ART VOCABULARY

Devoted to – Dedicado a

Active schedule of modern and contemporary art exhibitions

With a far-reaching influence

Banksy, a pseudonymous graffiti artist, political activist, film director and painter from Bristol.
His satirical street art and subversive epigrams combine dark humour with graffiti executed in
a distinctive stencilling technique.

Elusive – Esquivo, difíciles de atrapar

Canvas, oil paint, graffiti, watercolour

Engraving (The practice of incising a design onto a hard, flat surface, by cutting grooves into it)

Collage, drawing, installation (A piece of art which incorporates any media, including the
physical features of the site, to create a conceptual experience in a particular environment)

Printmaking (The field of art concerned with the transferal of ink or paint from a plate or block
or through a screen mesh to paper)

Airbrush (A small, air-operated tool that sprays various media including ink and dye, but most
often paint by a process of nebulization),

Auction – subasta

Imagery of the consumer culture, consumerism

Brash – temerario

Comic book iconography of Roy Lichtenstein represent the style as we know it today

It was an attempt to discover the essence of art by reducing the elements of a work to the
basic considerations of shape, surface and materials

Hard-edged forms and geometric grid structures. Color was simply used to define space or
surface

The eye is a menace to clear sight – El ojo es una amenaza para la vista clara

Colorful, young, fun and hostile to artistic stablishment

Draw upon – basar en

Get ride – librarte, deshacerte

Hard-edge

Highbrow – lowbrow, (not) highly intellectual or cultured

Impenetrable – transparent

Sophisticated – primitive

Challenging – undemanding (desafiante,retador - poco exigente)

Dazzling – pedestrian (deslumbrante – vulgar)

Evocative – uninspiring

Exquisite – clumsy

Intriguing – dreary (intrigante – triste, monótono)

Peerless – Run-of-the-mill (Sin par – común y corriente)

Tongue in cheek – earnest (Irónico – serio, formal)

Tate Britain

Skein of light – Madeja de luz

Images of artworks, audio intervieus and video footage (filmación de vídeo)

ART IDIOMS
Since a picture is worth a thousand words, would it not be nice to have the vocabulary to
express what you want to say about art? The following is a short list of 16 English idioms that
could all be used to discuss art:
1. Well begun is half done.

Well begun is half done means that ޲when you begin a project or task properly, it will be
easier to successfully complete the rest.޳

Example: The art teacher reminded his students of how important it is to plan a composition.
He told them that well begun is half done.
2. Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.

This proverb means that ޲every person has a different idea of what beauty is and whether
something is beautiful or not depends on who is looking, i.e. who the beholder is޳.
E a ple: No o e ould u de sta d h Ca e lo ed Edua do s o i g a st a t o positio s.
Beauty, it seems, is in the eye of the beholder.
3. Kitsch

This expression refers to ޲tasteless creations that are not worthy of being called art޳. The
following example will help clarify what kitsch is.
Example: My mother-in-law gave us a picture as a gift. It was a portrait of Elvis on a hot pink
velvet background. Needless to say, I refused to hang it on the wall because I felt that it was
kitsch.
4. To be striking

A work of art that is striking is one that is very ޲noticeable޳ or ޲outstanding޳.

Example: Ri h i o t ast a d olo , Pi asso s ޲Weeping Woman޳ is striking.

5. To bear fruit

Something that bears fruit ޲produces positive or successful results޳.

E a ple: Afte spe di g o ths i his studio, Pie e s ha d o k fi all o e f uit.
6. To break with convention

An artist who breaks with convention ޲is one who does not do things in the traditional or
expected way޳.

Example: The avant-garde artists of the time broke with convention.

7. To bring something to life

When an artists brings something to life, he makes his subject ޲come to life޳.

Example: Through his realistic and very detailed sculptures, the artist brought local historical
figures to life.
8. To each his / her own

The idiom to each his own means that ޲people have different tastes޳.
Example: The artist chose very dark colours for his composition. To each his own, I guess.
9. To be eye-catching

When a work of art is eye-catching, ޲it attracts your interest or attention޳.

E a ple: Va Gogh s use of ight olou s akes his sunflower pictures very eye-catching.
10. To grab someone

If a work of art grabs you, ޲it captures your attention޳ or ޲appeals to you very much޳.

E a ple: Caspa Da id F ied i h s ޲Moonrise by the Sea޳ really grabs me.

11. To move someone

When a work of art moves you, ޲it makes you react emotionally޳.
E a ple: The a tist s othe -daughter portraits really moved the young mother and she began
to cry.
12. To put the finishing touches on something

If you put the finishing touches on a work of art, you are ޲adding the final improvements to
make it complete޳.

Example: She needed another hour to put the final touches on her mural.
13. To resonate with someone

When a work of art resonates with its audience, ޲it causes them experience a feeling of
shared emotion or belief޳.
E a ple: The Fukushi a photog aphe s o positio s eall eso ated ith the audie e,
most of whom were tsunami survivors.
14. To speak to someone / so something

If a work of art speaks to you or to your heart, ޲it is something that you can relate to and
something that appeals to you޳.

Example: The Iranian film ޲A Separation޳ really spoke to the audience.

15. to stand the test of time

If a work of art can stand the test of time, ޲it will regarded as good for a long time޳.
Example: It is fair to say that the work of Leonardo da Vinci has stood the test of time.
16. to strike a chord

When a work of art strikes a chord, ޲it causes an emotional reaction or response޳.
E a ple: The stude t s la k a d hite photog aphs st u k a ho d ith he fello students.

How to analyse an artist's work

Analysing an artist's work means studying the elements that make up an artwork. You can
show your understanding by answering questions about the work.
The following headings and questions can help you to structure a piece of writing and
understand a piece of artwork. Always remember to use your own words so that you are
expressing what you think.
Form
This means looking at the formal elements of an artwork.

 What is the medium of the work?

