Flow, Turbulence and Combustion

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10494-023-00518-y

RESEARCH

A Comparative Study of Scarfed Nozzle for Jet‑Installation

Noise Reduction

Hasan Kamliya Jawahar1 · Mahdi Azarpeyvand1

Received: 19 March 2023 / Accepted: 23 November 2023

© The Author(s) 2024

Abstract
The experimental investigation of the effects of scarfed nozzles on jet-installation noise
was conducted using unheated subsonic jets in an anechoic jet noise facility. Four differ-
ent types of scarfed nozzles with increasing nozzle lip angles were examined to study the
installation effects at various plate distances away from the jet. Mach numbers ranging
from 0.3 to 0.8 were investigated in the experiments. The use of scarfed nozzles is known
to result in the deflection of flow away from the centre axis, inducing asymmetry in the jet
shears, leading to azimuthal variation in the spectra, and ultimately, noise reduction. This
study aims to explore the possibility of reducing jet-installation noise using scarfed nozzles
at subsonic flow conditions. The characteristics of jet hydrodynamic pressure fluctuations
were investigated in the axial direction using far-field measurements. The near-field flow
features were studied using surface pressure transducers installed on the flat plate for the
installed configurations. Detailed spectral, coherence, and correlation analyses were car-
ried out to determine the noise reduction mechanisms associated with scarfed nozzles in
the proximity of a flat plate. The results of the study showed that the use of scarfed nozzles
significantly reduced the jet-installation noise. The reduction was attributed to the genera-
tion of an asymmetric flow field induced by the nozzle geometry. The reduction in noise
levels was also observed to increase with increasing nozzle lip angle. The detailed analyses
revealed that the noise reduction mechanism was associated with a decrease in the acoustic
power generated by the jet. Overall, the results suggest that scarfed nozzles can be an effec-
tive means of reducing jet-installation noise in subsonic flow conditions.

Keywords Jet noise · Jet-installation · Bevel nozzle · Scarfed nozzle

* Hasan Kamliya Jawahar

hasan.kj@bristol.ac.uk
Mahdi Azarpeyvand
m.azarpeyvand@bristol.ac.uk
1
Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TR, England, UK

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 Flow, Turbulence and Combustion

1 Introduction

Jet noise has been a topic of significant concern since the advent of high-bypass engines in
the 1960s. Increased jet interaction with wings and trailing edges of the aircraft has led to
noise amplification in the low and mid-frequency ranges particularly during take-off and
landing. Various noise reduction mechanisms through the alteration of hydrodynamic field
via nozzle modifications have been employed to mitigate this jet-installation noise. How-
ever, a clear understanding of the underlying physical mechanisms resulting in noise reduc-
tion is yet to be identified.
Jet-installation noise refers to the noise generated by the interaction between the exhaust
flow of a jet and an airframe surface at close proximity, and has been extensively stud-
ied since the early works of Bushell (1975) and Head and Fisher (1976), and more recent
publications (Lawrence et al. 2011; Brown 2012). In addition to the presence of turbu-
lence-mixing noise in installed subsonic jets, additional noise sources have been identified
at the surface of the trailing-edge, especially at low and mid-frequencies in the direction
upstream to the jet (Williams and Hall 1970; Head and Fisher 1976; Belyaev et al. 2015;
Semiletov and Karabasov 2017; Rego et al. 2020). In some cases, these additional sources
can also lead to the generation of tones (Jordan et al. 2018; Tam and Chandramouli 2020).
The hydrodynamic pressure waves generated in the mixing layer of an isolated jet are
evanescent in comparison to the acoustic waves propagating to the far-field. However,
the deployment of high-lift devices reduces the distance to the jet plume, which causes
the hydrodynamic pressure to be scattered by the wing trailing-edge to the far-field
noise, thereby intensifying JIN (Lyu and Dowling 2019). High-fidelity eddy-resolving
computational approaches have shown that installation effects can amount to approxi-
mately 4 EPNdB of the acoustic footprint of the jet (Casalino and Hazir 2014). With the
introduction of ultra-high bypass ratio engines, these additional noise sources are set to
become even more important as the distance between the jet and airframe progressively
decreases (Hughes 2011).
Detailed studies have been conducted to understand the mechanisms behind this phe-
nomenon in order to mitigate the additional noise, which depends on the distance between
the jet and the scattering surface. For instance, Mengle et al. attempted to reduce the instal-
lation effects of the jet using tailored chevron nozzles; however, the application of chevrons
was insufficient to completely mitigate the jet noise due to interaction with the trailing-
edge (Mengle et al. 2006).
It was observed that changes to nozzle geometries provided faster plume velocity decay
leading to lower noise generation as opposed to plain circular jets. Several studies have
been carried out to identify the noise reduction capabilities of various nozzle geometries.
One of the most popular attempts was the introduction of Chevron nozzles by Bridges and
Brown that showed promising noise reduction capabilities (Bridges and Brown 2004). The
serrations along the nozzle lip were observed to induce streamwise vorticity in the shear
layer resulting in increased mixing and decreased jet plume length thereby reducing noise
levels.
Several efforts have been made to mitigate the noise associated with turbulent mixing by
employing bevel nozzles, alternatively referred to as scarfed nozzles (Bridges and Wernet
2015; Tide and Srinivasan 2009; Sandhya and Tide 2018; Guo et al. 2014; Viswanathan
et al. 2012). These types of nozzles have a distinctive design where the ends are cut at a
sloping or slanted edge instead of a conventional 90◦ angle, resulting in one side of the
nozzle lip being longer than the other. Bridges conducted pivotal research demonstrating

