality, it tends to
4.11.1 Motion of horizontalconveyor belt move backward owing to inertia of rest. Hence
We suppose that a conveyor belt Bis moving some works are required to be done against
with a constant velocity ù where fine particles frictional forces to bring them to rest. Those works
like sand are continuously dropped at a uniform consumes the other half of the power supplied.
rate, Fig. 4.17. So, here the mass of the body 4.11.2 Motion of arocket
In a rocket, there is combustion chamber in
which a fuel is burnt. The heat of combustion
raises the pressure to a high value inside the
chamber. The hot
gases produced in
the combustion are
expelled from the
Fig. 4.17 narrow opening at
the back of the body,
(conveyor belt) is increasing but velocity is not in the form a jet with
X
changing. We suppose that the sand has no velocity Fig. 4.18
when it falls on the conveyor belt and it imnediately a high velocity, Fig.
get the velocity of the belt. Suppose at time t= t,
4.18. As there is no external force involved in the
process, momentum of the system remains
mass of the conveyor belt is mand between time constant. Therefore as much momentum is carried
and t+ &! mass of sandadded to the conveyor belt
by the exhaust gas in the backward direction as
is Sm.
the rocket gets in the forward direction. Now we
:. Change in momentum during time interval, shall consider the dynamics of this system.
8t, Sp =(m +Sm)k-mù =Smk.
.:. Force that must act on the conveyor belt at
Let us first set up the basic equation for such a
time t is
system. Suppose we are observing from an
inertialframe the motion of asystem whose mass
F= L! Lt =ù Lt Sm = Vmo and velocity are changing continuously. At time !
&0 Üt =t, the mass and velocity of the system are m
Here m, is the mass of sand falling upon the and Vrespectively. Between time t and t+ &t, we
conveyor belt per second. We notice, F is the suppose that, mass ôm moving with velocity k is
force required to produce the above rate of change separated from the system. Asa result, the velocity
of momentum. Mass is changing, but velocity does of the system at time t=t+ dt becomes p+Si.
not. say, and its mass becomes m - Sm.
 79 time ’ of angular
radian/s....(4.42)
h2 theanddisplace
withfromthe polar thea co particle the
vectors
in which
S/Stt.
instant rate
.(4.41) velocity use
quantities,
dealt
these of donepolar Pv)(re)
that
time acceleration, we of description the unit
4.20
Fig. during of the the samehavedistinguish
terms be the 4.21
Fig. in
value angular linear quantities, of thedirection
velocity, The
Instantaneous canusing position
B
at is angularthewe in are
velocity the velocityS0de (a):
radian/s velocity displacement, plane
are acceleration acceleration
that wayparticle. the
St angular
Instantaneous to angular
0,
Ñt’
acceleration
these These Only a simplethe
below
and
is
Y
us
at Fig.4.20,
in thesee
an intervalangular
it it suffers
angular angular
angular Its y) co-ordinates
polar
andthe along
moves
particle i i
thesechange
co-ordinates
knowY-axis;
time &t Hence as dt dt
to acceleration. corresponding particleof we CO(x, When
andmotion. linear. see and
adjective instant.
Let thatthe linear AB,
at P, t
t
time Average
displacement a=
LiSt
Angularacceleration.
addition velocity and CO-ordinates:0) 4.21, are
like We X-and
thatat time . is8t
interval see is of rectilinearVelocityshall (r
a elegant ordinates
velocity. at
LI has Fig Cartesian
of ordinates 0).
path
time.
is
particle
suppose in we othen change particlement, We motion an (r, along
at arrives radian .. If O=
3. In linear very In at any with
are
and St. 0, in the P
angular through
sweeps
in is measured of angular
mo themaximum a in three angulara of
along (XYdifferent
the vector angle interval rate
of confined positions as
m
all motion
In ...4.40) motion require thatposition thisparticle.angle timeits
v.
+
burning and moving
namely of
makes time islalways is
particle
the see change (0):The
path, Theparticle
=-gt vehicle, the we velocity the
quantities, We its the ( ) the certain
for P are (o):
motion study
is mo 4.12Rotational curved motion particle of
curve,
instants. Theof a displacement
dm required
therocket
the m, etc 4.19
Fig. plane displacement
vector displacementof
ain
vector a
In m angular X-axis. angular
its velocity
displacement of
CLASSICAL( m
MECHANICS g-v,In of n a a kinematicala P, the motion displacement
m
mo v, timemass v,gT+ along such
going
Kinematics
4.12.1 see P, atparticlethe
several
along result, position
+ over the
the angular
by and we
-gt
thetheattained=Yo- now moving
plane.
single P,
a describe acceleration.
Fig.4.19,
Definitions
:
moves withangularIAngular unit)Angular
Vo m,is displacement
path.Y a
sweeps of
Vo As
V V= be are
We additional (0) the plane Theradian angular
T and particleTo particleplane).
angles which
or, Vmax
.:. If fuelspeed In curved the 2.
the (r) is the in
PHYSICsitIntegrating
we in Fromanymassand of attains
and
out caseneglect
of From
(4.38) time. the
rocket ratio downward theandIntegrating
(4.36) mass variation dm
time at thevelocity .....4.39) altitude.direction.v, m =0)
this m,
exhausted.
speed that the
DEGREE at fast m,= burnt of In We - is
( mass
[dn
fdv=-y, (4.37)rocket MÍ
m
during
thehowexhaust and is
rocket,
value speed. gravity. the
earth:
the with
dv=-gdt
beginningrespectively.
OF vo: we In
can
write massthat fuel in its
Mmo get or exhausted The
vehicle the the ignore upward
BOOKis the v, the its of m
the
maximum of (g)is and
In we t the see
time v,
velocity
v, Av, of Vo m on m, all velocity Vmax larger fromforce gravity
In14
Voty, (downward),or, thev, get
HAND
=- m v,. = 1+ of we of depends
fraction independent
the
+ speed
maximum
whenm, launchedand the write dm at is m
andwe
initial
=
v-V,
massand Mo
eqn.4.36, Itv,
n equation massof =m, to that external in d-mg-V,
thatrocket
Vo Av In the to
resistance v limits,
- theAv
m=me V, mo= of
mass Maximum see
reduces
is due isv can suppose are
A V It fractionfuel,
then
m, thet
we higher Rocket and we
its or, Writing get mg -
FromV
-Y above released.
=
F=mg
the acceleration
4.35, of
timethese
and In
M We ofterms V= is m, mass Thus direction
t is air We velocity
at within
mo get
time
the is the
If
its
.. "S 2. there the
..
eqn. m
those
small is of ...4.35)
of is of It ) Thus themass, motion theno
t (Freaction at k, we velocity
p. integrate
is
mass velocity
This it. rocket
two time dmdt
change
leaving as
regarded
thatis
there
ejected
velocity
From
eqn.
4.35, to
direction
is Sm+]-mù at
mass.
the because -Vel body. variablethe
......4.5a) suppose
&t this decreasing.
continuously as to is relative to the
time of relative of massforce
leaving
written eqn.
which
gas constant have of
productfor dt main rate be of dm oppositeme-d
dm mass
in + omi necessary negative, =m to reaction maysystemabove We in
the dt before get we
momentum
6T) to the due the
rocket.=-
. =m-(7-)d(k-)= be law. resistance.
space
space: assume
We
that we relation
initial
the respect a the
+ ++mÑT
-Bm)(F neglected is speed.is systemby may 4.35a
+FreactionforNewton's
the with in magnitudes,
force The
quantity
dmdt dm a
as
system
4.35 or motion apply freein
the 2mdt signis
v,
dt the
algebraic
in -Smi SmÑT.
quantities = exhaustdt
withthe
Vrel theregarded air
and
because
negative that
Sp=[(m
Change Extermal l The
term 4.35 in moving
system
isthe theeqn. =F rateto
respect
with
have =Lt mass of
momentum
us
eqn.of according
to let Rocketno =0. their suppose
where on above aofrocket. and constant get
We ejected equationNow is .F write
can comes
Writing
78 .. .. called be exerted m The 1.
gravity
rocket The To We
can the
a
v, it.
 AHAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSICS
80 CLASSICAL MECHANICS 81
only r-co-ordinate of the particle increases. yr co In terms of the polar co-ordinates the position - From eqn.4.47 and 4.50, we get:
vector of the particle can be written as .:. Magnitude of its linear
ordinate does not. Similarly is the direction in Y
velocity p changes as o
F=ri(0)..............(4.46)
which the1-00-0ndinate ofthe particle increases. changes, but its direction
In order to keep the expressions compact and
N O-Ordinate does not. remains always tangential to
elegant. we introduce short symbols for time the circular path.
Now we introduce w new unit l'ectors and derivatives. We shall write
Now it has wo accelera
Ç. which are perpendicalar to each other. The dr as i and d as,
as tions, as shown in Fig. 4.24.
unit vector is the direction in which r increases, Fig. 4.24
Fig. 4.23(a) 1. Radial acceleration,
e does not. Similarly àis the direction in which 0 Similarly 0 and
d²
as 0.
Velocity of the particle is F=D and , =-rê;= -ro'i, towards the centre
increases, r does not. (centripetal acceleration).
Using the above relations and symbols, we find acceleration. = iY.
First we realise the important difference 2. Transverse acceleration, a =rê = röê
between the unit vactors iand i.on the one hand. the velocity and acceleration of the particle as it This is the simple rectilinear motion.
moves along any curved path, from eqn.4.46. = rað along the tangent.
and f and ê on the other. When the particle moves 2. Aparticle Pis moving along a circular path.
.:. Velocity of the particle is In this case r is the radius of the circle and so r
:. The resultant acceleration is a =a? +a
the unit vectors and does not change with and it makes angle with the inward radial direction
time, they are bound to the two axes X' and Y. But di de does not change : only changes.
the unit vectors and à are bound to the particles
dt dt dt dt d9 dt
. From eqns. 4.47 and 4.50 we get : given by tan=
ò a
= Y+rÖê a,
or itsposition vector i.So when aparticle moves, ..(4.47) This motion can happen only if some torque
the unit vectors and change with time. We have got the components of velocity along Velocity of the particle, T=rôê....4.53)
acts on the particle, as we shall see below.
Acceleration of the particle,
Let us first find the relations between and i and directions. These are called the radial 4.12.2 Torgue and angular momentum
=rêi+ röê. ...(4.54)
è. In Fig. 4.22, we see f and Ç brought to the and transverse (cross-radial) components Torque and angular momentum are two
respectively. Here is angular velocit (= o) and is important physical quantities especially important