 What colours does the artist use? Why? How is colour organised?
 What kind of shapes or forms can you find?
 What kind of marks or techniques does the artist use?
 What is the surface like?
 What kinds of textures can you see?
 How big is the work?

Context
This refers to how the work relates to a particular time, place, culture and society in which it
was produced.

 When was it made? Where was it made? Who made it?

 Who was the work made for?
 What do you know about the artist?
 How does the work relate to other art of the time?
 Does the work relate to the social or political history of the time?
 Can you link it to other arts of the period, such as film, music or literature?
 Does the work relate to other areas of knowledge, such as science or geography?
Content
The content is the subject of a piece of work.

 What is it? What is it about? What is happening?

 Is it a portrait? A landscape? Abstract?
 What does the work represent?
 The title - what does the artist call the work?
 Does the title change the way we see the work?
 Is it a realistic depiction?
 Have any parts been exaggerated or distorted? If so, why?
 What is the theme of the work?
 What message does the work communicate?

Process
Looking at process means studying how the work was made and what techniques were used.

 What materials and tools were used to make the piece?

 What is the evidence for this?
 Do sketchbooks provide any clues as to how the work developed?

Mood
Mood means looking at how the artist has created a certain atmosphere or feeling.

 How does the work make you feel?

 Why do you think you feel like this?
 Does the colour, texture, form or theme of the work affect your mood?
 Does the work create an atmosphere?

Objetivos
Describe a work of art from this site. Explain how you think it was made, its meaning and the
reasons you like or dislike it. Use the vocabulary and expressions that we have learnt and the
ideas above.
You can also use some of these words:

unconventional subtle
thought-provoking compelling
overrated heart-breaking
moving charming
offbeat striking
bleak well-received
stylish dramatic
impressive poignant
amusing stunning
SPEAKING ART
Is graffiti art or is it a crime? Make a list of positive and negative aspects of graffiti -do not
think only of Banksy, but also of the place where you live- and give your opinion to your
course mates and tutor.

Choose one movement in visual arts. Use the internet or an art encyclopedia to look for
more material and images. Prepare a short presentation. To make it more effective play a
piece of music you find appropriate.

Sometimes you see or hear something that you were not expecting. Maybe it's an unexpected
event or a piece of information. Here are ten expressions that show how surprised you are.

 Really?
 What?

We say these phrases with rising intonation. It's important to make your voice go up at the
end. You are inviting the other speaker to give you more information.

 What a surprise!

 Well I never! / Blimey! (Caray!)

These are strong exclamations. 'Blimey!' is a little rude as it literally means 'God blind me!'

 That's the last thing I expected

 You're kidding!

 I don't believe it! / Are you serious?

 I'm speechless!

 I'd never have guessed.

 You don't say!

This last expression is a little old fashioned. If people say this nowadays, they are probably
being sarcastic and they really mean that it isn't surprising at all.
Sometimes you are expecting something to be good and in the end it is less good than you
were expecting. Here are ten phrases you can use to show your disappointment.

 What a pity / shame!

 How disappointing!

These show quite a strong feeling of sadness at a personal disappointment.

  That's too bad.

This is often used to sympathise with another person's disapointment.

 What a bummer! – Qué fastidio!

 What a let-down! – Qué decepción!

These are very informal and may be used to show anger or sadness at your own or other
people's misfortune.

 That's (just) so disappointing!

 I was so looking forward to...

 We had high hopes for...

These two emphasise the expectations that you had before the more negative result.

 It did not live up to expectation. (No estuvo a la altura de las expectativas)

This expression is more formal and could be used in a formal letter of complaint.

 What we had been led to expect was... lo ue os ha ía lle ado a espe a e a…

This one can be used in formal letters of complaint to explain what you had believed because
of worng information you were given.

 I’ rather take a a k y all of this

 This is something of a shock

 Come off it!

 This is quite astonishing!

 Are you serious?

Most obviously you are surprised when someone appears in front of you unexpectedly. To
explain the involuntary twitch or shake of the head that follows it's useful to have a few
phrases at the ready. So if on opening the front door, you should suddenly come across the
milkman standing on the threshold, one of the following spoken in a jovial manner would seem
appropriate: My word you frightened the living daylights out of me, Goodness me you almost
made me jump out of my skin, How you startled me, or You know, you gave me quite a turn.
Should you need a little more time for recovery and providing of course the milkman is not in
too much of a hurry, you can go on in this strain: If you go round creeping about like that any
more, you'll frighten someone to death. News of an astounding nature also calls for comment.
If you're not really concerned one way or the other but your messenger looks at you as if he
wants you to share in the unusualness of his information, you can always rely on some of these
briefer old favourites: Good heavens, Good gracious, Good grief(that one's usually reserved
for something quite shocking or serious) Golly or briefest of all but at the same time proving
that you've been listening: No orNever. But supposing you've just been told that Albert, who
incidentally hasn't got a penny to his name, has got married to the local Bank Manager's
daughter, then this calls for something different rather along these lines: Well, I never. You
don't mean to say that he's settled down at last. Again, you might get a letter from the local
store saying that they've agreed to reduce your bill because of the inconvenience you've
suffered. A colourful reaction to this would be: Well I'll go to the foot of our stairs. Frequently
of course you don't believe the news you've been given and a touch of sarcasm could creep in
with: you must be joking or more biting: you will have your little joke, won't you? Similar
signs of disbelief are expressed thus: You're pulling my leg, aren't you? You're having me on
or No, seriously though.
Another source of amazement is when you see someone doing something entirely out of
character. The sight of a relative, who normally without fail falls asleep by the fire after a meal
at your house, actually lending a hand with the washing up could call forth this comment: I
must be dreaming. Pinch me somebody. Such comments are naturally best delivered in a
subdued tone especially if you're using the best china. A Prime Minister on television,
admitting that he has made a mistake – yes, I suppose that's just about possible – this should
deserve: Wonders will never cease. Two less dramatic but very common expressions for
unusual situations are: Well I'm darned and Well I'm blowed. Sometimes the circumstances
are such that you cannot find any suitable words at the time of an event. You tend therefore to
describe your surprise afterwards. When the boss of his own accord offers you a rise you
accept but are in fact speechless. Later when you recollect the occasion you say: You could
have knocked me down with a feather. Recalling the day you passed your driving test: I went
all weak at the knees; the day you won the football pools: I didn't know whether to laugh or
cry and the day your car had disappeared from the place where you'd parked it: My stomach
turned right over.
Sometimes we wish to warn others of the approach of a third person whose presence is not
welcome. You have got over the shock but you want to prepare the others. Least innocuous
is: Guess who's coming up the garden path right now? When the visitor has already arrived
and it so happens that you have just been talking about him, you can say in his hearing in a
light-hearted way: Talk of the devil. But if you resent the intrusion very much you can employ
the spiteful: Look what the wind's just blown in. And on that breath of fresh air I'll conclude
and hope that I haven't shocked you too much.