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Flow, Turbulence and Combustion

that such bevels can significantly influence turbulence levels, consequently leading to a
noticeable reduction in noise (Bridges 2012). The primary purpose of bevelling the nozzle
was to induce alterations in the noise generation mechanism within the inner shear layer, a
modification aimed at reducing the overall noise produced (Viswanathan 2006). Bevel noz-
zles were shown to cause azimuthal variations in the spectra resulting in considerable noise
reduction below the longer lip of the bevel nozzle by Viswanathan (2005). It was demon-
strated that noise reduction occurred due to the modification of turbulent structures caused
by the bevel nozzle. Significant noise reduction was achieved in the azimuthal directions
over the low-frequency range without any increase in the high frequency at the polar angu-
lar range of 110◦ to 145◦ at all frequencies (Viswanathan et al. 2008). Noise from large-
scale structures was observed to radiate towards the lower polar angles of the bevel nozzle
leading to less acoustic energy being available for radiation to the aft angles (Viswanathan
2008). It was further concluded that noise reduction in the bevel nozzle was directly pro-
portional to the jet velocity, with higher reductions at higher jet velocities. Specifically,
Viswanathan et al. (2012) reported a decrease in noise as the primary jet velocity increased,
but an increase in noise as the flight stream Mach number increased. They conducted a
joint computational and experimental program to design dual-stream nozzle geometries
that could offer jet noise reduction while allowing for control of the orientation of the jet
plumes, minimizing the thrust degradation often associated with low-noise designs. The
nozzles tested included round primary and secondary nozzles, bevel primary nozzles, and
modified secondary nozzles. It was found that the bevel nozzle design deflected plumes
towards the short lip, while the secondary nozzle design deflected in the opposite direction.
The noise generated by a jet with different nozzle geometries, flow rates, and tempera-
ture conditions has been the subject of multiple computational and experimental studies.
Specifically, rectangular turbulent jets have been the subject of more extensive investiga-
tion than other non-circular jets due to their superior jet mixing and velocity decay rates.
For instance, Sandhya and Tide (2018) conducted numerical simulations of a compress-
ible subsonic jet from rectangular nozzles with different aspect ratios and bevel nozzles of
various lengths. The results showed that increasing the aspect ratio caused a decrease in the
potential core length and an increase in the turbulence and mixing. Additionally, beveling
the nozzle led to significant changes in flow patterns and turbulence structures in the jet.
Keeping the useful characteristics of rectangular nozzles in mind, Frate and Bridges (2011)
introduced a novel design called the Extensible Rectangular Nozzle (ERN) with varying
aspect ratios. These nozzles were designed with the concept that the bevel and sidewall-
cutback designs may offer a solution to reduce noise pollution for observers by incorporat-
ing an extended lower edge, which can also provide additional surface area for implement-
ing acoustic wall treatment.
Several studies were conducted by Bridges on rectangular nozzles that included
acoustic measurements for nozzles with and without bevels. For instance, Bridges
(2012) performed acoustic measurements on rectangular nozzles and showed that rec-
tangular jets produced a greater level of noise in the direction away from their wider
sides than their narrow sides. Furthermore, bevel nozzles generated noise that increased
in all directions with an increase in bevel length. In another experiment, Bridges and
Wernet (2015) investigated the acoustic performance of a family of rectangular nozzles
both with and without bevels. Changes made to the nozzle had little effect on noise lev-
els, except for an extended lip on the wide side of the bevel nozzle and extending the lip
on the narrow side which produced up to 3 dB and 2 dB more noise, respectively. Non-
intrusive chevrons had no significant effect on noise, but inverted chevrons produced
up to a 2 dB increase. Adding internal walls within the base nozzle resulted in noise

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 Flow, Turbulence and Combustion

reduction at low frequencies. Bridges and Wernet (2015) tested rectangular nozzles of
different aspect ratios and bevels for sound and turbulence in subsonic flow and found
that higher aspect ratios resulted in more high-frequency noise, despite uniform exit
velocity.
Bridges conducted extensive research on rectangular nozzles, particularly focusing on
the acoustic measurements of nozzles with and without bevels. Bridges (2012) undertook
acoustic measurements on rectangular nozzles, demonstrating that rectangular jets gener-
ated a higher level of noise away from their wider sides compared to their narrow sides.
Interestingly, bevel nozzles were found to produce noise that increased uniformly in all
directions as the bevel length increased. Further investigations by Bridges and Wernet
(2015) into the acoustic performance of a variety of rectangular nozzles, both bevelled and
unbevelled, revealed surprising insights. Generally, bevel modifications to the nozzle had
minimal impact on noise levels. However, exceptions were observed when the bevel noz-
zle lip extension was added to the wide side of the rectangular nozzle than the narrow side.
These modifications resulted in a noise increase of up to 3 dB and 2 dB respectively. Addi-
tionally, while non-intrusive chevrons did not significantly affect the noise levels, inverted
chevrons led to a noise increase of up to 2 dB. Interestingly, the introduction of internal
walls within the baseline nozzle resulted in a reduction of noise at lower frequencies. In a
subsequent experiment, Bridges and Wernet (2015) examined rectangular nozzles of vari-
ous aspect ratios and bevels for understanding the noise and turbulence mechanisms in sub-
sonic flow. They demonstrated that nozzles with higher aspect ratios generated more high-
frequency noise, despite having a uniform exit velocity.
Bridges went beyond the study of isolated jet acoustics to explore the impacts of instal-
lation effects on rectangular nozzle (Bridges 2014). By comparing acoustic measurements
across various configurations, noise sources were identified emanating from the larger flat
side of the rectangular nozzle. The intensity of this noise was found to be dependent upon
the size of the nozzle’s flat surface. Moreover, an elevation in noise was noted for bevel
nozzle configurations with higher aspect ratios. It’s crucial to acknowledge that numerous
studies have been carried out on bevel nozzles, particularly concerning supersonic jets (Wu
and New 2017; Aikens et al. 2015; Powers et al. 2011; Powers and McLaughlin 2012; Tam
et al. 1997; Viswanathan and Czech 2011; Norum 1983; Rice and Raman 1993; Petitjean
et al. 2007). These investigations have shown that bevel nozzles can significantly dimin-
ish the amplitude of screech tones, achieving reductions of up to 4 dB at low frequen-
cies. They have also been proven effective in reducing noise below the extended side of
the bevel nozzle. However, the amplitude of these screech tones is highly sensitive to the
specific configuration of the nozzle used. Importantly, in terms of performance, bevel noz-
zles were found to produce a total thrust that was either equal to or greater than that of a
round nozzle. In a recent study, Kamliya Jawahar and Azarpeyvand (2022a) explored the
impact of varying scarf angles in nozzles on jet installation noise in subsonic jets. Utilizing
four distinct nozzle designs with incrementally increased scarf angles, they found a direct
correlation between the scarf angle and the reduction of low-frequency amplification due
to the jet installation effect. Christophe et al. (2023) also investigated scarfed nozzles, but
with a focus on their potential to reduce plate interaction tones for installed configuration
at low Mach numbers. Particularly, the study focused on small plate heights using both
rectangular and scarfed nozzles. This comparative analysis highlights the possibility of jet
installation noise reduction using scarfed nozzles. Although studies on isolated jets with
scarfed nozzles are available, the properties of scarfed nozzles with jet-installation effects
for realistic conditions are yet to be fully characterised. This paper aims to further the exist-
ing efforts to identify the impact of scarfed nozzles on noise propagation of isolated jets as

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Flow, Turbulence and Combustion

well as installed jets. Experimental results are presented in terms of sound pressure level,
overall sound pressure level, surface pressure fluctuations, and coherence studies.