:. Radial component ofvelocity, y, =i..(4.48) angular acceleration (Ö= a) of the particle. for motion of a particle along a curved line. First
Transverse component of velocity, vå =rê we shall define them, and then find the relation
7 ..(4.49) .:. Linear velocity, V=roê and linear between them.
Acceleration of the particle is, from eqn. 4.47, acceleration, =-ra²f + raê ..4.55) Definitions :
(i) If there is no angular acceleration a = 0, 1Torque on aparticle: Aparticle Pofmass
=dt =#+;d
d0 dtdeê+rãê + rÙde
d9 dtde the particle moves in a uniform circular motion. m is situated at the
Fig. 4.22
.:. Using eqn. 4.44, we get ..From eqn.4.53 and 4.54, for aparticle moving position vector F in F
origin by parallel displacements. Looking at the in a uniform circular motion an inertial frame S Fex
igure, letus find the components of the unit vectors Velocity is constant and with origin at 0. s
dt equal to v=ro along Çi.e., in Fig.4.25. A force F
iand è along X- and Y-axes.
- (Y-Ö²)ê +(rÖ +2rèê .....4.50) the direction of the tangent to acts on it. Moment
Components of the unit vectors are 1-cos 0 the circle, Fig. 4.23(b). ¼= ro of the force
and l-sin . We have got the radial and transverse
X
Acceleration is of constant Fabout O or torque
components of acceleration.
Components ofthe unit vectors are -1-sin 9 Radial component of acceleration, magnitude ro² =ylr and its about O is defined as l=r sino
and 1-cos . direction is - , i.e., towards the vector product of Fig. 4.25
a, =(Y-²). ........(4.51) Fig. 4.23(b)
.:. We can write i= cos - sin 0 j and Transverse component of acceleration, the centre O. This is called the Fand Fas
=-sin i - cos j....(4.43) centripetal acceleration. =-rot i=YxF ..(4.57)
a; =(rÖ+2rè) (4.52) If the mass of the particle is m, the force
We see that both and â are functions of 0.
From the above relations we get
Transverse acceleration is also called cross required for its acceleration is, Being across product of F and F. it follows
radial acceleration. that torque is perpendicular to the plane
Three special cases : F=mã=-mo'ri =-m.....(4.56)
a-Ç
de and =-.......4.4) 1. A particle P is going along a straight line. r containing Fand F in the direction given by the
:. Position vector of the particle at the instant Fig.4.23(a). It acts on the particle towards the centre. This right hand thumbrule: swing F into Falong the
Iwhen it is at Pcan be witten as In this case, the magnitude (r) ofposition vector is the well known centripetal force. curled finger of theright hand, the extended thumb
Ychanges with time but its direction (0) does not (i) If the particle has angular acceleration, will give the direction of 7. Hence is perpen
F=xi+j= rcose i-rsin8 j .......445) change. then linear velocity is T =ro8. dicular to the plane of thepaper vertically upw ard
 PHYSICS
A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE CLASSICAL MECHANICS 83
$2
Now we tind the lanon eieN torque and lou have surely noticed that to distinguish from that of mass-energy. We have arrived at it from
angular momentum we call momentum as linear Newton's law, but it has much wider validity.
momentum.
Magieoisgivn by;=rsino= Tonque, =F·=F\Mraà 4.12.4 Central foree and angular momentum
If a particle of mass moves in a circle of
mr°e)= mr°a..60) adius r with angular velocity o, it has angular We have seen above that central force (F) is
Her è is the unit vNOT Npendicular to the momentum given by either directed towarnds
We iN grN N.ar t tne nans ot the nar in the sense davidai by nght l =p'= mr=mro.. ..4.62) or awa" from the centTe
haN thunb rle. To understand the significance ofZ, we go back of foree 0, Fig. 4.28. .:
o Newton's second law :
Ner fone, F-4p
ds4,11) If Fis along F, the Fig. 4.28
The s law, ader a litle denvation, gives Putting this into cqn.4.57, we get force (F ) is npulsie.
Example : clectrostatic force acting between
two particles of like charges.
Thus wñ g the lation beIwen toque (r) Since velocity is parallel to linear momentum, If Fis along -F, the force is attractive ( F, .
}=F -)=F ) and ngular aneleraion (a). Examples:clectrostatic force acting between two
The quantity mr is called he moren of particles of unlike charges or the gmvitational
ner: rhe r i e ahou the wint Q. .4.63) forces.
2. Angular momentum of a particle : A The torque of a central force about the centre
ariclePotmasis sinuatad at the winonvor This is another form of Newton's second law of force is
F in an inertial trane Swith the orngin at O and it otmotion applicable to cineular orotational nmotion.
lt tells : T=YxF= f(r)Yxè= 0
has alinear momentum ,Fig. 4.27.
Torgue of the net force about afixed point
is cqual to the time rate of change of angular . By eqn,4.63, T =dt 0.
paracle Hene thc magninde of momentum about the same point. .. L=constant ****..s..........(4.64)
Fdos nt change, the particle For a particle of mass mmovìng in a circle of
TOats in a cirrular nath ot radius adius r under the action of a torque t, we have Thus we arrive at avery important fact:
. Fig46. In this case the force The angular monentum of any particle
dLdmro) =mr2 o =mra moving under a central force is conserved.
À produces acceleration a dt dt dt
along the tangent. As a rsulL both Comparing the eqns. 4.11 and 4.63, we find Again angular momentum, Zis perpendicular
linear velociy r and angular i=rsino that the roles linear nmomentum and force play in to both and .Z= Fxp=m(Fx ).
Fia. 4.26 Fig. 4.27 translational motion are played by angular
velocin a of the paricle change. Since direction of Eremains unchanged, F
The particle has angular acceleration a. The anglar momentum (I ) of the particle momentum and torque respectively.
Angular acceleration is the time rate of change of and must always lie in the same plane
about O is defined as the vector product of F 4.12.3 Principle of conservation of angular
angular velocity. and p. momentum perpendicular to i. In other words, the path of
da the particle moving under the action ofa central
a=
..(4.61) From eqn. 4.11, we got the principle of force must lie in a single plane containing the
conservation of linear momentum.
From Newton's second law we have centre of force.
Magnitude of L is L=rxp sin Í=p. where
If F=0, P= Constant. The motions of the planets round the sun or
F¡ = ma= mdi =m(or)=mr do-ra
di
..(4.59)
l=r sin ¢is the perpendicular distance of theline
of action of the momentum from 0. Similarly from eqn. 4.63, we get the principle that of a artificial satellite round the earth take
of conservation of angular momentum. place under a central force (gravitational force).
Since the particle moves with increasing angular Angular momentum Lis perpendicular to the Therefore the centres of the planets and the sun
velocity and linear velocity. the motion is a non plane containing and p in the direction given If 7=0,i=Constant. or those of carth and its satellite are in the same
uniform circular motion. by the right hand thumb rule : swing F into The principle can be stated as follows : plane.
We have seen above that in auniform circular along the curled finger of the right hand, the f net external torque acting on a particle is 4.12.5 Impulse of a torque
motion, there is no tangential force and so there is extended thumb will give the direction of L. zero, its angular momentumn is constant
no torque; only the centripetal force acts. Thus In the figure, I is perpendicular to the plane (conserved). Impulse of a torque is defined as the product
we can conclude that to produce a non-uniforn of the paper vertically upward as shown by the This is a fundamental law of physics like the of the torque and the time interal for which it
circular motion, a torque must act on a particle. usual symbol. principle of conservation of linear momentum and acts. If a torque (t) acts on a particle for a time
 (F) 4.12.9 4.12.8 angular being
done. 4.12.7 ds.
transverse
infinitesimal
by is
which
circular that on 4.12.6 about is.
interval 84
corresponding
angular
and acceleration respectively. When by
In Pis .. For Fig.4.29,the
If the a
torque are
translational Power, torque th e particle. by =
T=m'
=mro..
m{ar)4.68) th e Powe, Power a force produces definition. from
motions in
Kinetic finite particle only Work change the
accelerationrelevant. Comparison velocity path.
a power force.
(t). (a), circular by is 9.
dW= isthe tangential torque.
we adone t,
Butquantities =tLt
P=associated
definition, constant, angular displacement work that Therotates havetorque in given and
linear
motion, energy Fgds
at dtaW Fa- byangular i,
have the A0 dt torque
the (a), In motion done force seen acts by
then
momentum of For a
most of instant A0
At wedisplacement = or in torque
are
angularcircular linear linear the iswith Ferd0
a the have momentum impulse
interesting angular TO......(4.67)
particle values the
velocity timetorque W= 4.Fi2g9.
momentum(L) and torque de
motion,
velocity (p rate
....(4.66) work =
td0 af
) t(0, the
and (v),circular revolving t ds brought
fact and and of is torque
forcelinear work -0,)
that (o), the the
o
Iftwo up. frames
of ordinate inertial
frame. two
frame other.velocity, 4.13 more of m quantity masscomes
obvious
respect respectively equations,
at Let a We Now we We the The L=
o,mTranslational
Rotational
motion: motion:
frames, particle Two inertial We (m)
F=f-%... that may important particle
to the of
suppose We shallquantity mr, see if inout
instant O s 7 axes
personsreference acceleration,
Transformation
Galilean v0, (m)
O position A P,are be bylikeframes shall see we
be, at (OXYZ which correspondence: translational from HAND A
compare
a Fig.4.30.
making transformed when below
about nmy² F=ma, inabove
particular
Yo, the that to study
4.Fi30g. A deduce of is a~mro?
T=ma, circular
we vectors and and inobservations a the BOOK
position which S reference etc. how the is
have
body thatcentrecalled a
B ofa
observationsO'YZ)B and
instant of moment the motion.motion that
relations OF
in two S to the body the of the
vector P, frames those are vectors, finite moment of F
e inertial
artransformation T=m²
measured
isrole DEGREE
Y rectangular fromone relatedpositions the s
(4.69) t on havebeenset two from observed of below: Thiplayed
be size circle. ,
of the S inertia of
F to
p becomes played
0' and -P motion and inertial another rotates. inertia by PHYSICS
with in each from the by
the co is L,
'. S

