COMPLEX WAVEFORMS

• define a complex wave

• recognize periodic functions
• recognize the general equation of a complex waveform
• Sketch and define the following components of a complex wave:
➢ Constant term (DC components)
➢ Fundamental
➢ Odd and even harmonics
• Sum the components graphically to obtain a complex waveform.
• Perform simple calculations based on the harmonic expression: 𝑖 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + ∅) +
𝐶𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2𝜔𝑡 + ∅) + 𝐷𝑠𝑖𝑛 (3𝜔𝑡 + ∅) for RMS value and Power
• Explain the effect of harmonics on power and power factor.

Typical voltage complex waveform

• A complex waveform is a resultant of a number of synthesised waveforms which are at

different frequencies.
• Where the first waveform is at the supply frequency and is called the fundamental
component
• The other waveforms are at frequencies a number of times the supply frequency and are
called harmonics

The expression for the instantaneous sinusoidal complex voltage waveform is:

𝒗 = 𝑽𝟏𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + ∅𝟏 ) + 𝑽𝟐𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟐𝝎𝒕 + ∅𝟐 ) + 𝑽𝟑𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟑𝝎𝒕 + ∅𝟑 ) + ⋯ + 𝑽𝒏𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒏𝝎𝒕 + ∅𝒏 )

And for complex current waveform is:

𝒊 = 𝑰𝟏𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + 𝜽𝟏 ) + 𝑰𝟐𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟐𝝎𝒕 + 𝜽𝟐 ) + 𝑰𝟑𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟑𝝎𝒕 + 𝜽𝟑 ) + ⋯ + 𝑰𝒏𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒏𝝎𝒕 + 𝜽𝒏 )

From the voltage complex waveform:

𝑉1𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ∅1 ) is the fundamental waveform

𝑉2𝑚 sin(2𝜔𝑡 + ∅2 ) is the second harmonic waveform

𝑉3𝑚 sin(3𝜔𝑡 + ∅3 ) is the third harmonic waveform

𝑉𝑛𝑚 sin(𝑛𝜔𝑡 + ∅𝑛 ) is the nth harmonic waveform

Where:

𝑉1𝑚 , 𝑉2𝑚 , , , 𝑉𝑛𝑚 are the maximum or peak values,

𝜔 𝜔
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 hence fundamental frequency 𝑓= 2𝜋
, and nth harmonic frequency 𝑛𝑓 = 𝑛 2𝜋

∅1 , ∅2 , , , ∅𝑛 are respective phase angles with respect to time.

• If the fundamental component is at a frequency f then the second harmonic

𝑉2𝑚 sin(2𝜔𝑡 + ∅2 ) is at a frequency two times the frequency (2f) of the fundamental
component, and the third is at three times the frequency (3f) and so on
• Some complex waveforms may contain the fundamental and only even harmonics, while
some may contain odd harmonics and some have both even and odd

Odd harmonic complex waveform:

𝒗 = 𝑽𝟏𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + ∅𝟏 ) + 𝑽𝟑𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟑𝝎𝒕 + ∅𝟑 ) + 𝑽𝟓𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟓𝝎𝒕 + ∅𝟓 ) + ⋯

Even harmonic complex waveform:

𝒗 = 𝑽𝟏𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + ∅𝟏 ) + 𝑽𝟐𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟐𝝎𝒕 + ∅𝟐 ) + 𝑽𝟒𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟒𝝎𝒕 + ∅𝟒 ) + ⋯

Phase angle

Given that:

𝒗 = 𝑽𝟏𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + ∅𝟏 ) + 𝑽𝟑𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟑𝝎𝒕 + ∅𝟑 ) + 𝑽𝟓𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟓𝝎𝒕 + ∅𝟓 ) + ⋯

𝒊 = 𝑰𝟏𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + 𝜽𝟏 ) + 𝑰𝟑𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟑𝝎𝒕 + 𝜽𝟐 ) + 𝑰𝟓𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟓𝝎𝒕 + 𝜽𝟑 ) + ⋯

• Then the circuit phase angle for the fundamental is: (∅1 − 𝜃1 ), which is the angle
between the fundamental current and voltage.
• For the nth harmonic, the phase angle is: (∅𝑛 − 𝜃𝑛 ),

Harmonic synthesis

If a complex waveform is given by:

𝑣𝑎 = 100 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 30 sin 3𝜔𝑡

 𝜔
• The fundamental wave has a maximum value = 100V at a frequency 𝑓 = 2𝜋
,
3𝜔
• The third harmonic has a maximum value = 30V at a frequency 3𝑓 = 2𝜋
• The two waveforms are in phase with each other at time t = 0, but at different frequencies.
𝜔
• The first harmonic has a frequency 𝑓 = and the third harmonic has a frequency of
2𝜋
3𝜔
3𝑓 =
2𝜋
1 2𝜋
• The third harmonic will complete three cycles in the period 𝑇= = seconds while
𝑓 𝜔
the fundamental will only complete one cycle in the same period.
𝑉3𝑚 30
• The 3rd harmonic content of the waveform = 𝑉1𝑚
= 100
= 30%
• This means that the complex waveform contains 30% third harmonic.

Now adding the two waveforms gives the resultant complex waveform.