2 Experimental Setup

The newly commissioned Bristol Jet Aeroacoustic Research Facility (B-JARF) at the Uni-
versity of Bristol was used to conduct the experiments presented here. Previous studies
have thoroughly validated the BJARF facility (Kamliya Jawahar et al. 2021a, b; Kam-
liya Jawahar and Azarpeyvand 2021; Kamliya Jawahar et al. 2021c; Kamliya Jawahar and
Azarpeyvand 2022b). The facility uses a pressurized air system capable of reaching up to
7 bars. This pressurized air is distributed to the facility via an intricate system of pneu-
matic tubes and connections. As shown in Fig. 1, the flow in BJRAF was conditioned and
silenced using three custom-built in-line silencers to achieve a clean and quiet air flow with
a jet exit Mach number of M = 0.3. The first two silencers were installed right after the
control valve outside the anechoic chamber, each with a diameter of 0.3 m and a height of
1.5 m. The third larger silencer, which also serves as a plenum is placed within the acous-
tic chamber. This component has a diameter of 0.457 m and a height of 1.9 m. Perforated
tubes were installed in the silencers to allow the flow to pass through, and the remaining
space was filled with glass wool. The anechoic chamber had dimensions of 7.9 m in length,
5.0 m in width, and 4.6 m in height, including the surrounding acoustic walls (Mayer et al.
2019). Prior to testing, the silencers, the collector, and the far-field array were covered with
foam to minimize acoustic reflection. The acoustic Mach number and flow conditions were
determined from the total temperature and pressure measurement devices fitted within the
large silencer and the acoustic chamber.
The experiments were conducted on five different nozzles, including a round convergent
nozzle SMC000 and four scarfed nozzles (SCF001, SCF002, SCF003, and SCF004), as
depicted in Figs. 2 and 3. The SMC000 nozzle was characterized for isolated configura-
tions by Bridges and Brown (2004) and, in this study, a scaled-down version of the nozzle
with an exit diameter of D = 38.10 mm was tested. The scarf angles 𝛽 were SCF001 = 10◦,
SCF002 = 20◦, SCF003 = 30◦, and SCF004 = 40◦ relative to the round SMC000 nozzle,
as shown in Fig. 3. The design of the scarfed nozzles, as depicted in Fig. 3, incorporates
the same throat diameter as the round nozzle, specifically D = 38.10 mm, in accordance
with Viswanathan et al. (2008). For every 10◦ of scarfing, the scarfed nozzle is designed to
yield a plume deflection within the range of 1.6◦–2.2◦ . This magnitude of plume deflection

Fig. 1  Side view of the aeroa-

coustic facility including the
silencers: (A) First and second
silencer, (B) Connecting under-
ground pipe, (C) Third large
silencer, (D) Contraction for the
jet nozzle, (E) Collector, and (F)
Far-field microphone array

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 Flow, Turbulence and Combustion

Fig. 2  Schematic of the various nozzle configurations used in the present study

Fig. 3  Schematic of the scarfed

nozzle profiles (SCF001-004)
compared to the round nozzle
(SMC000) used in the present
study

aligns with observations from previous studies (Viswanathan and Czech 2011; Powers
et al. 2011; Aikens et al. 2015; Viswanathan et al. 2008; Petitjean et al. 2007).
While the present study provides valuable insights into the acoustic characteristics
of scarfed nozzles, it is crucial to acknowledge its limitations. Given that this study did
not perform flow measurements a direct correlation between the scarf level and actual jet
deflection remains to be conclusively established. Most importantly, the acoustic behav-
iour of the presented scarfed nozzle may not be universally applicable as the effect of the
scarfed nozzle could involve complex behaviour beyond just flow deflection away from the
plate. The acoustic results might be influenced by various factors such as the jet noise facil-
ity, nozzle design, upstream flow conditions, and boundary layer states. Nevertheless, it
is also important to note that the present study is focused on investigating the potential of
scarfed nozzles in mitigating jet-installation noise.
In the present study, a jet-plate configuration was employed to accurately simulate the
arrangement of a real aircraft’s main wing and jet exhaust. This approach was aimed to
facilitate a deeper understanding of the jet installation effects. It’s crucial to highlight that
the plate representing the wing was positioned below the jet (see Fig. 4) to simplify the

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Flow, Turbulence and Combustion

Fig. 4  Schematic of the experimental setup with the position of the far-field microphones used in the
present study for the isolated and installed jet. For representational clarity, the microphones and nozzles
depicted in the schematic are not drawn to scale

process of experimental measurements. Consequently, the microphones were positioned

above the plate to mirror the configuration of conducting measurements under the wing,
thereby ensuring the data collected was most representative of the observer on the ground.
The jet-plate arrangement illustrated in Fig. 4, consists of a 5 mm thick aluminium flat
plate chamfered with a sharp trailing edge. The plate’s lower side was reinforced with three
10 mm x 10 mm aluminium spars to increase rigidity. The flat plate had a total length of
6D and a total span of 26D to avoid side-edge scattering. It should be noted, for clarity,
the sizes of the microphones and nozzles in the schematic in Fig. 4 are not drawn to scale.
Tests were carried out for a flat plate length L = 4D and a wide range of plate heights,
as shown in Fig. 4. An automated traverse system was used to move the plate to various
distances axially away from the jet. The effect of plate height was examined through the
investigation of various h/D values, 1, 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 5, and 6. The plate
extended 2D upstream from the nozzle exit to avoid scattering effects at the upstream lead-
ing edge. The tests were carried out for a wide range of subsonic flows with acoustic Mach
numbers ranging from M = 0.3 − 0.8.
Far-field noise measurements were performed using a 1/4-inch GRAS-46BE micro-
phone with a corrected flat frequency response between 10 Hz and 40 kHz and a dynamic
range of 160 dB. An array of 21 microphones was distributed on an arc centred on the jet
exit at a distance of 1.6 m ( R ≈ 42D), covering a polar angular range between 50◦ upstream
and 150◦ downstream, with the 90◦ microphone at the sideline position on the reflected side
for the installed configuration. An additional far-field microphone was placed at 𝜃 = 270◦ at
the sideline position on the shielded side. Surface pressure fluctuations were acquired using
Kulite XTEL-190(M) Miniature Ruggedized High-Temperature Pressure Transducers with
a KSC-1 compact signal conditioner. Five Kulite sensors were distributed on the plate, as
shown in Fig. 5. The data were acquired for t = 24 s at a sampling frequency of f = 217 Hz
using a National Instrument PXle-4499. The power spectral density (PSD) of the collected
pressure signals was computed using a Hanning window, and the data is ensemble aver-
aged 256 times to achieve a frequency resolution of Δf = 8 Hz. Subsequently, the Sound
Pressure Level (SPL) was computed using the equation (Eq. 1):