frames. frameand S frame S', respect to coincide, velocities frames

at from we
getMECHANICS
CLASSICAL
acting andaredifferent
can accelerations S respect an
Smeasured in Here
Thus If have Weequation Thiscan dt di HereDifferentiating On t=0, Using dr-,velocity
dtdiÙ Differentiating
substitution the
on m have =k, F=Y-vo the of
we the is anyinertial
to dt dV,acceleration
-= dt timewe thenreference. frame %, = dt
F= the the origins of this
a0, acceleration velocity frametheS.
see particle acceleration. assumed frame 7, a =,
mã mass body
formula S.
that = frames.
of acceleration =Vof.
a di_dvÍ dt get both
d in dtdidY
,dFboth
of body S. Eqn.4.69 of If of velocity
at usedbe measured
the we of P dt sides
acceleration ma is the
d sides
we the as
Therefore the of two make
particle, beginning
.. measured fromtwo frame measured
of P dt we frames can
*....(4.70) of dt with
an the as of of
=0. compare th eto get the from S' the respect
....4.74)of ..(4.73) none
compare
the ...(4.72) frame measured measured inP eqn.4.70...(4.71) (0
choice as in particle
a that different measured the
body net of S' and to
them both with frame time
and force with O') that the
in as
S
measurements their done be but,measured. with Then
in measured
=t'.observes and
independ assumptions. reference.velocities
verifiable within ofcannot experiment
experiments inertial go valuehence
transfomations.
acceleration
relations transformation. ordinates comparable and t
Let vacuum. true,assumptions For These may (ii) assumptions These
( ) are In the So, from
WeTheseImmediate This in (iii) In
Equation
at the B the inthe
should =j-o a'=and£ F=Y-tinaccuracy. us speeds a Theobserves The in inThe frame the uniform be other all
because long fact, the the above frame one force
as set collect velocity any scales frame.
are nor deternmined inertial
mentioned may of mass particle time is wiwithin
l words,
to As time they twthoe way two inertial of
remember consequences relations could that much relative zero.
and of soon all are (m) the intervals derivationnecessary
be the of frames
on of Thisvelocity yield any from motionframes.acting
the be experiments
of lower particle to we
called t not be measurcment the So, is identical one frame on
= done, light asscientists the ofa framesare to by another
in is above particles true. situated absolute cannot does
the the called t' body velocities ar e
truedoing
of of the
than appear frame between
events twO we the
we
were at in even an the to body
linmitations
assumptions results: equal
the these of has P have chosen result. another. not
the began at
thebelieved at at dynamics. any
inertial two
distinguish by
velocity havingspecd that to nothing in the equal. P rest if change has
relationsGalilean
*.....4.75) observed bewhich it is instant an
at IfA distancer
of of made
the and experiment the frames.doing
..(4.75a) to time instant t. frame velocity is the
of observe speeds of them obvious frames. do neither framne
above. these were to three if same
and are: and light not A1 All any onc we 85
co to do of

86
These relations can be applied to produce quite
acceptable results when the velocities of the bodies
involved are very smallcompared to that of light.
All the conclusions mentioned above may be
stated in a concise form, which constitute the
statement of Classical principle of relativity :
Classical principle of relativity :
All laws of motion are the same for all inertial
observers moving with constant velocity relative
to each other, when the obsenvers compare their
observations using the Galilean transformation.
We shall get the accurate relations (the Lorentz
transformations) when the special relativity will
be discussed.
4.14 Non-inertlal frames and pseudo
forces
Now we consider a situation similar to that
discussed in the previous section, with the
difference that the frame S' has acceleration a,
with respect to the inertial frame S. Hence the
frame S' is now, by definition, non-inertial frame.
Let us see what changes happen in the frame S'.
As, ãn õ, wehave from eqn.4.72. a =ä-ap
The frame Sis inertial. In this frame the particle
is moving with acceleration d. If mass of the
particle is m, by Newton's second law, the external
force acting on it is F=mã. This force arises
obviously from some interaction between this
particle and some other body or bodies. The forces
are, for example push-pull type, gravitational,
electric, magnetic etc. In a single word it is real
force.
In the non-inertial frame S, the particle is
moving with acceleration '. So, the effective force
on it is
F'= nß = m(- ,) =mã - mã, =F - mãp
We see something interesting. Owing to the
acceleration (,) of the frame of reference, a
force (-n, ) arises and this force together with
the real force (F) produces the acceleration (a)
of the particle in that accelerated frame.
This force (-m, ) is not due to any
interaction between matters ; it is not applied by
one body on another. It arises due to acceleration
of the frame. If a body is situated in that particles of the X
A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSICS
accelerated frame, it expericnces this force. Hence,
it is called pseudo force or fictitious force. As
the pseudo force is not
applied on the body by any
other body, this force does
not have reaction force S M
associated with it. Notice,
the direction of the pscudo
force is opposite to the
direction of the Fig. 4.31
acceleration of the frame, Fig.4.31.
Pseudo force is found to be proportional to the
mass of the particle. Therefore it is also callcd
inertial force. It is also very much like the
gravitational force (mg). Therefore for an extended
body it acts at the centre of mass of the body.
According to Newton's law only external force
can produce acceleration. But here we sce that
even ifexternal force F = 0, a body situated in the
accclerated frame gets an acccleration (-åo ).
Thus we can see clearly that Newton's laws arc
not valid in a non-inertial frame.
In many situations we come across a body
situated in an accelerated frame. For example, it
may be moving lift or car or the surface of the
revolving earth. In such non-inertial frames we
must take into account the pseudo forces along
with real forces to get the correct equation of
motion. In inertial frames, however, pseudo forces
have no relevance.
4.15
Dynamlcs of system of partlcles
Now we shall study dynamics of a system of
particles. Then we shall apply those results to
develop the dynamics of rigid bodics.
By a system of particles we mean several
particles having fixedpositions with respect to each
other and bound together by any mutual
interaction.
4.15.1 Centre of mass (c.m.)
For a system of
particles, centre of
mass (c.m.) is a
very important
point. Centre of °m4
mass is a unique
point about which
masses of the
Fig. 4.32
CLASSICAL MECHANICS 87
system are symmetncally distributed. Suppose m, cancel each other as these are produced in cqual
is the mass of a particle of the system at position and opposite pairs by Newton's third law. Thus
vector ¡ With respect the origin O and the above cquation tells that the system of particles
moves in such a manner that its centre of mass
M= Sm, = total mass of the systenm of particles, moves with acceleration given by
Fig. 4.32.
If net external force, F= 0, P.m =constant.
Position vector of centre of mass (G) of thc Then two things may happen. The individual
system is given by particles move in different directions with different
velocities, but the motion is so correlated with cach
others that
(i) The c.m.remains at rest, if it was initially at
M ...(4.76)
rest, or
Toknow the significance of centre of mass we (ii) The c.m. moves with a uniform velocity, if
procced as follows. it was initially moving with that velocity.
As an example, we consider that a time bomb
Diferentiating both sides w.r.t. time we get
at rest explodes. No external force is involved and
N
so, C.m. would remain at rest. So the different
dt dt or, MV =)mv,
i=l i splinters of the bomb will move in different
directions with exactly those velocities that keep
Here V is the velocity of the centre of mass the c.m.at rest at its initial position. If the bomb
and v, is the velocity of ith particle. was moving with uniform velocity before explosion,
the motions ofthe splinters will be so adjusted that
Pem.=X, the c.m. continues moving with the same velocity.
i=1
4.16 Dynamlcs of a rlgld body
Here pem is the momentum of a particle of
Now we shall consider the dynamics of a rigid
mass Mmoving with velocity and P,, is the
momentum of the i-th particle. Thus we see that if body.
we imagine asingle particle of total mass Mplaced Rigid body : A body is called a rigid body if
the distance between any two constituent particles
at the c.m., then its momentum is equal to the remains
fixed under the action of force or torque
vector sum of momenta of all the particles. We
can conclude that the system of particles can be of any magnitude. Hence the volume and shape
replaced by a single imaginary particle of mass M 0f the body do not change during its motion.
In nature we do not find absolutely rigid body.
placed at its c.m. moving with the resultant
momentum. But ifthe forces or torques acting on it are not too
large, most solids can be treated as rigid.
Differentiating both sides of the last equation
W.r.t. time we get We see that a rigid body is not much different
from a system of particles. Only difference is that
instead of discrete particles separated by a fixed
dt dt
distance, the particles of the rigid body are
N continuously distributed over a fixed volume
or
dt without any separation between neighbouring
particles. Hence we can similarly define centre of
mass of a rigid body. Centre of mass of a rigid
Here is the force acting on the i-th particle
body is the unique point situated inside or outside
and F is the resultant force acting on the system. the body, about which the mass of the body is
Here we should understand that F is the net symmetrically distributed. The discrete sums of
external force. There may be intemal forces acting the Suppose
above results are to be replaced by integration.
density of the material of the body is
between the constituent particles, but these forces
 A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSICS CLASSICAL MECHANICS
88 89
p. then mass of an elementary portion of volume Couple : If two equal. parallel and the body, it has a general motion
(translation cum
oppositel directed forces (F. ) act together on rotation). Ifa particle of mass m moves with an angular
di of the body dm = pdl. Let l' be the total velocity o in acircle of radius r, then for the particle,
olume of the body. a body. Fig.4.35. the two together is called couple, Now suppose thata single force F acts on the we have:
The resultantof the couple is
. Mass of the whole body is given by body B, which does not pass through the c.m. but Linear velocity, v= 0r, linear momentum,
zero, but the two forces do
B not balance each other, as passes through P. Fig.4.36. What will be its efect? p= mV.

they do not act alonga single

To infer this we imagine that AF F
1f the position vector of line. The eftect of the couple
Fig. 4.35 two equal and opposite Kinetic energy, T=my²- = ; ma',
forces (F,- F) act at the Angular momentum, L= pr = mvr = mor.
m is F. Fig 4.33. then the is producing a pure rotation of the body. We shal) c.m. (G) of the body. Since Using these formulae we can calculate the kinetic
Osinon vector of the centre see below that nder the action of a couple, a
the two forces balance each energy and angular momentum of each constituent
of mass oÉa igid body B is bod roiates about iis centre of mass (G).
Fig. 433 The magninude of a couple is the product of other the situation is not particle of the rotating body. Summing them up
given by changed. Now the previous Fig. 4.36
any one of the two forces and the perpendicular we get those things for the whole body.
...(4.77) force Fand the new force -F together form a Let a particle of mass m, of B be at a distance
distance (N berween them. It is called the moment
of the couple or torque of the couple. couple producing the efect of rotation of the body r; from the axis, it rotates in a circle of radius r,.
The fomm to eaken b d+ and the limits of about the c.m., as shown in the figure. We are left Another particle of mass m, is at a distance r,, it
. Moment of couple or torque. r =Fl...(4.79) with the force F passing through the c.m. which
intTaD0n depen on the gOmetry of the given The istance / is calledthe arm of the couple. rotates in a circle of radius r, etc. Each particle
by. lf the by is homgenaus and of rgular Notice that a couple cannot act on a particle. produces a motion along its direction. Hence the has the same angular velocity o, but linear
share the cenre of mas is the geomeic Cenire body would rotate about c.m. and move along F
Moment ofhe couple is generally taken as positive velocities are different for different particles.
ofthe boy ifitotates anticlockwise and vice versa. We know 4.16.2 Centre of gravity Kinetic energy of the whole body,
Al he s of the cenre of mass we that the etteet of a large number of forces can be Centre of gravity (c.g.) is the unique point of a +
have disuSsd ¿heve holdequaly in the case ofa replaced bv a single force, which is their resultant body at which the resultant force of gravity (Mg
rngii b . Hene fr any ranslational momon, a force. But the ettect of a pair of forces forming a = attraction of the earth) acts. Its position
n g b may b p l ib aint mass at its couple cannot be replaced by a single force. coincides with the centre of mass of a body, if the
Cr OÉ miss. Bu: to explain the otaion of a As a consequence. if a large number of forces act size of the body is so small that the value of
rigid boiy we require some more physical .(4.80)
on a body and many of them fom couples, we acceleration due to gravity (g) has the same value Here we have put the sum of the series
n0ts wih we shall now discus. have to add the couples together to find the at all parts of the body. Hence for bodies of
4.16.1 foment of aforce and couple resultant couple and the other forces together to ordinary sizes the two terms c.g. and c.m. are Zm=1 ......
..(4.81)
Consider a rigid boiy 4B which cannotnove get the resultant forces. regarded as synonymnous. Where gravity is not
S hole. but can There may be three situations : involved we call this point specifically as the c.m. Angular momentumn of the body,
rotate about a point 0. AF (i) Only a non-zero net couple (torque) acts on 4.17 Kinetic energy and angular L=m,or +m,or+ ......