Surprise - Astonishment - Disbelief

bolt from the To refer to something as a bolt from the blue means that it happened
blue totally unexpectedly and was a complete surprise.
The chairman's resignation came as a bolt from the blue.

out of the blue If something happens out of the blue, it happens unexpectedly and
causes a surprise.
I had nearly given up hope when out of the blue I was offered a job.

caught If someone is caught unawares, they are surprised and unprepared for
unawares what happens.
The security guard moved so silently that the thief was caught unawares.

credibility gap The extent of disbelief, of the difference between what you are asked to
believe and what you are able to believe, is called a credibility gap
The growing credibility gap may lead to a serious loss of votes in the next
elections.
do a double Someone who does a double take looks again in surprise at something
take unexpected.
He did a double take when he saw his wife in a restaurant with another
man.

drop a If you drop a bombshell, you make an unexpected announcement which

bombshell will greatly change a situation.
The chairman dropped a bombshell when he announced the merger with
the company's biggest rival.

eyes on stalks If your eyes are on stalks when you look at something, they are wide
open with surprise or amazement.
The child's eyes were on stalks as he watched the magician's
performance.

jaw drops If someone's jaw drops, they show total amazement.

When the prize was announced, the winner's jaw dropped.

jump out of If you jump out of your skin, you are extremely surprised or shocked.
one's skin Jane nearly jumped out of her skin when the horse put its head through
the kitchen window!

knock your If something amazes you, or impresses you greatly, it knocks your socks
socks off off.
The magnitude of the project will knock the socks off everyone in the
office.

knock down To say 'you could have knocked me down with a feather' emphasizes the
with feather fact that you were extremely surprised.
When I heard the name of the winner, you could have knocked me down
with a feather!

lo and behold! This term is used to express surprise, especially at a sudden or

unexpected appearance
I was watering the flowers when, lo and behold, there was the watch I'd
lost!

nine-day An event which is a nine-day wonder causes interest, surprise or

wonder excitement for a short time, but it doesn't last.
His sudden departure was a nine-day wonder but he was soon forgotten.

raise eyebrows Someone who raises their eyebrows at something shows surprise or
disapproval by the expression on their face.
When the boss arrived in jeans, there were a lot of raised eyebrows

rooted to the If you are so shocked, surprised or scared that you are rooted to the spot,
spot you reaction is so strong that you are unable to move.
Joe stood rooted to the spot as the plane landed on the water.

seeing is This expression means that when you see something that seems
believing incredible you can be sure it exists, or that what you have been told is
really true.
Mark says bananas grow in his garden, but seeing is believing!
stop dead in If you stop dead in your tracks, you stop suddenly because you are totally
tracks surprised or frightened.
When Steve saw the snake, he stopped dead in his tracks.

struck dumb If someone is struck dumb, they are unable to speak because they are so
surprised, shocked or frightened by something.
The accused was struck dumb when the verdict was announced.

taken If something takes you unawares, it surprises you because you were not
unawares expecting it.
His angry reaction took me unawares.

there's no This expression is used to indicate surprise at another person's likes or

accounting for dislikes.
taste She fell in love with a guy who's short, fat, bald and poor ... there's no
accounting for taste!

wonders will This saying is used to express pleasure or surprise at something.

never cease The price of petrol has dropped! Wonders will never cease!

words fail me This expression is often used when someone is so shocked, surprised or
touched by something that they don't know what to say.
"What do you think of Bob's attitude?" "Words fail me!"

INVERSION
Did you notice the inversion in the comment about Banksy? Had he attached his name and
publicity to the stunt, and priced the work in the tens of thousands the scene would have been
one of people trampling each other to get one. In normal everyday English inversion is used :

 To make questions : Does he? Can you?

 After 'so', 'neither', 'nor' : So do I, neither do I, nor do I.

In written English, as well as in a very formal style, inversion is used in other cases:

 Inversion after negative expressions

We can use inversion in statements for the purpose of emphasis if we decide to start the
statement with a negative expression.
Under no circumstances would I wear a mini-skirt.
I wouldn't wear a mini-skirt under any circumstances.
In this example, the first statement is more emphatic than the second one. We can use this
approach with a wide variety of adverbial negative expressions, although it makes them sound
rather formal.

 After negative adverbial expressions :

Under no circumstances can we accept cheques. In no way can he be held responsible. At no

time did she say she would come.
  After 'seldom', 'rarely', 'never', in comparisons :

Seldom have I seen such a beautiful view. Rarely did he pay anyone a compliment. Never
had I felt so happy.

 After 'hardly', 'scarcely', 'no sooner', when one thing happens after another.

Hardly had I begun to speak when I was interrupted. Scarcely had we started our meal when
the phone rang. No sooner had I arrived than they all started to argue.

 After adverbial expressions beginning with 'only' :

Only after the meeting did I realize the importance of the subject

 Inversion after exclamations with 'here' and 'there' :

Here comes the winner! There goes all our money!

 Inversion after adverbial expressions of place :

Round the corner came the postman. On the doorstep was a bunch of flowers.