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 Flow, Turbulence and Combustion

Fig. 5  Schematic of the Kulite

pressure transducers used in the
present study at the vicinity of
the trailing edge for the installed
jet configuration

( )
PSD(f )Δf
SPL = 10log10 , (1)
p2ref

where PSD represents the power spectral density derived from the fluctuating pressure
p� (t), defined as p� (t) = p(t) − pmean , and pref = 20 𝜇Pa is the reference pressure. The Over-
all Sound Pressure Level (OASPL) was determined using the following equation (Eq. 2):
( )
∫ PSD(f )df
OASPL = 10log10 , (2)
p2ref

In this equation, PSD represents the power spectral density dependent on the unsteady
pressure p� (t), defined as p� (t) = p(t) − pmean . The OASPL is calculated over a frequency
range of St = 0.01 − 10. In the presented study, an extensive analysis of SPL and OASPL
for both far-field and near-field results is conducted. The comprehensive experimental data-
set of jet installation effects is instrumental for computational validation and mathemati-
cal modelling of aeroacoustics, including nozzle shape optimization studies. The focus is
placed on bevel nozzles ranging from 10◦ to 40◦ , offering a solid foundation for developing
low-noise jet installation configurations. High-fidelity measurements from both far-field
and near-field microphones are utilized, shedding light on the interactions between surface
pressure fluctuations close to the jet and the transmission of noise to distant areas. Coher-
ence analysis is also included to provide further insight into the frequency characteristics
of noise transmission. With this work, a better understanding of jet noise and jet instal-
lation effects is made available, which is expected to impact the design and performance
optimization of more efficient and environmentally acceptable aviation technologies.

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Flow, Turbulence and Combustion

3 Results and Discussion

3.1 Far‑Field Noise Validation

Obtaining accurate spectral measurements from low-velocity jets is often considered a

challenging task, as noted in previous works (Viswanathan 2003, 2006). To establish the
accuracy of the current experimental setup, comparisons were made with previous studies
in the literature, including those conducted by Bastos et al. (2018) and Brown and Bridges
(2006). The results of the previous studies (Bastos et al. 2018; Brown and Bridges 2006)
were compared with far-field measurements obtained at various inlet angles (𝜃 ) for a round
nozzle SMC000, with an exit diameter of D = 38.10 mm, at a Mach number of M = 0.5,
corresponding to a Reynolds number of Re = 441, 000. The far-field measurements from
the current experimental setup were found to conform with the results from the literature
after correcting for distance and diameter, as shown in Fig. 6. It was observed that the
experimental setup used in this study is capable of obtaining accurate spectral measure-
ments from low and high-velocity jets.

3.2 Far‑Field Spectra

The following far-field spectra were measured in the anechoic facility for a wide range
of Mach numbers. The sound pressure level (SPL) in terms of jet diameter-based Strou-
hal numbers (St = fD∕Uj ) for isolated and installed jet configurations measured at 𝜃 = 90◦
above the nozzle is shown in Fig. 7. The spectra exhibit a monotonic increase in level for
the isolated round jet (SMC000) presented in Fig. 7a as the acoustic Mach number is pro-
gressively increased from M = 0.3 to 0.8, as expected. The difference between the SPL
reduces as the Mach number is increased. With respect to the scaling laws of jet acoustic
Mach number, there is an inversely proportional relationship between the spectral SPL dif-
ferential and the Mach number. Specifically, as the Mach number increases, the SPL differ-
ential between subsequent Mach numbers diminishes. It is noteworthy that this difference
is particularly substantial at lower Mach numbers, and progressively declines in magnitude
as the Mach number advances. In jet studies, SPL is well known to scale at U 8. These
results are consistent with this trend, which was previously illustrated by the authors in a
study on the SMC000 nozzle (Jawahar et al. 2023).

Fig. 6  Comparison of SPL for

isolated round convergent nozzle
(dashed line) with experimental
data available in the literature
Brown and Bridges (2006) (solid
lines) for select polar angles
(𝜃 = 60◦ , 90◦ , 120◦ and 150◦)
obtained at acoustic Mach num-
ber M = 0.5

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 Flow, Turbulence and Combustion

Fig. 7  Sound pressure level comparison for SMC000 nozzle measured at 𝜃 = 90◦ and R=42D above the
nozzle exit for a range of acoustic Mach numbers comparison for the isolated and installed configuration