Fig. 434. We apply a a body.

force Fas shown in the
igure. the body will Fig. 4.34
rOtate about 0. either
clockwise or anticlockwise. The effectiveness of
the force to rotate the body depends on (i)
magnitude of the force F and (ii) perpendicular
distance I of the line ofaction of the force from 0.
Hence it depends on the product of Fand l. This
product, we have seen. is called the moment of (ii) Only a non-zero net force Facts and it
the force about the point O or torque (t) about passes through c.m., then the body moves such
Torque, t =Fi ...(4.78)
It is obvious from the figure that if a force F
passing through Oacts on the body, its torque about
Ois zero and it cannot produce any rotation of the
body. To produce rotation of a body like AB, a net
non-zero torque must act on it.
If the body was initially at rest, as there is no
net force, the c.m. must be at rest. As a result, the
body starts rotating about the c.m. by the action of
the torque with a definite angular acceleration. The
motion is pure rotation.
If the body was initially moving with aunifom
velocity, it continues moving with that velocity and
at the same time rotating about the c.m.
that the c.m. moves along the direction of the force
in a straight line with a definite linear acceleration.
It is a pure translational motion.
If the net force does not pass through the c.m.,
the body will have both rotational and
translational motion. This is explained below.
(vi) If non-zero net force and net torque act on
momentum of a rigid body - m,orf =omy = l..4.82)
rotating about a fixed axis and
idea of moment of inertia
We see that to find the KE and angular
Arigid body B of finite size rotating about a momentum of the body of finite size rotating about
fixed axis XY with a constant angular velocity o an axis, we must know the value of the quantity I.
Fig.4.37. Let us calculate the kinetic energy and We have
X Angular momentum of a rotating body,
L= ol. .(4.83)
Kinetic energy of a rotating body,
m
.....4.84)
A body rotating about an axis has no definite
linear velocity, different particles have different
velocities, but all of them have the same angular
Fig. 4.37 velocity. So it is natural and convenient to havev
angular momentum of the body. We shall find some replaced by o. Also we know that in case of
very interesting result. rotationalmotion Lplays the role ofp.
3251-6
 AHAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSICS CLASSICAL MECHANICS
90 91
Now let us compare the relations : Here M= total mass of the body,> n,. Radius of gyration--I is the distance (k) at
which a body, rotating about an axis, can be If force acting on the particle is i, then by
p=mv with L= lo,
replaced by a particle of the same mass (M)
and T=mv'- 2m with T-lo' - 2/ The dimension of /is [1] =[n] [= [M) [L2) rotating with the same angular velocity (o), so that
Newton's second law, Ë=
(ML²]. Its unit is kg.m² or g.cm'.
We see that in rotational motion in place of mass Therefore the dimension of k is (LJ. It is some the moment of inertia, kinetic energy and angular
dt
of the body m, there occurs the quantity T. lis length or distance.
momentum of the particle are the same as those
where i, is the external torque acting on the
called moment of inertia of the body about the axis of the body.
To get the significance of kwe put /= Mk in
of rotation. Hence we must know the moment of Inother words, the body can be renlaced by a Particle about the axis of rotation. Substituting these
eqn.4.84 We get, results in the above eqn., we get
inertia ofa body about the axis of rotation in order Mk')
particle of the same mass at that distance.
that we may calculate the kinetic energy and KE of the body, T = lo =
angular momentum of the rotating body. Radius of gyration, k = dLd -Si,=i,
= M
(ko)² = My2 We also notice that like moment of inertia, value
4.17.1 Physical significance of moment of Here is the total external torque acting on
inertia Here V= ko = velocity of a particle revolving of radius of gyration depends on the position and the body about the axis of rotation.
in a circle of radius k about the axis of rotation. orientation of the axis of rotation.
In rotational motion moment of inertia () plays We have got the relation between torque acting
the same role as mass (m) of the body plavs in
Thus we get a very interesting result. on a body and rate of variation of its angular
4.18 Dynamics of the rotation of a
translational motion.
The KE of the body rotating about an axis body about an axis momentum, applying Newton's law. We have
is equal to the KE of a particle of the same found:
We know that mass is the measure of inertia. In the previous section we have studied the
mass Mrotating with the same angular velocity Torque acting on a body rotating about an
SO we may conclude that the quantity I is the o about the same axis placed at a distance k basic dynarmics of rotational motion of aparticle. axis = time rate of change of angular
measure of inertia in the case of rotational
fromt the axis. Now we study the dynamics of body rotating momentum. In mathematical symbols
MODOn. Hence I is called the rotationa! inertia In other words the body can l
about an axis.
ot mOment of inertia of the bocy about the aris dL
.(4.87)
be replaced by a particle of Angular momentum of a particle is given by T=
dt
B
the same mass placed at a L=Yxp. We may not use the vector sign here, because
It should be menioned that though moment of
ineria plays the role ofmass in rotatiocal motion, di_tance k from the axis. This .:. Total angular momentum the directions of all the vectors i. . ö and
distance k is called the radius of the body about the axis of angular acceleration, are along the axis of
but uhke mas iiis not an intrinsic propert of
the boty The vzue of momert of inertia of a of gration. Fig.4.3S. rotation XYof Fig. 4.39 is rotation.
Similarly. angular Putting L = lo in the equation we get,
bocs depends on the choice of the axis of momentum of the body, L = Fig. 4.38 m;
dL
dlo) do = la
=/.dt
ol= oMk = Mok)k = MIK = angular (4.88)
4172 Cakalation of moment of inertiz of e momentum ofa particle of mass M moving with a where is the radius vector First we compare this equation with the
velocity in acircle of radius k. Again we get the of the i-th particle measured Y Newton's equation
Tbe momt onrie is gvnby same result thar the boiy can be replaced by a from the axis of rotation and Fig. 4.39
l-n=n- -m paricla of the same mass at a distance &from the Fdp=d
dt
,
(mv)= m
dt
= ma

its linear momentum is Pi.

Now suppose the angular momentum of the The correspondences between the quantities
Similar simplification is possible for a relevant to translational and rotational motion are:
translational moion, where a body may be replaced body is changing with time by the action of torque. Ft,p L, m ,v 0, a aT
ba particle of the same mass placed at centre of We like to find the relation between the torque The same correspondence was observed for
mass The important difference is that the distance and angular momentum. the motion of a single particle. Egn. 4.88 may be
of the cenre of mas fromn the axis of rotation and Let us diferentiate both sides of the above
regarded as the Newton's law for a body rotating
the radius of gyration are not equal. The position equation with respect to time, we get about an axis. Force produces change in linear
shee Bi we oñen ieal with bodies of of the cenre of mass R and the radius of gyration momentum. Torque produces change in angular
Xwith respect to the axis of rotation are d dt momentum.
rsively givea by
shs 4.18.1 Principle of conservation of angular
momentum
Now. =.velocity ofthe particle. From egn.4.88, we get if t = 0, L=constant.
R= and k= M
..4.86)
We arrived at the principle of conservation of
417.3 Res f g r s
Obviously R. Thus eplacing a body by a d P: Xm, =0, since the vectors angular momentum :
485) If total external torque acting on a svstem
point mas is not the same thing n all sinuations. are parallel.