 Inversion in conditional sentences

We can use inversion in certain types of conditional sentences when the if-clause begins with
had, were or should. Sentences with inversion sometimes sound more formal than those with
the more conventional if-construction.
"Had he not resigned, we would have been obliged to give him the sack."
"If he had not resigned, we would have been forced to sack him"
"Were she to find out that he was seeing some one else, she'd go berserk".
"If she were to find out that he was cheating on her, she would go mad.
Should you decide to cancel the contract, please let me know by Friday.
If you decide to withdraw from the agreeme t, please pho e e F ida .

STRESS DERIVED FROM SUFFIXES

The least intuitive syllable stress patterns are those associated with suffixes. There are so
many suffixes that affect where stress will fall in a word that memorizing them all can be
overwhelming.
At first glance, stressed syllables based on suffixes appear to not follow any pattern at all. For
instance, the words classic, specific, and economicall include the -ic suffix. They are stressed on
the first, second, and third syllables, respectively. The stress patterns can only be found when
it is understood that syllables must be counted from the end of the word toward the beginning
of the word. In fact, the words classic, specific, and economic all follow the same pattern of
being stressed on the syllable before the -ic suffix. When it is viewed in reverse, from the end
of the word toward the front, the pattern emerges.
There are three major patterns that the suffixes affecting stress fall into:

 One syllable before the suffix

 -ic
 -tion/-sion
 -ish
 Two syllables before the suffix
 -cy
 -ty
 -gy
 -phy
 -fy
 -ian
 -ate
 The syllable on the suffix
 -ee
 -eer
 -ese

It must be understood that not all suffixes have the ability to control syllable stress. Certain
kinds of suffixes (called inflectional suffixes) are grammatical and do not create a new word.
These suffixes include -ed, -s, -es, and -ing. These suffixes have no role in determining syllable
stress.
Other suffixes, such as -al, -ally and -ly are merely added to the end of a word, and sometimes
even onto another suffix. These suffixes do not alter the placement of a stressed syllable.

Is art an investment? Think about it and then read the experts' opinion.
Art is most certainly an asset in the broadest sense of the word. Its aesthetic, cultural or
historical value can be limitless. It might be financially valuable too, but just because some
people happen to own art that is worth more today than what they paid for it does not mean
that buying art in order to make money is somehow easy to pull off.
Sure, there are many examples of art works that have been sold for much more than their
purchase price over time, but these are the exceptions, rather than the rule. They should not
provide much comfort to buyers anyway because the art market is a pretty wild place, where
past pe fo a e does t ou t fo u h. A lot of thi gs that sell fo $1 illio o oe
au tio o t t ade at that p i e agai . That s he e people a get i to t ou le.
Collectors are willing to splurge on masterpieces. Meanwhile, the vast majority of art is never
going to go up in price. 90% of art devalues the minute you walk out of the gallery door with it.
So trying to figure out what you should pay for art is fraught with complications. A general
approach to investing could be to mathematically and unemotionally figure out what
so ethi g is o th. Whe ou e i esti g i a thi g, a t, se u ities o eal estate, ou a t
to ake su e that ou do ot o e pa . The t ou le is that the e s o elia le a of doi g that
in the art market.
Buyers are subjective, faddish and emotional, which can massively inflate prices. A work of art
is o th hat so eo e is illi g to pa fo it. Will it sell fo that p i e agai ? It s ha d to sa .
There could be someone in the room willing to pay three times what they think they actually
should because it fills out their collection.
So how do you get your hands on the 10% of art that might be worth more one day, especially
o e ou fa to i the galle , au tio house o deale s o issio plus othe onsiderations,
su h as i su a e osts? Well, to i p o e ou odds, ou d ha e to e su e ou u eithe
undervalued artists or the best work by highly valued artists at discount prices, which either
requires a lot of knowledge or expert help. That also assumes you can get hold of coveted
works at a time when plenty of other people are after them and when some buyers are
prepared to spend whatever it takes. To achieve these goals, you really need limitless time or
oodles of money, but preferably both.
So own a t, e jo it a d a e, just a e, it ll ake ou o e if ou e e ha e to o a t
to sell it one day. But think long and hard before you buy art with that expectation, unless you
are particularly wealthy, with plenty of cash to lose.
TYPES OF MODERN ART
LAND ART - is an art movement in which landscape and the work of art are inextricably linked.
It is also an art form that is created in nature, using natural materials such as soil, rock (bed
rock, boulders, stones), organic media (logs, branches, leaves), and water with introduced
materials such as concrete, metal, asphalt, or mineral pigments. Sculptures are not placed in
the landscape, rather, the landscape is the means of their creation. Often earth moving
equipment is involved. The works frequently exist in the open, are vast in scale and are located
well away from civilization, left to change and erode under natural conditions. Among the
most famous land artists are Richard Long and Robert Smithson.
ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM was the first American art style to exert an influence on a global
s ale. It d e upo the spi itual app oa h of Ka di sk , the 'auto atis ' of the “u ealists,
and a range of dramatic painting techniques.
A st a t E p essio is as also k o as A tio Pai ti g , a title hi h i plied that the
physical act of painting was as important as the result itself.
The Abstract Expressionist movement embraced paintings from a wide range of artists whose
o k as ot al a s pu el a st a t o t ul e p essio isti . The all-o e d ip pai ti gs of
Jackson Pollock, which entangle the viewer in a skein of light, color and texture, were the
biggest challenge to the interpretation of pictorial space since Cubism. The paintings of Mark
Rothko bathe the spectator in a mystical world of diffuse color while the art of Robert
Motherwell sets up an abstract dialogue between his 'automatic' calligraphy and the conscious
control of shapes and colors. Willem de Kooning, Franz Kline, Barnet Newman and Clifford Still
were other major figures associated with the movement.
POP ART was the art movement that characterized a sense of optimism during the post war
consumer boom of the 1950's and 60's. It coincided with the globalization of pop music and
youth culture, personified by Elvis and The Beatles.
Pop Art was brash, colorful, young, fun and hostile to the artistic establishment. It included
different styles of painting and sculpture from various countries, but what they all had in
common was an interest in popular culture.
The stark look of Pop Art emerged from a fusion of Dada collages and 'readymades' with the
imagery of the consumer culture. It was seen as an antidote to the introspection of Abstract
Expressionism. The expressive techniques of Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg provided
the stylistic link between Abstract Expressionism and Pop but the images of celebrity and
consumerism by Andy Warhol and the comic book iconography of Roy Lichtenstein represent
the style as we know it today.
MINIMALISM was not only a reaction against the emotionally charged techniques of Abstract
Expressionism but also a further refinement of pure abstraction. It was an attempt to discover
the essence of art by reducing the elements of a work to the basic considerations of shape,
surface and materials.
Minimalist art used hard-edged forms and geometric grid structures. Color was simply used to
define space or surface. Ad Reinhardt, whose late paintings anticipate Minimalism, put it
si pl , The o e stuff i it, the usie the o k of a t, the o se it is. Mo e is less. Less is
more. The eye is a menace to clear sight. The laying bare of oneself is obscene. Art begins with
the getti g id of atu e.
Frank Stella, Don Judd, Robert Morris, John McCracken and Sol LeWitt were important
contributors to Minimalism.