The results for the installed configuration with a plate height of h∕D = 1 are pre-
sented in Fig. 7b. The characteristic low-frequency amplification associated with jet-
surface-interaction noise is well captured at low Mach numbers. Evidently, the spectral
hump reduces as the Mach number is progressively increased, demonstrating that the
installation effect is prominent at low Mach numbers and less significant at higher Mach
numbers. Overall, the results presented in Fig. 7 highlight the ability of the facility to
accurately capture the acoustic characteristics of turbulent jet flow over a wide range of
Mach numbers.
Figure 8 presents the far-field results for all the tested nozzles for both isolated and
installed configurations. The left and right columns of the figure show the spectra for
the isolated and installed configurations, respectively. The far-field spectra for the iso-
lated configuration are indifferent amongst the tested nozzles at all the polar angles.
However, SCF004 exhibits a mild increase in the spectra of approximately 1–2 dB at
St = 0.015 − 1 for angles closer to the jet axis ( 𝜃 > 120◦). Moreover, all the scarfed
configurations exhibit noise reduction of up to 5 dB in the high-frequency range
( St = 1 − 10 ) at 𝜃 = 150◦.
For the installed configuration, the round nozzle shows a characteristic low-fre-
quency spectral hump between St = 0.015 − 0.5 and a noticeable smaller second hump
at St = 0.4 − 0.5. Interestingly, scarfed nozzles at upstream location 𝜃 = 70◦ and sideline
location 𝜃 = 90◦ show substantial noise reduction of approximately 5 dB over the char-
acteristic low-frequency spectral hump ( St = 0.015 − 0.5) compared to the round noz-
zle. The results also indicate a mild increase in noise reduction with increasing scarf
angle. When considering the second spectral hump at St = 0.4 − 0.6 , the scarfed nozzles
show a minimal reduction of 2–3 dB compared to the round nozzle. Moreover, the sec-
ond spectral hump emerges to be stronger at 𝜃 = 90◦ and 120◦ than at 𝜃 = 70◦, suggest-
ing that the acoustic scattering at the trailing edge may be responsible for this hump.
Finally, it is worth noting that the noise levels for scarfed nozzles in installed configura-
tions are similar to their respective isolated configurations at 𝜃 = 150◦.
To better understand the effect of plate height on scarfed nozzles, SPL spectra are
presented in Fig. 9 for a range of plate heights from h∕D = 1 to 6. For the sake of brev-
ity, the spectra are shown only at 𝜃 = 90◦ and M = 0.5, with scarf angles of SMC000,
SCF001, SCF002, and SCF004. The general trend of the spectra demonstrates that the
low-frequency broadband hump associated with jet-installation effects is significantly

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Flow, Turbulence and Combustion

Fig. 8  Sound pressure level comparison for round and scarfed nozzles measured at various polar angles
𝜃 = 70◦ , 90◦ , 120◦ and 150◦ for the isolated and installed configurations at acoustic Mach number of M=0.5,
with a plate height of h∕D = 1.5

reduced as the plate height increases. This reduction is consistent with previous stud-
ies that have reported a decrease in the amplitude of the broadband hump as the plate
height increased (Lawrence 2014; Brown 2013).

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 Flow, Turbulence and Combustion

Fig. 9  Sound pressure level at far-field location for various plate heights for the installed configuration at
M = 0.5 at 𝜃 = 90◦

Interestingly, for the SCM000 case, the second peak in the broadband hump disappears
when the plate height exceeds h∕D = 1, suggesting that this peak may be due to flow scrub-
bing on the trailing edge. This finding aligns with similar observations from previous stud-
ies (Jawahar et al. 2023) that attributed the second peak to flow scrubbing. Moreover, the
effect of plate height on the spectra is significantly reduced beyond h∕D = 2. This reduc-
tion is expected, as the linear hydrodynamic field has been shown by Suzuki and Colonius
(2006) to extend in the radial range of 1 < R∕D < 2 at St = 0.25 − 0.50, particularly in
each azimuthal mode (m = 0, ±1, and ±2). At plate heights of h∕D = 5, the spectra follow
the same trend as that of the isolated jet, indicating that the effect of the jet-installation
is minimal beyond this height. Most importantly, the effect of plate height on the spectra
decreases as the scarf angle increases with SCF004 having the most minimal effect. Over-
all, the SPL spectra presented in Fig. 9 demonstrate that scarfed nozzles have a signifi-
cant effect on jet-installation noise, and this effect remains substantial even as plate height
increases.

3.3 Overall Sound Pressure Level Trends

Figure 10 presents the Overall Sound Pressure Level (OASPL) over a frequency range of
St = 0.01 − 10, measured at the polar angular microphones for both isolated and installed
configurations at acoustic Mach numbers of M = 0.5 and 0.7. The results are displayed
in the left and right columns for isolated and installed configurations, respectively. The
abscissa indicates the polar angular range, and the ordinate represents OASPL. The OASPL
for the scarfed nozzles in the isolated configuration follows the same trend as the round

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Flow, Turbulence and Combustion

Fig. 10  OASPL comparison for the various tested nozzles for the isolated and installed configurations with
a plate height of h∕D = 1.5

nozzle for both M = 0.5 and 0.7. However, SCF004 with the largest scarf angle 𝛽 = 40◦,
exhibits increased noise levels downstream close to the jet axis, particularly at higher jet
exit velocity with an acoustic Mach number of M = 0.7 (see Fig. 10c).
For the installed configurations, the OASPL results display different trends for M = 0.5
and 0.7. At M = 0.5, the installed configuration exhibits substantial noise reduction for
the scarfed configuration, with about 3 dB compared to the round jet at upstream angles
𝜃 < 90◦ and 1–2 dB between 𝜃 = 90◦–120◦. At polar angles closer to the jet axis (𝜃 > 130◦),
a considerable noise increase of about 4 dB can be observed with high levels of noise from
SCF004. The noise levels dominated by turbulent mixing noise have increased due to the
deflection of the jet flow closer to the microphones. As the jet exit velocity increased to
M = 0.7, the polar angles at which noise reduction is observed expanded to the polar angu-
lar range 𝜃 < 120◦, with noise reduction up to 1–2 dB. Interestingly, the noise increase
observed at large polar angles due to jet deflection is only in the range of 1–2 dB at
𝜃 > 130◦. Overall, these observations indicated moderate noise reduction in jet-installation
noise 𝜃 < 120◦ due to scattering, and a slight increase at large polar angles in noise, pos-
sibly due to flow deflection.
Given the importance of accounting for human auditory perception in assessing noise
impacts, this study incorporates an evaluation of the A-weighted Overall Sound Pres-
sure Level (OASPL-A). This measure serves as a variation of the conventional Overall
Sound Pressure Level (OASPL), distinctively tailored to reflect the human ear’s varying
sensitivity across different frequencies. The A-weighting scale emulates the frequency
response of the human ear, highlighting a pronounced sensitivity to frequencies between
1 and 6 kHz and a diminished sensitivity to extremely low or high frequencies. The
A-weighting was determined for full-scale frequencies of a jet with a 2 m diameter. In

13
 Flow, Turbulence and Combustion

Fig. 11  A-weighted overall sound pressure level comparison for the various tested nozzles for the isolated
and installed configurations with a plate height of h∕D = 1.5