92
of particles or a body is zero, total angular
momentum is conserved.
4.18.2 Some interesting examples of the
principle of conservation of angular
momentum
momentumofa particle. I.
We nave: Angular
Angular momentum of a body, L = ol, where
1. A ballet dancer is spinning about a vertical
axis, with her arms outstretched. If she folds her
arms, moment of inertia () of her body about the
vertical axis decreases. because distances of many
portions of her hand from the axis of rotation are
now smaller. But no external torque is involved in
the process. Therefore to keep the value of angular
momentum (L=lo) unchanged her angular velocity the earth. This causes an increase of distance of
(o) increases.
2. Similarly, an ice skater spins with both arms
and a leg outstretched. As she pulls her arms and
leg. her spinning motion changes dramatically.
3. Ahigh diver leans forward a litle before he
jumps from the diving board. Therefore, when he
jumps. the force exerted by the board does not
pass through his centre of mass and so he gets an
initial torque. His subsequent motion is under
gravity. acting at his c.g. As a result his c.g. moves
along a parabolic path with a constant angular
momentum. If the diver wants to undergo one or
more somersaults in the air., he would draw in his
arms and legs to decrease his moment of inertia
and thereby increase his angular velocity.
4. Planets move round the sun in elliptic orbits point Pon a body producing
with the sun at the focus, under the action of the
force of gravitation (central force). Acentral force
has no torque as it acts along the line joining the plane of the paper, Fig.4.40. In
a small time interval St,
centres of gravity of two bodies. As a result they
move with a constant angular momentum (mv);:
they can be regarded as point mass n, because
the distance is very large. Therefore when they
are at the perigee (closest distance from the sun),
their velocity (1) has maximum value, when they
are at the apogee (greatest distance from the sun)
their velocity is maximum. Velocity varies all along
the path to conserve angular momentum.
The same behaviour is shown by artificial
satellites.
A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSICS
5. The earth, spinning on its axis, maintains a
constant angular momentum. So long as its moment
of inertia about the spin axis does not change, its
the
angular velocity will remain constant. Hence
angular rotation of the earth forms a convenient
basis tor our time measurement.
But we know that in the geological time span
new mountains rise above the surface and rivers
carry millions of silt towards the equator. Such
causes increase the moment of inertia of the earth
slightly and reduce its angular specd. Tidal friction
dissipates the rotational kinetic energy of the earth
into heat and causes it to slow down. It has been
estimated that the earth is slowing down at the
rate of 0.00 1second per century.
The decrease in angular momentum of the earth
is accompanied by an equal increase in the angular
momentum ofthe moon in its orbital motion around
the moon from the earth and decrease of its speed.
It is estimated that the distance increases by one
quarter of acentimetre per rotation.
It is found that the shapes of the galaxies are
determined by the lavw of conservation of angular
momentum. At the other end of the scale, it is found
that many important properties of atoms and
molecules are governed by this conservation of
angular momentum.
4.19 Work, energy, and power in
rotational motion
Rotation of a rigid body about a fixed axis can
be described by any single point fixed on the body.
We suppose that an extermal force F acts at a
rotation about an axis passing
through 0, perpendicular to the
p displacenment during the time interval is , then the
displacement of the point of o
Fig. 4.40
application is 8s.The angular
displacement is 8.. Since S0 is very small, we
can write, &s =r8e, where r=radius ofthecircular
path of the point P. Now the work done by the
force for thisdisplacement is given by
SW = F-Ss = F Ss cos ¢ = F cos r S0
F cos p is the component of the force in the
direction of s. The product Fcos o1r is the torque
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
() exerted by F on the rigid body about the axis
ofrotation.
.: SW =t 80
For an infinitesimal time interval, St’0, we
have diW=t d.
For finite rotation from initial angular position
0, to the final position ,, the work done is given
by
*.......(4.89)
For aconstant torque, W=t (0, -6,)... (4.90)
Comparing this with the expression for work,
W= Fs, we see the correspondence:
F and angular displacement,0 > linear
displacement, s.
Average power of the agent producing rotation
of the body is given by
Pav
When St-0, we get the instantaneous power,
dWd
Pa ....4.91)
dt
4.19.1 Work-energy principle
In particle dynamics, the work-energy principle
tells :
Work done by a force = change in kinetic
energy brought about by the work.
In the case of rotation of a body the same
principle holds, only force is replaced by torque :
Work done by a torque = change in kinetic
energy of rotation brought about by the work.
We suppose that a torque t acts on a body for
atime interval t increasing its angular velocity from
o, to w, then initial kinetic energy, T,=%lo? and
the final kinetic energy, T,=½ Io. If theangular
work (W done by the torquet is given by eqn.
4.89,
0
=I[da=1
Jde
ado =+1(a; -o)
(4.92)
:. W= T-I; ...
93
Again we find that torque plays the same role
in rotational motion as force does in translational
motion.
4.20 Calculation of moment of inertia
of different bodies
Ifwe take a continuous and homogeneous body
of yooular shane and choose an axis about which
the body is symmetrically placed, its moment of
inertia about that axis can be found very easily.
For such symmetrical bodies, we can always
find a very small portion, every constituent particle
of which are at equal distance (r) from the axis of
rotation. If mass of that portion is dm, moment of
inertia of that small portion about the axis is dI=
dm x 2. To get I for the whole body, we can sum
up allsuch d>'s by integrating over proper limits,
so that all portions may be included. This is the
general principle of all calculations of moment of
inertia.
(i) Moment of inertia of a thin uniform rod
rotating about an axis passing through its
centre and perpendicular to its length.
In Fig. 4.41, AB represents a thin uniform rod
of mass M and length 1. The axis of rotation CD
E
D
Fig. 4.41
passes through its middle point 0 and is
perpendicular to its length.
Since the rod is unifom, its mass per unit length
.Consider athin element of length dx at a
distance x from the axis of rotation.
The mass of the element = M x d. Since the
element is very thin, all of its particles may be
supposed to be equidistant from the axis and the
distance =x.
. The moment of inertia of the element about
x d x.
the given axis =
 A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSICS CLASSICAL MECHANICS
94 95
It can bc proved in the same way
For finding the moment of inertia /of the whole that if the (v) Moment of inertia of a flat ring about
rod, the above epression is to be integrated axis of rotation IS parallel to the length of the an axis passing through its centre and
and then lamina, /= Mb² perpendicular to its plane
between limits N 0 and A 12
multiplied br : t0 include the other So, for the above rod. / MI In the above two cases, the radius of If a concentric circular portion is cut out from
3 gyration a thin circular d1sc. we P
half s0.
Here. the radius of gyration, k are k= 2 and k=, respectively. get a flat ring. Suppose.
(iv) Momnent of inertia of a thin circular disc the external and intemal
(ii) Momnent of inertiaof athin uniform radii of such a flat ring
about an axis passing through its centre and
rectangular lamina about an axis passing perpendicular to its plane. are Rand r respectively
through its centre and parallel to one of the and its mass = M. The
Fig. 4.44 shows a P
its sides. axis of rotation PO
thin circular disc of
ABCD is a thin P mass M and radius r. passes through its
So, for a thin unifom rod rotating about an axis uniform rectangular The axis of rotation PÌ
centre 0 and is
lamina. Its length is l, A perpendicular to its
passing through its centre and perpendicular to its passes through the
R

breadth b and mass is plane (Fig. 4.45]. Fig. 4.45

centre 0 and
length. I= MI
12
M. The axis of
perpendicular to its The surface area of
Again. if kbe the radius of gyration, then M rotation PO passes the flat ring = R - = I(R -). So. mas
plane. Now, the area
through its centre and M
;D C of the disc = and per unit area of the ring =
=
is parallel to its
the masSs per unit area
I(R?-r
breadth BC or AD. The flat ring may be supposed to be composed
(ii) Moment of inertia of the above rod when
g. 4.45). Since the of the disc = M of numerous thin concentric rings one of which
the aris of rotation passes through one end and lamina is uniform, its Fig. 4.43
Fig. 4.44
dr as showT in the
is perpendicular to its length. Consider a thin concentric annular ring of has radius x and thickness
The axis of rotation CD now passes through mass per unit area =xh' radius x and width dr. The area of this annular figure. The surface area of this ring
ring = length of its circumference x width = = 2rrdr and its mass = M
the end. say, Aand is perpendicular to the length I(R-r)
27 rdt
of the rod Fig. 4.42). The mass of the rod = M Considera thin strip of length dx and breadth 2xdx. Hence, the mass of the annular ring =
b at a distance x from the axis PQ. The mass of 2Mx d
M x bdx = M dx. As the strip is Mx2nr-d° =2Mx-d. (R'-r')
the strip =

lxb As the ring is very thin, its moment of inertia

very thin, particles of the strip may be supposed Since the width of the ring is very small, all of about the axis PO
to be equidistant from the axis and the distance = the particles of the ring are at the same distance 2Mr
A-
x. So, the moment of inertia of the strip =
M
dr from the axis PO and this distance is x. So, the (R,dr (R-.
moment of inertia of the annular ring about the
Now, integrating the above expression betw een
The lamina may be divided into a large number given axis = 2M -.x- dr xx =2M.f.dr limits x = R and x = r, the moment of inertia of
of such thin strips parallel to its breadth and the the flat ring
Fig. 4.42 sum of the moments of inertia of all such strips The whole disc may be supposed to be divided R
and its length = I. Since the rod is uniform, the about the axis PO will evidently be equal to the into numerous such concentric rings of radii 2Mr -dx = 234

mass per unit length of the rod =

moment of inertia of the whole lamina. This may ranging from zero to r. We can get the momnent (R
be obtained by integrating the above expression of inertia l of the entire disc by integrating the
As before, consider a very thin element of between the limits x = 0 and x = and then
above expression between limits x = 0and 2M
2
length dx at a distance x from the axis. The x=r. Thus, the moment of inertia of the disc. (R-)
moment of inertia of the element about the axis multiplying by 2. So,
CD = d. /2
MR+
To get the moment of inertia I of the whole Here, the radius of gvration, & R+
rod, the above expression is to be integrated
between limits x= 0 andx= !
2M |4
=Mr 2
[Note: (i) Ifr 0, ¿c,ifthe body in question
-244
I3o 12
is a circular dise of radius R.

:.1=
We have, therefore., J= MI
12 Here, the radius of gyration &=
 AHAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSIC
96
(ii) If R = r, ie., if the body under As the annular cylinder is very thin, all of its
consideration is a thin circular ring of radius R. particles may be supposed to be cquidistant from
the axis of rotation PO and this distance isr
I= R- R²)=MR) Hence. the moment of inertia of the annular
(vi) Moment of inertia of a hollow cylinder cylinder
about its own axiS : 2M x_. dy xx = 2M -xdu.
(R'-)
Consider a hollow cylinder of external and (R-)
internal radii Rand r respectively and mass M Now, integrating the above expression between
rOtating about its own axis. X=R and x=rwe get the moment of inertia of
Now. the hollow cylinder may be supposed to the whole cylinder. So, the required moment of
be divided into a number of thin flat rings, each inertia
having an extermal and internal radii same as those
2M -dx=
of the cylinder itself i.. Rand r respectively. If (R'- 4 Differentiating, we get, dx =r cos 0 do
each flat ring has a mass m. then its moment of (R
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
Now. as the sphere rotates about the diameter
PO,the disc also rotates about the same line as
axis. In the case of a circular disc rotating about
line passing through the centre and perpendicular
nthe plane of the disc, we know the moment of
inertia =XI mass x (radjus)2
So. the moment of inertia of the disc ABC
about the line PO
-x
2
mass of the disc x (radius)?
1 3M (2- d x
2 4,
Now, integrating the above expression between
97
Consider a thin slice bounded by the planes EG
and CD at distances x and x + dx from 0
respectively. Clearly the slice is athin ring, having
radius = EF and thickness = EC (not dx).
Now, the radius of the slice = EF = OE-cos
and the thickness = EC = rdO. So. the area of the
slice = length of the circumference x thíckness =
2rr cos x rde = 2ur cos de.
.. Mass of the slice=x 2 cos de
4r2
cos dO.
Now, from the figure, we can write, x=r sin 0.
Or, cos 0 dA = dx

inertia about the given axis = 2.M
(R²-r)
So. the moment of inertia of the whole cylinder
If the cylinder is solid r = 0 and in that case.
i-MR'.
2
(vi)Moment of inertia of a solid sphere
roiating about any of its diameters :
The radius of gyration, in this case. is k = Consider a solid sphere of radius r and mass
M. The centre of the sphere is O and the diameter
PO is the axis of rotation. The volume of the
[N.B. ifr=0ic, if the cylinder be solid, I=
M3M
sphere r'and its density p 3 4
the limits x=0and x=r and then multiplying by
2. we gct the moment of inertia of the whole .. Mass of the slice = Mdr
27
sphere. We have already seen that the moment of
So, the required moment of inertia inertia of a thin ring about a line passing through
its centre and perpendicular to its plane = mass x
8,.3 (radius)
.. Moment of inertia of the slice about the
given axis
43. Mdrx (EF)Mdrx(r-x).
Now, integrating the above expression between
limits x =0and x =r and then multiplying by 2,
we get the moment of inertia of the whole shell.
0