The addition is done for the magnitudes at the same instances or times from t = 0 upto t = T

For example at time t = T/12, V1m = 50V, and V3m = 30V, giving a total of 80V

At t = T/4, V1m = 100V and V3m = -30V, giving a total of 70V

Plotting these results gives the synthesis complex waveform Va

The waveforms are shown below:

Now, the same applies if the above results are added to a 5th harmonic (20 sin 5𝜔𝑡)

𝑣𝑏 = 100 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 30 sin 3𝜔𝑡 + 20 sin 5𝜔𝑡

Considering the following:
𝝅
𝒗𝒄 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 + 𝟑𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝟑𝝎𝒕 + ) volts
𝟐

• The periodic time for the third harmonic is T/3

𝜋 1
• The third harmonic has a phase angle = of the total period (T/3) = T/12 seconds
2 4
leading the fundamental.

NB

1. It can be noted that whenever an odd harmonic is added to a fundamental waveform, the
resultant complex waveform has the same shape for both the positive and negative half
cycles regardless of the phase shift.

2. Also, whenever even harmonics are added to a fundamental component:

 i. If the harmonics are initially in phase or out of phase by 𝜋 radians from the fundamental,
the negative half cycle if reversed, is a mirror image of the positive half cycle about the
vertical line drawn at t = T/2.
ii. If the harmonics are initially out of phase with each other except by 𝜋 radians, then the
positive and negative half cycles are dissimilar in shape.

AND:

3. Whenever a waveform contains both odd and even harmonics:

i. If the harmonics are in phase, the negative half cycle, if reversed, is a mirror image of the
positive half cycle, about a vertical line drawn at t = T/2.
ii. If the harmonics are out of phase, the positive and negative half cycles are dissimilar.

4. Taking a complex waveform containing a dc component and harmonics as shown:

• Adding the ordinates of all the harmonics at intervals and then adding the dc component to
the resultant will result in the complex waveform below:
• Adding the dc component just shifts or clamps the waveform upwards by 32 units.
• Also the resultant is an approximate half wave rectifier output.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Problem 1.
A complex waveform v comprises a fundamental voltage of 240 V rms and frequency 50 Hz, together with a 20%
3𝜋
third harmonic which has a phase angle lagging by rad at time t = 0.
4
(a) Write down an expression to represent voltage v.
(b) Use harmonic synthesis to sketch the complex waveform representing voltage over one cycle of the fundamental
component.
 3𝜋
• The second harmonic initially leads the fundamental by .
4
• Plot the waveforms for the two harmonics and add ordinates to get the resultant complex waveform as
shown below.

RMS VALUE OF A COMPLEX WAVEFORM

Given that the instantaneous value of a complex current is:

Two types of terms result from squaring the current, for example:

,,,,,,,,,, and so on ………………………….(1)

And: ,,,,,,,,, and so on …………………(2)

Therefore, the mean value of i2 is the sum of the mean values of each term

Now, taking one term of the first type of terms from expression 1 and applying integral calculus:

The mean value is:

2
𝐼𝑛𝑚
2
Hence the mean value of 𝐼𝑛𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑛𝜔𝑡 + ∅𝑛 ) = 2

Integrating one of the second type of terms, for example:

from 0 to 2𝜋 to get the mean value

This gives a zero, and this applies to all such terms of the harmonic

HENCE, the mean value of:

Hence the rms value is given by:

𝐼𝑚
But for a sine wave, 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = , thus:
√2

Where I1, I2,,,,, In are rms values of the currents for the respective harmonics.

Similarly for a complex voltage:

𝒗 = 𝑽𝟏𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + ∅𝟏 ) + 𝑽𝟐𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟐𝝎𝒕 + ∅𝟐 ) + 𝑽𝟑𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟑𝝎𝒕 + ∅𝟑 ) + ⋯ + 𝑽𝒏𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒏𝝎𝒕 + ∅𝒏 )

The mean value is:

For a dc component, the mean and the maximum values are the same, so if a complex wave
contains a dc component, the the rms value of current is:

MEAN OR AVERAGE VALUE OF A COMPLEX WAVEFORM

For the mean value of a sine wave, integrate over half cycle if the two half cycles are similar,
otherwise integrating over 2𝜋 (whole period) gives a zero.
FORM FACTOR OF A COMPLEX WAVEFORM

Solution
POWER IN COMPLEX WAVEFORMS

Applying integral calculus for the mean or average power dissipated over a cycle, and taking only the
components at the same frequency since the average of terms at different frequencies yields a zero.

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅ where V and I are rms values.

If the voltage and current are given as maximum values, then

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃= . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅ where Φ is the phase angle between voltage and current for each
√2 √2
harmonic respectively.

Given that the voltage and current complex waveforms are:

At any given instant:

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅
Considering only the products at the same frequency, and discarding the products at
different frequencies,

And taking the first term:

Similarly, 𝑃2 = 𝑉2 𝐼2 cos ∅2 and 𝑃3 = 𝑉3 𝐼3 cos ∅3 and so on

Thus:

And when the complex waveform contains a dc component,

POWER FACTOR OF A COMPLEX WAVEFORM

RMS current is:

Solution:

a) Since the values are maximum values, divide by √2

 b) Find the rms values for current and voltage

For sinusoidal waveforms,

Where 𝑉𝐼 cos ∅ is the overall true power and 𝑉𝐼 is the overall apparent power.