Fig. 11, the OASPL-A for the various nozzles for both isolated and installed conditions
are presented. For the isolated jet at M = 0.5 and 0.7, a similar trend is seen across all
the tested nozzles, with the SMC004 showing increased levels at 𝜃 < 120◦. A notable
increase in OASPL-A of up to 1–2 dB is observed for the scarfed jet when consider-
ing installed jets at M = 0.5 for 𝜃 < 130◦. At angles 𝜃 > 130◦, the results show a sig-
nificant decrease in noise levels for larger scarf angles when compared to the baseline
configuration. This decrease corresponds to the reduction in SPL for the scarfed nozzles
observed at St = 1 − 10 for 𝜃 = 150◦ in Fig. 8g, h. This reduction in OASPL-A is con-
trary to the observation in the OASPL results. At a higher Mach number ( M = 0.7), no
increase in the OASPL-A for the scarfed nozzles is observed for shallow inlet angles,
where 𝜃 < 120◦. Conversely, for increased inlet angles where 𝜃 > 120◦, the OASPL-
A shows reduced levels for the scarfed nozzles, with SMC004, which has the highest
scarf angles, showing the most substantial noise reduction. It is important to note that
while significant noise reductions were previously noted for the OASPL in Fig. 10, the
OASPL-A results reveal a noise increase in the side-ling angles when accounting for
human auditory perception, particularly for conditions such as M = 0.5.
The impact of plate height on OASPL at M = 0.5 is illustrated in Fig. 12. The results
obtained for the round nozzle SMC000 indicate a substantial increase in noise levels at
the minimum plate height of h∕D = 1. As the plate height is increased to h∕D = 1.25,
a considerable reduction in noise levels can be observed. This reduction is particularly
noticeable at the upstream angles, with 𝜃 = 50◦ exhibiting the highest level of reduction
of up to 4 dB. In contrast, at polar angles closer to the jet axis, such as 𝜃 = 150◦, this
reduction is minimal, only in the order of 1 dB.

13
Flow, Turbulence and Combustion

Fig. 12  Overall sound pressure level at far-field location for various plate heights for the installed configura-
tion at M = 0.5

The significant OASPL reduction observed at the upstream angles could be attributed
to the reduction in scattering effects at the trailing, whereas the reduction in angles closer
to the jet stream is minimal due to the noise being dominated by turbulence mixing in that
region. With an increase in plate height, the difference in OASPL with the previous plate
height decreases. This trend is more pronounced after h∕D = 2 since the plate is no longer
present in the linear hydrodynamic region. At a plate height of h∕D = 6, the OASPL trend
is very similar to that observed in the isolated configuration shown in Fig. 10.

3.4 Near‑Field Spectra

The noise reduction properties of the scarfed nozzle are further characterized in this study
by presenting the surface pressure fluctuations measured using Kulite pressure transducers
placed on the flat plate, as shown in Fig. 5. The results are presented for three locations
K1, K2, and K5 at a plate height of h∕D = 1, and are plotted with Strouhal number on the
abscissa and SPL on the ordinate in Fig. 13. It is observed that the SPL spectra obtained
using Kulite pressure transducers exhibit a similar trend for both the presented acoustic
Mach numbers M = 0.5 and 0.7, despite a substantial difference in the OASPL trends.
A noise reduction of about 10 dB is observed in the near-field spectra for the scarfed
nozzles, and an increase in scarf angle 𝛽 results in greater noise reduction. This could be
expected as the flow deflection increases with increasing scarf angle 𝛽 . The highest level
of noise reduction for the scarfed nozzles is observed in the low frequencies St < 0.05.
Interestingly, at the furthest surface pressure measurement location K5, a double hump
behaviour is observed in the near-field spectra for all tested nozzle configurations at both

13
 Flow, Turbulence and Combustion

Fig. 13  Sound pressure level comparison for the Kulite surface pressure transducers for installed configura-
tion with a plate height of h/D=1.5h/D=1.5, the positions are depicted in Fig. 5

the tested jet velocities. A hypothesis can be postulated that the occurrence of the double
hump behaviour at the furthest spanwise location is possibly caused by the presence of two
distinct types of flow fields arising from the potential core and the shear layer.
In order to investigate the effect of plate height, the near-field spectra for K2 and K5
at M = 0.5 are presented for a total of eleven plate positions in Fig. 14. The magni-
tude of the near-field spectra is found to decrease with increasing plate heights in line
with previous studies (Kamliya Jawahar and Azarpeyvand 2021; Brown 2012; Lawrence
2014). The low-frequency spectral hump due to the installation effect dominates the
spectra at plate heights between h∕D = 1 − 2.5. These results are consistent with the
dominance of the evanescent hydrodynamic field in this region, as reported in previ-
ous research (Suzuki and Colonius 2006; Lawrence 2014). Beyond this region, the jet-
installation effect reduces substantially along with the overall magnitude of the spectra,
in agreement with previous findings (Kamliya Jawahar and Azarpeyvand 2021; Brown
2012; Lawrence 2014). At the furthest spanwise measurement location K5, the double

13
Flow, Turbulence and Combustion

Fig. 14  Sound pressure level on the plate surface for various plate heights for the installed configuration at
M=0.5

hump behaviour is only at plate heights between h∕D = 1 − 1.75. Beyond this region or
plate positions, the dual hump characteristics are not observed. It is important to note
that despite the difference in nozzle geometry, the differences in the SPL between the
different plate heights are the same for all the tested nozzle configurations at both K1
and K5 positions.

13
 Flow, Turbulence and Combustion

The results indicate that the scarfed nozzles cause a significant change in the hydro-
dynamic field in the vicinity of the jet, leading to far-field noise reduction. In summary,
the surface pressure fluctuation measurements demonstrate the effectiveness of the scarfed
nozzle in reducing jet noise.