Alternative method : The cross-sectional area 3 So, the required moment of inertia,
of the hollow cylinder = (R -). If l be the Suppose, the solid sphere is divided into a large 43|
length of thecylinder, its volume = (R - .
Hence, the density of the material of the
number of thin
circular discs, with
-3M
4,.3 Sr-M
15
mass M their planes perpen
cylinder volume R(R²-r²} dicular to the axis d
Suppose, the hollow cylinder is made up of a
large number of thin co-axial cylinders, one of
PO. Consider such a
thin disc of thickness
O-||B The radius of gyration, in this case, k= -
(viii) Moment of inertia of a thin spherical
which has a radius x (say) and width d:. [Fig. dx at a distance x
4.46]. The surface area of the thin annular cylinder from the centre O
shell rotating about any of its diameters :
Consider a thin spherical shell of radius r and
:1-M.
= 2rrdr and its volume = 2r:rdrl [Fig. 4.47], It is easy Fig. 4.47 mass M, having The radius of gyration, in this case, is k=
to see that the line
centre at O. The (ix) Moment of inertia of a hollow spher
POpasses through the centre of this disc. So, the shell is rotating or thick shell about any of its diameters :
P .R.... -O Let r and Rbe the
radius of the disc =AB = J2_ ' . The surface about the diameter
...... dr intermal and external radii
PO as axis [Fig.
4.48]. Q respectively of a thick
area of the disc = t
Fig. 4.46 The surface area shell, which is rotating
.:. The mass of the annular cylinder Its volume = n(-xdu. of the shell = 4u about the diameter PQ 0
. Mass of the disc = volume x density (p) and its mass per [Fig. 4.49]. Its moment
M x 2rr-dr-l=2M Fig. 4.48 of inertia about the given
n(R - (R²-) = n(-dr xM3M unit area = M_ axis will be equal to the Fig. 4.49
43 4ry2

98
difference of moment of inertia of solid sphere
of radius R and another solid sphere of radius r
about the same axis. Now, the volume of bigger
solid sphere = 4 R and its mass = R'p.
where p = density of the material of shell. The
volume of the smaller sphere = 4 and its mass
p. Also, the volume of the shellor the
hollow sphere = (R - ) and its mass =
(R³ -)p.
Now, the moment of inertia of the bigger sphere
(solid) about the axis PQ
Similarly, the moment of inertia of the smaller
sphere about the same axis
-xrpxr²=-p.
Moment of inertia of the hollow sphere
-Rp-Rp-p(R
15 15 -)
Now, p=
Mass of the shell
Volume
3M
4n(R3 - )
So, the required moment of inertia
3M -x(R$S-s)
4n(R³ p)
- (R-)
(R³-)
5 (R-)
The radius of gyration, in this case, is k =
2(R$-5)
(x) Moment of inertia of a triangular lamina
about one side of the lamina
Suppose, ABC is a thin triangular lamina,
rotating about one of its sides, say BC. We are to
calculate its moment of inertia. [Fig. 4.50].
Let the surface density, i.e., mass per
unit area of the lamina be p, height = hand
the base BC = a. The area of the lamina
AHAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSICe CLASSICAL MECHANICS
99
x base x altitude =ah.
2
Hence, the mass (xi) Moment of inertia of a cone about its i Theorem of perpendicular axes : The
axis:
theorem states that the sum of moments of
of the lamina, M=~ahp. In Fig.4.51.we have a inertia of a plane lamina about any two
cone of height h and radius perpendicular axes in its plane is equal to its
A
of the base is R. we are to moment of inertia about an axis perpendicular
find its moment of inertia
Mzat N about the axis XY. We
to its plane and passing through the point of
d intersection of the first two axes.
consider infinitesimally
The lamina shown in Fig. 4.52 has one axis 0Z
B thin disc of height dx at a normal to the plane of the lamina, and two other
distance x from the base.
7
Fig. 4.50 Suppose the density of the
material be p and the radius
Consider, now, a thin strip MN at a distance x Fig. 4.51
of the disc be r. From the
from the base BC. The width of the strip = d. geometry of the figure we have
P(m)
The area of the strip which is almost rectangular
= MN x dx.
R h
MN_h-x Mass of the thin disc is dm = prdx.
Now, BC h Moment of inertia ofthedisc about the axis,
M-)a(h-x) Fig. 4.52
.:. MN = BC axes OX and OY at right angles to each other i
So, the area of the strip = d and its the plane of the lamina. If the moments of inert
of the lamina about OX, OY and 0Z be I,, I, an
respectively, then it is to be proved that
Imass =
alh-3).p-dx. To find the moment ofinertia ofthe whole cone
about XY, we have to integrate dI from x=0 to h. 1,+,=l,
The momnent of inertia of the strip about BC = Proof : Let us take a particle of mass m at
prR4 on the lamina. The co-ordinates of the point P wit
a(h-x) pdx x x2 =x
0 respect to OX and OY are x and y. Then
+y, where z is the distance of Pfrom z-axis.
Now, integrating the above expression
between limits x =0 and x= h, we get the 2Sh4 (h--lprRs
lprR4 Now, moment of inertia of the particle abou
moment of inertia of the whole lamina. So, the 2 Sh4 OX= my and that about OY = m'.
required moment of inertia Considering numerous such particles whict
3
constitute the lamina it may be said that thE
10 3
moment of inertia of the lamina about OX =
I=h Mass of the cone is M=R'hp.
3
Zmy? and that about OY =mx'.
..Moment of inertia is I= 10 MR'.
4.21 Two theorems of moments of
i. I,+1,= Emy2 + Emx?
0
inertia
Value of moment of inertia ofa body about an
axis naturally depends on the choice of the axis.
So, I +I =I,
12 (Y Theorem of parallel axes : The
So we must know how moments of inertia of a theorem states that the noment of inertia of a
But the mass of the lamina M=ahp. body about the different axes are related to each lamina about any axis is equal to its momen.
other. There are two theorems which are very axis passing
2M of a bodv 0J lnertia about a parallel
.p= a-h Useful to calculate moment of inertia through its centre of gravity plus the produc.
about a chosen axis from the knowledge of the
Substituting this value, we get, I = Mh²
of the mass of the lamina and the square o,
6
h moment of inertia about another axis. We shall the distance between the two axes.
The radius of gyration, in this case, is k= now study these theorems and simple proofs.
 A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSICs CLASSICAL MECHANICS 101
100
Suppose, CD is any axis on the plane of the cube) with OX, OY and 0Z as its three mutually And. moment of inertia of the whole body
about X-axis, i.e..
paper and AB a parallel c A
perpendicular axes parallel to the length, breadth
axis passing through and height respectively. Consider a point mass m 1, = SmPN = m(+
ihe c. g. (G) of the of the body at a point P somewhere inside it. So, I, +4, +1.
lamina, also lying on he P(o) Draw PM perpendicular from P on (x- y) plane - Sm(+ )+ Sm (+ +m( + The radius of gyration, in this case. is k =
plane of the paper [Fig. [Fig. 4.54]. Join P0 and OM. Draw MO parallel
4.53]. If the distance 7
=23m(+y +
between the axes be h G = 23my2
R
and the moment of Hence, the theorem is proved. (ii) Monment of inertia ofa circular disc
inertia of the lamina
P(n) 4.22 Application of perpendicular and about any diameter :
about the axes CD and
parallel axes theorem Suppose the moment of inertia of the disc
AB be I and I, ID about the diameter AB = I. Then from the
respectively then we (B Momnent of inertia ofa thin
Fig. 4.53 unijorm symmetry, we can say
are to prove that / = I, rectangular lamina about an axis passing the moment of inertia of
- Mh. where M is the mass of the lamina. through its centre and perpendicular to its the same disc about a
Proof : Consider a particle of mass m at P on M
plane perpendicular diameter
the lamina at a distancex from the axis AB. Now ABCD is a thin rectangular lamina of mass M. CD is also1. [Fig. 4.56].
it is clear that the moment of inertia of the particle Fig. 4.54 Its length and breadth are respectively and b. Now, if we take an
B

about the axis CD = m(r + h) = mx + mh to the X-axis and MN parallel to the Y-axis. Also, The axis of rotation PO passes through the centre
2mhx. If the whole lamina be supposed to be axis PO passing through
PR is drawn parallel to OM. Co-ordinates of P O
and is perpendicular to the plane of the lamina the intersection of the
composed of numerous such particles, then it is are, clearly, x = ON= OM;y= 00 = NM and [Fig. 4.55]. diameters AB and CD
obvious that the moment of inertia of the lamina P
z= PM= RO. i.e., through the centre
about the axis
As PM is perpendicular on (x-) plane, 0 of the disc and Fig. 4.56
CD = + mh + 2mxh) ZOMP is a right angle. We have, OM + MP2=
+B
perpendicular to its plane and if we call the
Smh + 2mxh Op2 moment of inertia of the disc about the axis PO
= Sm +Pn + 2h Smx or. OM = OP2 - MP' =j - where OP=r as Ipo then according to the perpendicular axes
[: h is constant] (say). theorem, lpo I+ I= 21.
ButS = l , and h Sm = Mh.Now, mx But, OM² =og? +QM2 =+ We know Ipo= 2 Mwhere Mis the mass
means the moment of the weight of the lamina .+=p- or++=2 ...) and r the radius of the disc.
about the AB. But as the weight of the lamina acts Now, join PN and PQ. They may be shown to Fig. 4.55 .: 2/= Mr or, I = Mr
through the c.g. G along the line AB, the moment be perpendiculars on X and Y-axes respectively. 2 4
of the weight about the axis AB, i.e., mx = 0. As ZPMN is a right angle, we have, Now, the moment of inertia of the lamina about
an axis passing through 0 and parallel to the In this case, the radius of gyration, k= .
So, the required moment of inertia about the PN²= MN2 + PM²= y +
axis CD = I, + Mh. (iii) Monment of inertia of a circular disc
:. +PN2 = +y+2=2 length AB is, we know. Mo and that about a about a tangent perpendicular to its plane:
In other words, I = I, + MI". 12
or, ON + PN =2 [: x= ON MI2 PÌ is a tangent P
[N.B. The two theorems may also be applied in the
This shows that ZPNO is a right angle i.e., PN similar axis but parallel to the breadth AD is 12 perpendicular to the plane
case of three dimensional bodies but the result willbe Since the axis PO passes through O and is of a thin circular disc of
slightly different for perpendicular axes theorem.] is perpendicular on X-axis.
Similarly, it may be shown that PO is perpendicular to the axes mentioned before, radius r and mass M. AB
*(iüi) Perpendicular axes theoren for a perpendicular to Y-axis. according to perpendicular axes theorem, the is another axis which
three-dimensional body : moment of inertia of the lamina about the axis P0 passes through the centre
Now, moment of inertia of m about the Z-axis
* For Advanced Students. =n x PR = n x OM O and is parallel to PQ.
For a three dimensional body, the theorem .. Moment of inertia of the whole body about [Fig.4.57]. According to
states that the sun of moments of inertia of the Z-axis, i.e., 12 12 12 the parallel axes theorem, B
body about three mutually perpendicular axes If the axis in question, passes through a comer, Fig. 4.57
is equal to twice the summation Sm about the Similarly, the moment of inertia of the whole
origin of the axes. body about Y-axis, i.e., Say A and parallel to PO, then according to the We know , =
Let us consider a thrce-dimensional body (a parallel axes theorem, the moment of inertia of the
lamina about the given axis
 AHAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSIC CLASSICAL MECHANICS 103
102
Now, according to the parallel axes theorem 4.23 Determlnatlon of moment of = length and breadth respectively. Place the bar
M+M-M the moment of inertia of the disc about the parallel Inertla of a bar In a laboratory on thecraddle in such a manner that the wire W
2 passes through its centre. Now, set the craddle
axis PQ If arod be suspended through its centre of
So, for the tangent PO, lpo =7 eravity by a wire or a thread which can undergo into torsional oscillation and find its time-period.
41 orsion and ifit be set into torsional oscillation, it Ir T, be the time-period, then,
The radius of gyration in this case, k=. can be proved that the time-period of its oscillation
If the tangent PO lies in the plane of the disc, Md +M. dk. .. (1)
then take a diameter AB parallel to it. In this case 41 is given by, T= 2n wherc I= the moment of
Now, integrating the above expression bctwcen inertia ofthe rod about the suspension wire as axis Now remove the bar from the craddle and
also, the parallel axes theorem gives, Ipo Bt the limits x= 0 andx= /2, and then multiplying
M2. and e =torsional rigidity of the material of the place the bar under test in its position. The wire
whole
by 2, we get the moment of inertia of the wirc, Scc cqn. 7.32,. Wshould, as before, pass through the centre of
We know n = M4 cylinder. Experiment : lig. 4.59 shows a torsional thc bar. After setting the bar into oscillation, find
Mr + Mr² = M2. /2 nendulum used for determining the moment of the time-period. If it is T, then,
4 inertia ofa bar. A wire Wis suspended from a
torsion head 7, which supportsa craddle R. The (ii) ......