Glossary of Art Terms

Abstract/abstraction - Abstract means the modification of a (usually) natural form by
simplification or distortion. Abstraction is the category of such modified images. (See also non-
objective.)

Alla prima - (pronounced ah-la pree-ma) - Italian term, meaning to paint on canvas or other
ground directly, in full, opaque color, without any preliminary drawing or underpainting done
first. (Underpainting is often done to establish the larger masses of the composition, or to
establish tonal values (lights and darks)).

All-over space - A type of space in modern painting characterized by the distribution of forms
equally "all over" the picture surface, as opposed to the traditional composing method of
having a focal point, or center of interest. In "all-over" space, the forms are seen as occupying
the same spatial depth, usually on the picture plane; also, they are seen as possessing the
same degree of importance in the painting. (In traditional painting, the focal point (or center of
interest) is meant to be the most significant part of the painting, both visually and subject-
wise, for instance, a portrait; whereas with "all-over" space, there is no one center of interest
visually or subject-wise.) The Action painter, Jackson Pollock, was the first to use all-over (also
called infinite) space, in his famous "drip" paintings of the 1940's and '50's, and this spatial
concept has influenced most two-dimensional art since that time.

Assemblage - (pronounced as-sem-blidge) - A type of modern sculpture consisting of

combining multiple objects or forms, often 'found' objects. (A found object is one that the
artist comes upon and uses, as is or modified, in an artwork.) The most well known
assemblages are those made by Robert Rauschenberg in the 1950's and '60's; for example, one
assemblage consisted of a stuffed goat with an automobile tire encircling its stomach,
mounted on a painted base. The objects are combined for their visual (sculptural) properties,
as well as for their expressive properties.

Atmospheric - A quality of two-dimensional images which has to do more with space than with
volume; an 'airiness,.' seen more in contemporary than traditional images. Also refers to
atmospheric perspective, which is a less technical type of perspective, using faded and lighter
colors to denote far distance in landscapes.
Atmospheric perspective - Atmospheric, or aerial, perspective, is a less technical type of
perspective, which consists of a gradual decrease in intensity of local color, and less contrast of
light and dark, as space recedes into the far distance in a landscape painting or drawing. Often,
this far distance will also be represented by a light, cool, bluish-gray. (See also perspective.)

Automatic (writing) - Automatic writing was a technique first used by the Dada and Surrealist
artists in the early 20th century, to tap into their subconscious to write poetry (Freud's ideas
on the subconscious had been introduced in the early part of the 20th century). They would try
to connect with their subconscious to access a 'stream of consciousness,' or more 'free' type of
poetry. Visual artists in these movements also tried to draw or paint "automatically," by
allowing their subconscious to play a large part in the creative process. The Abstract
Expressionists of the 1940's and '50's also used this method, for example, Jackson Pollock's
"drip" paintings.

Biomorphic - An attribute related to organic, since it describes images derived from biological
or natural forms; it was a term frequently used in early- to mid-20th century art. The art of
Miro, Arp and Calder contains examples of these simplified organic forms.

Broken color - Broken color was first used by Manet and the Impressionists in 19th century
French painting, where color was applied in small "dabs," as opposed to the traditional
method of smoothly blending colors and values (lights and darks) together. This method
results in more of a "patchwork" effect, where the dabs render the facets of light on forms,
and/or the planes of the forms' volume, by means of color and value. Broken color has
continued to be used in much modern and contemporary painting.

Calligraphy/calligraphic - Calligraphy is beautiful personal handwriting, which has also been

practiced in the Orient and Near East for many centuries. The term calligraphic is also applied
to drawing or painting which contains brushstrokes reminiscent of calligraphy.

Camera obscura - A system of lenses and mirrors developed from the 16th to the 17th
centuries, which functioned as a primitive camera for artists. With the camera obscura,
painters could project the scene in front of them onto their painting surface, as a preliminary
drawing. Vermeer, among others, is thought to have used the camera obscura.
Chiaroscuro - (pronounced kyar-oh-scoor-oh) - Italian term for light and dark, referring to the
modeling of form by the use of light and shade.

Collage - (pronounced col-laj) - French word for cut and pasted scraps of materials, such as
paper, cardboard, chair caning, playing cards, etc., to a painting or drawing surface; sometimes
also combined with painting or drawing.

Color field painting - A style of painting begun in the 1950's to '70's, characterized by small or
large abstracted areas of color. Mark Rothko is one of the earliest and best known color field
painters; Morris Louis, Jules Olitski and Helen Frankenthaler are other examples.