3.5 Near to Far‑Field Coherence

In order to gain a deeper understanding of the noise intensity that is radiated to the far-field
and to isolate the non-propagating hydrodynamic field, coherence analysis was conducted
between the surface pressure transducer K2 and the far-field microphone placed at a 90◦
angle above the nozzle exit. The coherence was calculated utilizing the following equation
(Eq. 3):

∣ Φpi pj (f ) ∣2
𝛾p2 p (f ) = for pi = K2 and pj = 𝜃, (3)
i j Φpi pi (f )Φpj pj (f )

where K2 represents the reference surface pressure transducer, and polar angular far-field
microphones are positioned at 𝜃 = 70◦ , 90◦ , 120◦ , and 150◦ above the nozzle exit. The near-
to-far field coherence outcomes are presented in Fig. 15. The presented results indicate
polar angles of 𝜃 = 70◦ , 90◦ , 120◦ , and 150◦ at M = 0.5 and 0.7.
At first glance, it is observed that the coherence levels for upstream polar angles are
very high, but they progressively decrease past the sideline position and closer to the jet
axis. High coherence levels are observed over a broad frequency range of St = 0.05 − 1,
with a significant second spectral hump between St = 0.2 − 0.7. It is noteworthy that the
second spectral hump was also observed in both the near- and far-field measurements in
the previous sections. Interestingly, scarfed nozzles exhibit a substantial reduction in the
coherence levels for the second hump over the frequency range of St = 0.2 − 0.7. Coher-
ence levels for St = 0.02 − 0.2 are very similar between the tested nozzles, which could be
attributed to the noise caused by the hydrodynamic field interaction with the plate. How-
ever, the reduction observed in the scarfed nozzle during the second spectral hump is likely
due to changes in the hydrodynamic field, as well as scattering effects. These findings dem-
onstrate that scarfed nozzles not only alter the hydrodynamic field but also substantially
modify the scattering effects at the trailing edge. This leads to noise reduction in the far-
field regions, particularly in the sideline and upstream polar angles.
Coherence analysis was also used to investigate the effects of plate height on the far-
field noise. The near-to-far field coherence between K2 and 𝜃 = 90◦ for eleven plate heights
are presented in Fig. 16 at M = 0.5 for four tested nozzles SMC000, SCF001, SCF002, and
SCF004. The coherence levels for the second spectral hump are found to be high at the
closest plate height of h∕D = 1 and 1.25 for the round jet nozzle (SMC000). However, as
the plate height is increased, the second hump is no longer predominant, and the coherence
levels are marginal for plate heights larger than h∕D = 2. This observation further dem-
onstrates that the interaction of the plate with the evanescent hydrodynamic field around
the jet is responsible for the low-frequency amplification. It is also important to note that
increasing the scarf angle leads to a decrease in coherence levels for the second hump, even
at higher plate heights. This finding suggests that increasing the scarf angle could be an
effective strategy to mitigate low-frequency amplification for jet-installation noise.
To characterize the coherent sound in the far-field and isolate non-propagating hydro-
dynamic fields, coherence analysis was carried out between two far-field microphones

13
Flow, Turbulence and Combustion

Fig. 15  Coherence between the Kulite pressure transducer K2 and various far-field microphones at M = 0.5
and 0.7, with a plate height of h∕D = 1.5

between polar angles 𝜃 = 90◦ and 270◦. The results for the isolated and installed configura-
tions at jet Mach numbers of M = 0.5 and 0.7 are presented in Fig. 17.
For the isolated configuration, low levels of coherence (𝛾p2 p = 0.2) are observed in the
i j
low-frequency range for all tested nozzles at M = 0.5, whereas at M = 0.7 lower levels of

13
 Flow, Turbulence and Combustion

Fig. 16  Coherence between the Kulite pressure transducer K2 and far-field microphone at 𝜃 = 90◦ for vari-
ous plate heights for the installed configuration at M = 0.5

Fig. 17  Coherence between the far-field microphones above (𝜃 = 90◦) and below the nozzle (𝜃 = 270◦) for
the isolated jet and plate for the installed configuration, with a plate height of h∕D = 1.5

13
Flow, Turbulence and Combustion

coherence (𝛾p2 p = 0.1) are observed. Brès et al. (2018) demonstrated that noise radiation at
i j
the sideline regions (𝜃 = 90◦) comprises equal contributions from three azimuthal modes.
These modes are not necessarily correlated between themselves, and each of them contains
individual temporal stochasticity. Therefore two diametrically opposed microphones such
as 𝜃 = 90◦ and 270◦ are expected to receive uncorrelated information from the three modes,
which would reduce coherence even though noise levels were substantial in Fig. 8. The
observed low coherence levels likely arise from the radiation being predominantly influ-
enced by a select set of low-order azimuthal modes.
In contrast, high levels of far-field coherence are observed for both round and scarfed
nozzles in the installed configuration. Notably, coherence is higher at M = 0.5 than at
M = 0.7. These observations suggest the presence of a dipole-type noise source in the low-
frequency range between St = 0.015 − 1 (Head and Fisher 1976; Yu and Tam 1978). The
observed high coherence levels are consistent with prior studies (Cavalieri et al. 2014; Lyu
and Dowling 2019), providing support that the observed low-frequency noise amplification
is due to the scattering of the near-field hydrodynamic waves by the trailing-edge (Cava-
lieri et al. 2014; Rego et al. 2020; Mead and Strange 1998). According to this hypothesis,
the scattered hydrodynamic pressure waves are significantly more coherent than the noise
generated from pure isolated jet mixing due to their deterministic dipole nature. Scarfed
nozzles are observed to demonstrate lower coherence levels in comparison to the round
nozzle, with the magnitude of coherence reduction directly corresponding to the scarf
angle of the nozzle. This reduction is notably more significant for larger scarf angles, with
substantial reduction at higher jet exit velocities. Such observations indicate that even a
minimal deviation of the jet plume modifies the hydrodynamic field leading to a significant
reduction in the scattering effects. However, factors beyond jet deflection could be playing
a role in noise reduction for scarfed nozzles. Therefore further investigation of the flow
field is required to analyse the the asymmetry and modifications to the hydrodynamic field.
Further analysis of the coherence for different plate heights for two far-field micro-
phones is presented in Fig. 18 at M = 0.5 for eleven plate heights. As the plate height
increases, a decrease in coherence levels is observed. Moreover, there is a significant dif-
ference in coherence levels between different plate heights, particularly in regions where
the plate height is h∕D < 2. The second hump coherence of the round jet is high, indicating
its dipole nature, and is associated with scattering effects. At regions h∕D > 2.5, there is
a negligible difference in coherence levels among the tested plate heights. As previously
observed, an increase in scarf angle leads to a reduction in coherence levels of the second
hump at the closest plate heights. The SCF004, which has the largest scarf angle, exhibits
no coherence for the second hump. Overall, this analysis indicates that the scattering effect
is most significant when the plate is positioned close to the jet, and the use of scarfed noz-
zles helps reduce these effects.