So, for tangent PQ lying in the plane of the

Squaring the equations, we get,
disc, IpÍ MP
4n?(U, +1,) and
Here, the radius of gyration, k= 2
C C

4n²(U, +/,)
(iv) Moment of inertia of a solid cylinder
about an axis through its centre and
perpendicular to its length :
-) c
C

)
C
Let M= mass of the cylinder ;r its radius
and /= its length. Since the cylinder is uniform,
its mass per unit length =. Here, PQ is the
axis of rotation and XX'is the axis of the cylinder
[Fig. 4.58].
So, I = $) Fig. 4.59
whole arrangement is enclosed in a box A with
glass windows. There arc two long and narrow or, I, = I,
The radius of gyration k = perforations (S, S) on the top of the box. The wire
A All the quantities on the right hand side of the
which supports the craddle, passes through the above cquation being known, I,can be found out.
(v) Moment of inertia of a solid sphere centre of mass of the craddle. If the craddle
about any tangent : undergocs torsional oscillations, the wire acts as 4.24 Rolling without slipping
Take a diameter of the sphere parallel to the the axis of oscillation. When a cylindrical or spherical body rolls over
tangent about which the moment of inertia of the Now, set the craddle into oscillation by slightly
sphere is to be found. From Fig. 4.48 we know, arough plane and the friction can prevent slipping,
twisting the torsion hcad T. Count the time for 25 the motion is called rolling without slipping. The
the moment of inertia of a sphere about any complete oscillations and from that find the time sphere or cylinder has two kinds of motion (i)
period of oscillation of the empty craddle. If the rotional motion about the axis of rotation XY, Fig.
Fig. 4.58 diameter where M and r are the mass
lime-period be T, and the moment of inertia of 4.60 and (ii) a translational motion for which the
The cylinder may be divided into a large and radius respectively of the sphere. So, the craddle be I, then,
number of thin cireular discs of thickness dx. One
according to the parallel axes theorem, the
of which, say D, is at a distance x from the centre
moment of inertia of the sphere about the tangent
0. Clearly the mass of the disc dx and its
Now take a rectangular bar. Find its mass,
radius
M² +M?-M². length and breadth. Find its moment of inertia l, B
The monment of inertia of the disc about its 2
diameter AB x mass of the disc x (radius) about an axis passing through its centre and Fig. 4.60
4
perpendicular to its plane from the formula 1,
Mr
axis of rotation advances. In this casc, the time
a full revolution
4 4/ dv. The radius of gyration k (+b) where M-mass of the bar, I and b during which the body makes
 A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSICe CLASSICAL MECHANICS 105
104

(2r radian), the axis of rotation advances through

a distance equal to the circumference of the
cylinder and sphere.
Let the radius of the sphere or cylinder be r
and its angular and linear velocities be o and v
respectively. Then we can write
2 = ot and 2y = .. v= r0.... (1)
Relation (i) is to be satisfied for rolling without
slipping. If m be the mass and I be the moment
of inertia of the body about the axis of rotation,
the body has two kinds of kinetic energy :
() KE of translation =m² and (i) K.E. of
rotation =lo.
.. Total K.E. T -m+lo?
). where k is the radius
gyration.
Here we should meniio: that the body does
not lose any kinetic enerv, because no work is
required to be done to move against friction. But
the sufficient friction is ess:ntial for this motion,
because otherwise the body would slip.Now we
shall consider the motion oirolling of asphere and
a cylinder down arovgh inclined plane without
slipping. Fig. 4.61. Suppesc the body starts from
Fig. 4.61
rest and in time r it falls down vertically by h and
through a distance s along the inclined plane.
Suppose it gains velocity v.
Gain in kinetic energy =
-ml-).
Loss in gravitational potential energy of the
body = mgh.
Since no energy is lost against friction, we can
or, y²= 2gh
If we suppose that the acceleration of the body
down the inclined plane is a, then
2= 0² + 2as = 2a sin 0 (ii)
From (i) and (ii) we can write
a= y' sin gsin 9 (ii)
2/1
If the inclined plane is almost frictionless, the
body would slip and its acceleration would be g
sin . So, a body falls with a lesser acceleration
when it rolls down without slipping.
Also we shall see that the acceleration would
be different if the body is solid or hollow.
Radius of gyration ofa solid sphere of radius
Ris k, =R.
The same for a hollow sphere of inner and
outer radii r andR is
R the conventient frame of reference.
Therefore hollow sphere comes down with a
Smaller acceleration than a solid one of equal size.
Similarly for a solid cylinder of radius R and a
hollow one of inner and outer radii r and R, we
have
and k, R+
2 >k,
Therefore hollow cylinder also comes down
with a smaller acceleration than a solid one of
equal size.
Hence we can identify which one is solid and
which one is hollow, by comparing how fast these
are rolling down an inclined plane.
4.25 Moment of lnertia of a Flywheel
called the axle. The axle is supported on ball
hearings to reduce friction to a minimum [Fig.
4.62].
In order to deter
mine the moment of
inertia of the wheel
about the axis AB, a
cord or a rope is
wound on the axle
several times. The
free end of the cord or Fig. 4.62
the rope carries a mass m which is allowed to fall
down. The length of the cord or the rope is so
taken that when the mass, falling downwards,
reaches the ground, the other end of the cord or
the rope just leaves the axle.
Let us suppose that the mass m falls through
a height h on the ground so that the loss of
potential energy = mgh.
Neglecting friction, the loss of potential energy
is equal to gain in kinetic energy of the mass n
and the fly wheel.
Let the moment of inertia of the fly wheel
about the axis AB be I, v and o be the linear and
angular velocity respectively when the mass just
strikes the ground.
SUMMARY
To describe any motion we must first choose
Basic laws of dynamics are the Newton's laws
of motion. These laws hold in intertial frames of
reference.
First law gives qualitative definition of force
and defines inertial frame of reference. Inertial
frame of reference has no kind of acceleration :
it can have uniform velocity.
Second law : Net external force,
F- p_d(mi) =m=m- =mã
dt dt dt dt?
Here it is assumed that mass (m) of the body
is an invariant property of a body and it follows
from the law that mass is the measure of inertia.
Third law essentially tells that the forces of
interaction between two bodies are always line-integral of force.
:. Gain in kinetic energy of the fly wheel and
the mass m= -m+lo
Neglecting friction, we have
m² +1o'= mgh (i)
We have a=, if r is the radius of the axle.
If a is the acceleration of the falling mass, v =
2ah and h=a, Putting these values in eqn.
(), we get
I- m(2gh -v')r? m(2gh 2ah)r2
2ah
m(g-a)r2
a
m(g-2h/P)r? m(gi?-2h)r2
2h/12 2h
Measuring the quantities on the r.h.s. we
get I.
If we like to take correction due to friction, we
have to find the mass m, for which the wheel just
turns and the mass falls without acceleration. Then
the above formula we have to replace m by
m-m.
Conservation of momentum follows from
second law : when F=0, momentum p=
Constant.
Time integral of a force is called impulse of a
force.
Time integral ofa force, Fdt = dp =P2 -
1
= change in momentum brought about by the force
during the time interval t, to t,.
Force acting for a very small time during which
displacement is negligible is called impulsive force.
Impulsive force acting on a body produces a
sudden change in momentum.
Work (W) done by a force (F) is the path or
RAVO

cquate these two energies. A fly wheel consists of a heavy wheel P produced in equal and opposite pairs, one force
capable of rotation about a horizontal axis AB, acting on one body and the other force acting on
which is also the axis of a long, narrow wheel Q the other body. Daie...