Complementary colors - Colors which are located opposite one another on the color wheel
(e.g., red and green, yellow and purple, blue and orange); colors which when mixed together
will (in color theory) produce a neutral color (a color which is neither warm nor cool). In the
case of the three primary colors (red, yellow and blue), the complementary of one primary will
be the mixture of the other two primaries (complementary of red will be a mixture of yellow
and blue, or green). When placed next to one another, complementary colors will make one
another appear much more intense, sometimes in an "eye-popping" sense, which was utilized
by Op artists of the 1960's to create optical effects. Also in color theory, an object's primary
color has its complementary color in its shadows (e.g., the shadows on and around a painted
yellow apple will contain some purple).

Composition - The process of arranging the forms of two- and three-dimensional visual art into
a unified whole, by means of elements and principles of design, such as line, shape, color,
balance, contrast, space, etc., for purposes of formal clarity and artistic expression.

Conception/execution - Conception is the birth process of an artistic idea, from the initial
creative impulse through aesthetic refinement, problem-solving, and visualization/realization.
Execution is the second half of the creative process: the actual carrying out of the idea, in
terms of method and materials, which often involves compromises and alterations of the initial
conception. Artists often see the initial conception as the guiding force for their aesthetic
decisions, in terms of formal elements of design, and in terms of the expressive content
desired. Contemporary conceptual artists place more emphasis on the first part of the creative
process; traditional artists are somewhat more concerned with the techniques and methods
involved in producing the artwork. The painter Henri Matisse advised, in his essay On Painting,
that artists should keep their initial impulse in the front of their minds when working on a
painting, to make the best expressive and formal decisions.

Conceptual - Pertaining to the process involved in the initial stages of art-making (i.e., the
initial conception, or idea). Also, the name of a contemporary art movement which is mainly
concerned with this process of conceiving of and developing the initial idea, as opposed to the
carrying-out of the idea into concrete form. I think that conceptual artists also often think of
the idea as the real work of art, rather than its concrete manifestation. It is possible for a
conceptual art "piece" to not even be a tangible object - it may be an event or a process, which
can't be seen itself, but the results of the event or process may be displayed, in text or
photographs, for instance. Conceptual art tends to be created across artistic categories - for
instance, mixing the mediums of photography, text, sound, sculpture, etc. My feeling about a
lot of the conceptual work I have seen is that it tends to be an experiential art, rather than the
traditional 'passive' experience of viewing art on a wall or a pedestal. Perhaps because our age
and time demand a more interactive experience; or because art had by the late 20th century
become a 'commodity,' to be bought and sold like any other commodity, and artists felt a need
to avoid this commodification. Two examples come to mind: 1) Maya Lin's memorial to
Vietnam veterans in Washington, DC. The traditional bronze statue of soldiers would not have
been nearly as effective as a memorial to Vietnam veterans; as it is, it has become a powerful
catharsis for Vietnam vets, and also for the two war-era factions - the hawks and the doves -
those who protested the war in the 1960's, and those who supported the Vietnam war. 2) In
the Holocaust Museum in Washington, DC, there is a large collection of shoes which belonged
to Nazi concentration camp victims. Though this may not be officially a conceptual artwork, it
has the characteristics of one, and perhaps was influenced by conceptual art. A photograph on
the wall of such belongings would be an adequate representation of the horror of that time.
But a huge pile of shoes in a room, to be walked through, to see the different types of shoes
which resemble their former owners in personality and age, is to really experience the
powerful emotions associated with such horror.

Contemporary art - The term contemporary describes the most recent art, in this case as
distinguished from modern art, which is generally considered to have lost its dominance in the
mid-1950's.

Content - As opposed to subject matter, content is the "meaning" of the artwork, e.g., in Moby
Dick, the subject matter is a man versus a whale; the content is a complex system of symbols,
metaphors, etc. describing man's existence and nature.
Contour - The outer edge of forms which implies three dimensions, in contrast to an outline,
which is a boundary of two-dimensional, flat form. Also, a type of line drawing which captures
this three-dimensional outer edge, with its fullness and recession of form.

Contrapposto - (pronounced con-tra-pos-to) - Italian term, meaning to represent freedom of

movement within a figure, as in ancient Greek sculpture, the parts being in asymmetrical
relationship to one another, usually where the hips and legs twist in one direction, and the
chest and shoulders in another.

Cool colors - In color theory, colors are described as either warm, cool, or neutral. A cool color
generally is one which contains a large amount of blue, as opposed to a warm color, which will
contain more yellow. In theory, cool colors seem to recede in space, as the distant mountains
or hills tend to appear light bluish-gray, and the closer ones will be more green or brown
(warmer). In landscape paintings, artists often paint the distant hills in this pale blue color; and
it is generally thought that cool colors will recede into space in any painting. However, color is
a complex element, and colors often misbehave - it is usually best to go on a case-by-case
basis, because colors are influenced greatly by what colors they are next to, appearing "warm"
in one setting, and "cool" in another. (I recommend reading the abbreviated version of The
Interaction of Color, by Josef Albers, for his ideas and exercises.)

Cross-hatching - The practice of overlapping parallel sets of lines in drawing to indicate lights
and darks, or shading. (Hatching is one set of parallel lines, cross-hatching is one set going in
one direction, with another overlapped set going in a different, often perpendicular, direction.)
diptych - Two separate paintings which are attached by hinges or other means, displayed as
one artwork.

Directional movement - A principle of visual movement in artworks, which can be carried by

line, dots, marks, shapes, patterns, color, and other compositional elements. Directional
movement in paintings or sculptures directs the viewer's eye around or through the artwork,
in a way which the artist consciously or unconsciously determines. One important function is
to keep the viewer's eye from "leaving" the work, and instead cause the viewer to follow an
inventive (interesting) path within the work, or exit in one area, only to be brought back in
another area.

Drawing - Pencil, pen, ink, charcoal or other similar mediums on paper or other support,
tending toward a linear quality rather than mass, and also with a tendency toward black-and-
white, rather than color (one exception being pastel).