3.6 Correlation Studies

Cross-correlation analysis is a fundamental tool that is utilized for investigating the dynam-
ics of turbulent jet flow fields and their relationship to radiated noise. The relationship
between pressure fluctuations at various points along the jet axis is often quantified using
this method, providing insight into the spatial and temporal evolution of the turbulent
structures that generate noise. This analysis allows for a better understanding of the under-
lying mechanisms of jet noise and enables the development of more effective noise reduc-
tion strategies.

13
 Flow, Turbulence and Combustion

Fig. 18  Coherence between the far-field microphones above (𝜃 = 90◦) and below the nozzle (𝜃 = 270◦) for
various plate heights for the installed configuration, with a plate height of h∕D = 1.5

The current study utilizes unsteady surface pressure to compute cross-correlation

using the following equation:

pi (t + 𝜏)pj (t)
Rpi pj (𝜏) = , (4)
piRMS pjRMS

here pi and pj represent consecutive surface pressure transducers K1 and K2, respectively,
while piRMS and pjRMS denote the root mean squared pressure fluctuations. 𝜏 represents the
time-delay and the time average is indicated by the overbar. Figure 19 presents the results
of the auto-correlation of surface pressure at M = 0.5 and 0.7.
The cross-correlation results Rpi pj at M = 0.5 indicate that surface pressure correla-
tions peak at positive time-delays, which suggests the presence of a downstream-moving
hydrodynamic field that travels in the direction of the free-stream flow. Results for
scarfed nozzles show that the correlation peaks shift rapidly in the positive time-delay
direction, which implies the existence of a long-lasting energy field. For the round noz-
zle, results show that surface pressure fluctuations have a slightly higher correlation,
and the correlation peaks shift slowly (larger time-delay) compared to the scarfed
nozzle.
Furthermore, based on Taylor’s frozen flow hypothesis, the convection velocity Uc
was determined using the distance between the transducers and the maximum value of
the cross-correlation time-delay, and these values are presented in Table 1. The normal-
ized convection velocity Uc ∕Uj at M = 0.5 indicates a slow-moving hydrodynamic field
for the round nozzle SMC000 and a fast-moving field with high convection velocity for

13
Flow, Turbulence and Combustion

Table 1  Convection velocity Nozzle M = 0.5,Uc ∕Uj M = 0.7,Uc ∕Uj

between K1 and K2
SMC000 0.5723 0.6500
SCF001 0.6504 0.6933
SCF002 0.6814 0.6933
SCF003 0.7155 0.6933
SCF004 0.7155 0.6933

Fig. 19  Cross-correlation between K1 and K2 surface pressure for the installed configuration at acoustic
Mach number M = 0.5 and M=0.7, with a plate height of h∕D = 1.5

scarfed nozzles. At M = 0.7, the hydrodynamic field for all scarfed nozzles shows very
similar convection velocity, while the round nozzle exhibits lower convection velocity.
Additionally, the value of the maximum correlation coefficient decreases progressively
for increasing scarf angle.

4 Conclusion

The aim of this study was to investigate the sources and effects of jet-installation noise
from scarfed nozzles. Experiments were conducted using four different scarfed nozzles
with increasing scarf angles, as well as a round nozzle for reference. The tests were per-
formed on both isolated and installed jets using an instrumented flat plate located at vari-
ous distances from the jet axis. The far-field noise measurements were obtained using 21
polar angular microphones, which covered a range of 50◦–150◦ . Additionally, surface pres-
sure fluctuations on the flat plate were examined using Kulite pressure transducers.
To validate the facility, the polar measurements were compared with established stud-
ies in the literature (Bastos et al. 2018; Brown and Bridges 2006). The results for the iso-
lated jet showed that, at most polar angles, negligible difference in the far-field noise levels
between the round and scarfed jets. However, there was a marginal increase of approx-
imately 1 dB in the low-frequency region and a considerable reduction in the high-fre-
quency region. For the installed configuration, the scarfed nozzles exhibited significant
noise reduction in the low-frequency range, with a reduction of about 5 dB compared to
the round jet. Closer to the jet exit, the scarfed nozzle exhibited similar noise levels to its

13
 Flow, Turbulence and Combustion

respective isolated nozzle, while the round nozzle showed a reduction in spectral levels
compared to its isolated case. Overall sound pressure levels (OASPL) showed a substantial
reduction in the noise levels for the installed configuration at upstream angles in regions
where the jet-installation noise was most dominant. These plots also revealed the noise
increase that the scarfed nozzle possessed at downstream angles close to the jet axis.
Investigation of the hydrodynamic field using the Kulite surface pressure transducers
revealed a significant reduction in the spectral levels of the hydrodynamic field for the
scarfed nozzles, with the reduction directly related to the scarf angle. Near-to-far-field
coherence studies showed that the scarfed nozzle not only reduced the hydrodynamic field
but also reduced the noise from scattering effects at the trailing edge. This was further con-
firmed by the coherence of the far-field microphones between 𝜃 = 90◦ and 270◦, where the
dipolar nature of jet-installation noise was reduced by the use of scarfed nozzles.
The effect of plate height was investigated and the low-frequency amplification due to
jet-installation effects was found to be dominant in the linear hydrodynamic region between
h∕D = 1 − 2 at St = 0.25 − 0.50. However, the impact of plate height on the spectra was
found to be minimal beyond a height of h∕D = 2. The scarfed nozzle showed superior
acoustic performance for all the tested plate heights within the linear hydrodynamic region
with a substantial reduction in the second hump.
Cross-correlations were computed for the surface pressure transducers, and the results
indicated that the hydrodynamic field for the scarfed nozzle was fast-moving compared to
the round nozzle. Interestingly, the scarfed nozzle with fast-moving structures exhibited
lower far-field noise levels compared to the round jet with slow-moving structures and high
far-field noise. Further investigation of the flow-field is necessary to better understand the
noise reduction characteristics of scarfed nozzles.
Author Contributions HKJ: Conceptualization, writing—original draft preparation, writing—reviewing and
editing methodology, experimentation, software, validation, visualisation, formal analysis, data curation.
MA: Conceptualization, supervision, project administration, funding acquisition.

Funding The authors would like to acknowledge the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council
(EPSRC) for supporting this research (Grant No. EP/S000917/1).

Declarations
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License,
which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Com-
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are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the
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permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly
from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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