3251-7
 PHYSICS LASSICAL MECHANICS 107
A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE
106
U) is a scalar licld
as it has yalue Encrgy of a body is conservcd when only put a dot over thc symbol and to imply second
Using this
along the
Integration is to be carricd out all position. scalar ficld for conservative forccsct, If dissipative forces
act derivative we put two dots over it.
tlhe final points, Change in the VU : d somc cnergy is converted to thernal cncrgy and symbol wc get,
path fronm the initialposition to displacennent di is given by dU - lost to thc surroundings.
Alorce cannot do any
work in a direction at
C'ompuring the lust two relations wc
can write Velocity of the particle, ý dY
dt
always at Problems of variablc mass:
right-angle to itsclt. Any force acting Acccleration,
right angle to thc force is u n0-work force. VU= gradU When mass of a body incrcases with timc
Example : centripetal lorce. llence any conservative force is the
ncgative owing to addition of mattcr, a forcc ( ) is dy -(Y-ryi +(Ö+ 20)9
rate of doing scalar ficld hus the nccessary lo maintain its vclocity (V) and as a
Power of' asystem is tho tine gradient ofa scalar licll. This radial
work by a body or a system. dimensions of cncrgy and lrom our knowlcdge of result some powCr (P) is Consumed. The component along is called the
re
Instantancous powe, P-;, ÷ and /'
transverse
yruvitational and cleclric ficlds; we can identify ömy Öm
Component and that along 6is
instantancous velocity und foree respectivoly. the scalar as potcntial cnergy. U(Y) is
the = L!
componcnt. Many interesting special cases have
cncrgy
Kinctic energy (7) of a particle is theotion. potential cnergy at i. bcen discusscd in the text.
body by virlue of its
possessed by a
total work it The ncgative sign belore grad sign (V) is a Torque (i): If force Facts on a particle
Kinctic cnergy is mcasured by the conscquence of our deliberate choice of U, U, A
problem of the convcyor bclt is discusscd in
can do before it slops. situated at the position (F), the moment of the
instead of U, U, in the cqn.(ü), This choice is Ihc text,
particle about the
m
2m in fact follows from our expericnce that the Rocket movcs forward by cjccting gas at a forcc or torquc acting on thc
Work-cneryy principle: Work done on aparticle gravitational and clcctric forces are dirccted from high spccd in the opposite dircction. The motion origin is =ixF.
higher to lower potential energy. is aconscquence of conservation of momentum
by the net force is cqual to the change in kinclie
point Let F= ,i+ Fa0, F, and F, are radial and
cncrgy of the particle. Ifa body goes
from
The conservative force ' ) ariscs from the and mass of the rocket is decrcasing continuously.
and its kinctic The motion of the rocket is discussed in detail in transverSe components.
A to B by theaction of a force
scalar ficld U(F), Magnitude of a conservative Then =Yx F=Fx(Fi+ F,9)= rF, (i x9)
cnergy incrcases lrom 7,lo 7, work donc by the force at a point in the ficld of Uis cqual to the the text.
Rotational motion : when a particle moves in
force is
maximum space rate of change of Uand its a curved path, it is morc convenicnt to describe = rfoñ. Only transversc force has non-zero
...)
dircction is the direction in which this maximum the motion by its angular displacement (0). It is torque. ñ is the unit vector perpendicular to the
Conservative Force :In moving from one point is
to another, if work done by or against a force does change occurs, Negative sign indicates that the angle which the position vector of the particle plane containing and in the sense decided
two dirccted from highcr to lower valuc of U.Value
not depend on the path chosen betwecn the sweeps through. Angular vclocity, )= dt by right hand thumb rule.
points, but depends only on the initial and final of potential energy is known up to an arbitrary
positions, then the force is called conscrvative constant. That mcans that if UF) is increascd Angular acccleration, a= do_ d0 By Newton's law : F= mã =m
force. Line integral ofa conservative force around by aconstant valuc U, at every point, the dt di2 dt
conservativc force docs not change. To describe the motion of a particle along a = m(i-rÖ2 )ê +m(rë+ 2F0)ê
any closed path is zro, curved path in a planc, it is more convenient to
Non-conservative force : In moving from one ý.U-Ü.U, = -V.U usc the polar co-ordinates (r, 0) than the - (F,i+ F,Ô).
Y=÷:(U+U)
point to another, if work done by or against a force As we arc always interested in change of rectangular co-ordinates (x, y). .Ô are the unit For pure rotation in a circular path, =0.
does depend on the path chosen, it is a potential cnergy, the constant term is always vectors in the directions in which only r and only
nonconservative force.
canccllcd out and so the constant term is of no 0 increases respectively. These are radial and
.i=rFañ = mr²ön=mr²aD
Work is scalar and it is the line integralof the Torque acting on a particle in a circular motion
physical significance. transversc directions, i,j are the unit vectors produces angular acceleration.
force along the path from the initial position Alo
along the X- and Y-axis respectively. Unless we
final position B. From Stokes' law
fF-d -(0xPy dã .
( S change the co-ordinate axes the unit vectors i, j Angular momentum (L) of a particle : If a
do not change with time, but ,@, beingparticle
tagged paricle at the position F has a (lincar) momentum
or a conservative lorce : FdY =0. With the particle, changes with time as the
Irthe force is conservative, Wdocs not depend changes its position.
P. Its angular momentum about the origin is
on the path chosen but depends only on the end
positions A(F) and B(Y#). Hence Wmust be For a conservative force : ùxF=0. f= cosei +sin and L-ixp.
equal to the difference in the value of some scalar From (i) and (ii) we have Ö=-sin0 i+ cos0j.4-Ù and
d9
=-i. Now =YxF=Fx-xp) =dt
quantity U(P) at the two points. W=T,-T=UU, i. T,+ U,=1,+Us de d1 dt
Thus if a particle moves under the action of Position vector We see another result directly from Newton's
conservative force the total energy E (sum of F=xi+yË=rcose î+ rsin0j= ri (0)
w- [Y): dr -U,-Ug=Uli,)-U(,) kinctic energy and potential energy) remains For convenience here we use a new symbol.
law
Torquc about a point = time rate of change of
....., (i) constant. E =T+ U= constant. To imply the first timne derivative of a quantity we angular momentum about that point.

108
Conservation of angular momentum : If 7=0.
Darticle is
L= constant. If net torque acting on a
zero, its angular momentum is conserved.
Central force : It is a force which is either
directed towards or away from a particular point,
which is called the centre of force. Examples :
gravitational and electrostatic force. If centre of
the force is taken as the origin and a particle is at
F=rY,thecentral force acting on it is F, =Fi.
.:. Torque due to a central force,
T=Yx, =0.
.:. Aparticle moving under a central force has
a constant angular momentum.
L=Yxp=m(F xV)
Lis perpendicular to both Fand k. So, to keep
its direction unchanged the motion under a central
force must take place in a single plane.
Impulse of a torque :
2
= change in angular momentum brought about
by the torque during the time interval betwcen t,
and t,.
=-de. If
Work done by a toque : W
torque is constant, W=(0, -0,)= torque x
angular displacement.
Power associated with torgue: P =to.
Kinetic energy of a particle revolving in a verifiable nor necessary in dynamics. Allvelocities
circular motion : T=;m² =mos2
Galilean Transformation : It relates
observations made in one inertial frame with those
made in another inertial frame.
Suppose S and S' are two inertial frames,
velocity of S'relative to S is Vo. Vo must be transformation, however, reduce to Galilean
constant as the two frames are inertial frames. transformation if we suppose that velocity involved
Origin of the co-ordinate axes set up in the two
frames coincide at initial time, t =0. An event
occurs at a point P in space, for example a particle
arrives at the point P. An observer in frame S
observes the position vector of P and the instant
of occurrcnce of the event to be Yand t
respectívely. The sarne observation donc by
A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSIcs
another observer from the frame S and his
observations are ' and t'.
The relations between these two observations
are
F=Y- and '=t
This is Galilean transformation.
Consequences
(i) Distance between two points measured in
the two frames has the same value :
(i) Time interval between two cvents obscrved
in the two frames has the same valuc:
(ii) If and are velocities of aparticle
observed from the two frames: '=i-,.
(iv) If and ä' are the accelerations of a
particle observed from the two rames : a=ä,
since Vo is constant.
If mass m of a body is supposed to have the
same value in the two frames, forces acting on
the two are equal : F=mã = m'
Acccleration and force are invariant under
Galilean transformation. That means they have the
same value in any inertial frames.
(v) As equation of motion is identical in the two
frames, any experiment done in the two frames
give identical results. Therefore one cannot do any
experiment within a frame to know the velocity
of the frame. This is true even if the velocity of
the frame is zero. So, absolute restis neither
are relative to the chosen frame of reference.
The above facts are approximately truc and
give acceptable results when the velocities
involved are very small compared to that of light.
The correct law of transformation is the
Lorentz transformation. Results of Lorentz
are very small compared to that of light.
Non-inertial frames and pseudo forces
Any frame of reference having acceleration of
any kind is non-inertial frame of reference.
SupposeS is an inertial frane and S' is a non
inertial frame having acceleration , with respect
to S.
CLASSICAL MECHANICS 109
direction it is negative. These are added
If an external Torce F acts on a particle of
mass and its acceleration in the frame S isä algebraically to get the net torque.
If two equal, parallel and oppositely directed
then F= mã forces (F, F) act on a body, it produces a pure
Acceleration of the particle measured in S' is rotation of the body about its c.m. The two
a'=å- . Therefore the force that is acting on together is called a couple. A couple is measured
the mass is F'=m' = m(-k)= m -mã, = by its moment.
Moment of acouple, T= El,l is called the arm
X-mã,:
of the couple, perpendicular distance between the
We see that because of acceleration n of the
two forces.
frame of reference, a force -m, comes into play If a body rotates about an axis with angular
in the non-intertial frame. This force is not a real
velocity o, its kinetic energy and angular
force arising out of interaction between two momentum is the sum of kinetic energies and
bodies. Therefore Newton's law does not hold in angular momenta of all its constituent particles. It
the frame S". But still if we like to apply Newton's
law in S, we have to take into account this force
is found that
in addition to the real forces. This force is called
pseudo-force.Pseudo-force is proportional to mass
Kinetic energy, .T=tomr-}o',
and it acts in direction opposite to the direction of Angular momentum, , L=o}mr=ol,
acceleration of the frame.
i
Centre of mass (c.m) : It is the unique point Where m, is the mass of the i-th particle at a
about which mass of a body or a system of
particles are symmetrically distributed. Its position distance r, from the axis of rotation. T= 2/
vector is given by
The quantity I =>m,r? is called the moment
N
of inertia of the body about the axis of rotation. It
M plays the part of mass in rotational motion and so
it is also called rotational inertia.
when m, is situated at ¡(i = 1,2,3, ...), M=
Radius of gyration is given by k= It is
total mass = distance from the axis of rotation of the point at
which the whole mass M of the body may be
If matter in a body is continuously distributed supposed to be concentrated and its angular
and its density at the location Yis p, the position momentum and kinetic energy of that point mass
of c.m. is given by remains unchanged.
1 When a body rotates about an axis, the torque
() acting on it is equal to the rate of change of
For translation motion, we can replace the body angular momentum (L).
by a point mass M placed at its c.m.
The reason is explained in detail in the text.
.-(lo)dt dt =10 dt a
When net torque, t = 0, L = constant,
Rotational motion of a body of finite size : (Conservation of angular momentum). Many
Moment ofa force and couple acting on a interesting consequences of this principle is
body discussed in the text.
Ifa body can rotate about a point and a force As in the case of a single particle we have
Fis applied on the body, moment of the force or
similar relations for bigger bodies as follows
torque acting on the body ist = El. It is the
effectiveness of the force in rotating the body 2
Work done by a
about the body. If rotation produced is
anticlockwise the torque is positive, in the opposite
 DEGREE PHYSICS
110 A HAND BOOK OF

Instantaneous power required to rotate a body,

P= -=rd0=TTO -}I(o? -af) -1,-,
dt dt Value of moment of inertia of a body depends
Work-energy principle : on the shape of the body and distance and
f
orientations of the axis of rotation relative to the
body. In the text detail calculations for different
W=[de =I[ade =1 odo bodies are given.