Earthwork - A type of contemporary art begun in the 1960's and '70's, which uses the
landscape, or environment, as its medium, either by using natural forms as the actual work of
art, or by enhancing natural forms with manmade materials. Two well-known earthwork artists
are the husband and wife team of Christo and Jeanne-Claude, and Robert Smithson. Some of
these earthworks can be very large, measured in miles. The origin of earth art may have been
the environment-conscious '60's and '70's, but earthworks also refer back to ancient
earthworks, such as the large Native American and other burial mounds. Christo' and Jeanne-
Claude's work is various, usually temporary and site-specific, and ranges from "wrapping" an
island or a building (such as the former German Reichstag headquarters), to erecting a very
high "curtain" of fabric over miles of uninhabited (and inhabited) land. They work with an army
of workers to erect these works, and also work with the surrounding community to get
permission and establish guidelines of what they can and cannot do, during which meetings
they explain their artistic purposes to community members, and often the residents evolve
from their initial reluctance to give permission, to becoming enthusiastic supporters. It is a
very interesting process to watch, and I think is another example of how some contemporary
art tries to enlist the participation of the public in the art-making process, or at the very least
to familiarize the public with artistic motivations. In Christo and Jeanne-Claude's work, I see a
kind-of Quixotic whimsy - when they wrapped the former Reichstag headquarters building in
Germany, it seemed to me to be a poetic expression of victory over the former Nazi Third
Reich tyranny.

Encaustic - The process of using pigments dissolved in hot wax as a medium for painting;
mostly used long ago, but there are some contemporary artists who have used encaustic, such
as Jasper Johns.

Engraving - A general term used to describe traditional printing processes, such as etching,
aquatint, drypoint, etc., where an image is made by the use of metal plates and engraving
tools, and printed, usually through a printing press. The image can be incised into the plate, or
drawn with fluid and then dipped in acid to etch the uncovered areas. These processes are still
used by artists, but of course have been supplanted by more modern processes for general
printing purposes.

Expressionistic - A characteristic of some art, generally since the mid-19th century, leaning
toward the expression of emotion over objective description. James Ensor, Edvard Munch and
Vincent Van Gogh were perhaps the first expressionists, though there was not really a
movement per se, but individual artists. At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th
centuries, expressionism became widely espoused, particularly by German and Austrian artists,
such as Emil Nolde, Kirchner, Gustav Klimt, and others. Though there is variation, certain
characteristics predominate: bright, even garish, color; harsh contrasts of black and white (as
in woodcuts); exaggeration of form; and distortion or elongation of figures. There are still
many artists whose work has expressionistic tendencies; in the 1980's there was a period of art
called Neo-Expressionist. (The word 'neo' before an art label means that there is a reprise of
work similar to the original movement.)
Figurative - A term used to describe art which is based on the figure, usually in realistic or
semi-realistic terms; also loosely used to describe an artist who paints or sculpts
representationally, as opposed to painting or sculpting in an abstract or non-objective manner.

Figure/ground - The relationship of the picture surface (ground) to the images on the picture
surface (figure). The figure is the space occupied by forms (e.g., a person in a portrait) (also
known as the 'positive' space); the ground is the "empty" or unoccupied space around the
person in the portrait (also known as the 'negative' space) (The ground is also commonly called
the 'background.') In art since the early 20th century, this division of the picture plane has
been seriously challenged, to the point where there is not a distinction of figure/ground, but
rather one continuous surface and space, with no 'positive' or 'negative' space, just one
interwoven space.

Focal point - In two-dimensional images, the center of interest visually and/or subject-wise;
tends to be used more in traditional, representational art than in modern and contemporary
art, where the picture surface tends to have more of an overall importance, rather than one
important area.

Foreshortening - Perspective applied to a single object in an image, for a three-dimensional

effect, which often results in distortion with possible emotional overtones. It is used
particularly with the human figure, in Renaissance and Mannerist art.
Formal - A term used by artists to describe the visual elements of a work of art, such as
composition, space, color, etc., i.e., formal elements.

Found object - First used in the early years of the 20th century (in the Dadaist movement), a
found object is any object that an artist comes upon, and uses in an artwork, or as the artwork
itself. Marcel Duchamp called these works 'readymades.' He exhibited a urinal in the Society of
Independent Artists exhibition in New York in 1917, under the signature 'R Mutt'; Dada was
the precursor to Surrealism, and was an 'anti-art' movement after World War I, which sought
to avoid order and rationality in art. Dada also questioned the very meaning of art: what is art?
who decides if an object is art? is it art because an artist places it in a museum and calls it art?
etc. Later, Picasso made a bull's head from found objects: the seat and handle bars of a bicycle.

Fresco - Wall painting in water-based paint on moist plaster, mostly from the 14th to the 16th
centuries; used mostly before the Renaissance produced oil paint as a more easily handled
medium.

Frottage - (pronounced fro-taj) - French term, meaning to rub a crayon or other tool onto
paper or other material, which is placed onto a textured surface, in order to create the texture
of that surface on the paper. The Surrealist artist Max Ernst used this technique in some of his
collages.

Genre - (pronounced jahn-re) - A type of painting representing scenes of everyday life for its
own sake, popular from the 17th century to the 19th century.

Gesso - An undercoating medium used on the canvas or other painting surface before painting,
to prime the canvas; usually a white, chalky, thick liquid. In the mid-20th century, gesso
became available already commercially prepared; before this time, artists often mixed their
own gesso mixture.

Gesture/gestural - The concept of gesture in drawing is twofold: it describes the action of a

figure; and it embodies the intangible "essence" of a figure or object. The action line of a figure
is often a graphic undulating line, which follows the movement of the entire body of the figure
being drawn or painted. The term gestural is an extension of this idea to describe a type of
painting which is characterized by brushstrokes with a gestural quality, that is, flowing, curved,
undulating lines or forms. Gestural composition means a type of composition based on
gestural directional movements. The work of Arshile Gorky, the Abstract Expressionist, is an
example of gestural painting, which often connotes a spiritual or emotional content.

Glaze/glazing - A glaze is a thin layer of translucent oil paint applied to all or part of a painting,
to modify the tone or color underneath. Glazing is the process of using this technique.

Golden section - A mathematical ratio first used by the Greeks in their architecture, and
developed further in the Renaissance, which was said to be in tune with divine proportion and
the harmony of the universe. It has been used by artists to divide the picture surface (as a
compositional device); among others, Seurat and Mondrian are thought to have used this ratio
to create compositions.

Graphic/graphic arts - The graphic arts (drawing and engraving) are said to depend for their
effect on drawing, as opposed to color. The term graphic describes drawings or prints which
lean more toward drawing (line) than color (mass). I think that this division is less pertinent in
modern and contemporary art than in traditional art or art of the past.
Grid - A formal visual vehicle much in currency during 20th century art, the grid is a geometric
construct of squares or rectangles that form the underlying or actual structure of some two-
dimensional modern art. Though the meaning of the grid to artists is hard to describe in words,
it is more than just a visual armature. In a way, it can be said to represent the modern and
postmodern stance of the 20th century; and often seems to inspire almost a reverence, as a
symbol of aesthetic purity and integrity, particularly of modernism. Many artists have used the
grid; two who come to mind are Jasper Johns (paintings) and Louise Nevelson (sculpture).

Grisaille - (pronounced gri-zale) - Painting entirely in monochrome (tones of one color), in a

series of grays. Strictly speaking, monochrome is in any one color, such as red, blue or black;
grisaille means in neutral grays only (French term). Grisaille may be used for its own sake as
decoration, or may be the first stage in building up an oil painting (to establish the tonal range
of the image). Grisaille was also formerly used as a model for an engraver to work from.

Guild - During the Middle Ages, tradesmen formed guilds for economic, social and religious
purposes; there were often several trades in one guild. Originally, painters were in the same
guild as physicians and apothecaries (pharmacists), in Florence, Italy. All painters had to join
the guilds, unless they were in the personal service of a ruling prince. Only a Master could set
up a studio in business, take pupils and employ journeymen. To become a Master, a painter
had to submit a 'master-piece' to the guild as proof of competence. Guild officers supervised
the number of apprentices, work conditions, and also materials (they bought in bulk, chose
panels to work on). They had a trade union mentality, which centered on uniformity of
performance; this led to painters like Michelangelo and da Vinci insisting on the freedom and
originality of the artist, with the status of a professional and scholar/gentleman (an inspired
being, rather than an honest tradesman). This new attitude toward artists led to the decline of
the guilds, and the use of academies, which took over the teaching of art.

Hatching - A technique used in drawing to indicate light and shade, or form, consisting of
parallel lines of varying width, darkness and spacing. Cross-hatching is simply two or more
overlapping sets of these parallel sets of lines, at a perpendicular or other angle to the first set
of lines.

Hue - Referring to the actual color of a form or object, e.g., a red car.

Iconography - Knowledge of the meanings to be attached to pictorial representations; perhaps

the visual equivalent of symbols or metaphors in literature. An artist may be aware of his/her
iconography and use it consciously; probably just as often, the iconography is used in a semi-
conscious way. An artist will intuitively choose images because of meanings they have for
him/her, and over the course of time a pattern can often be found, as a logical progression or
repeating images. An artist can be said to have a personal iconography, which is often noted
and analyzed by others, including art historians, critics, writers and the public. Often, the
meanings seen in an artist's work by others differs, somewhat or considerably, from what the
artist has intended.

Ideal art - Art which aims to be the true, eternal reality. In the 18th and 19th centuries, this
included some Neoclassical art, which emulated the forms and ideas found in classical art
(Greece and Rome). In modern times, this could include artists such as Mondrian and
Malevich, who considered pure abstraction to be the manifestation of this pure reality.
Perhaps the theoretical opposite of ideal art is realism, which tries to depict things not as some
ideal, but as they 'really' are.
Impasto - An Italian term for oil paint applied very thickly onto the canvas or other support,
resulting in evident brushstrokes (visible).

Installation - A type of art, usually sculptural, which is often large enough to fill an entire
space, such as a gallery, and consists of a number and variety of components. Installation art
perhaps began in the 1960's with Ed Kienholz and George Segal, two American sculptors. Ed
Kienholz' work contains such elements as cars and institutional furniture (suggesting a state
hospital or prison), with the content being death and serious societal issues. Segal's work, in
contrast, consists of lifesize plaster figures (cast from real people and usually white), engaged
in contemporary and mundane activities, such as adding letters to a movie marquee or waiting
for the subway, and often represent the poetry of the mundane. Installation art is often site-
specific, meaning that it is created specifically for a certain site. There are many contemporary
artists creating installations, such as Judy Pfaff.

Linear - Describing a quality related to the use of line in painting or sculpture; can refer to
directional movement in composition, or the actual use of the element of line in the image or
sculpture, as contrasted with the use of mass or shape forms.

Local color - The actual color of a form or object, uninfluenced by the effects of light or
reflected color. For instance, a vase may be turquoise (the local color), but appear pale blue
because of sunlight hitting it in certain places; dark blue because of areas in shadow; and many
subtle color shades in certain areas because of reflected light from surrounding surfaces.

Lyrical - A quality applied to various art forms (poetry, prose, visual art, dance and music),
referring to a certain ethereal, musical, expressive, or poetic quality of artistic expression.
Although difficult to define, when a visual work of art is described as having a lyrical quality, it
means that it possesses a certain spiritual or emotional quality; perhaps the color relationships
may be said to "sing"; or the linear quality of directional movement may be
of a sensitive and expressive nature; or the work expresses a particularly profound, passionate
or tender sentiment, perhaps related to romanticism or other lofty expression.
Mannerism/mannered - Mannerism was a style of art in 16th century Italy, characterized by
somewhat distorted (usually human) forms and a high emotional key. Practitioners included
the artist Pontormo. In modern and contemporary art, the term mannered when applied to a
style or work of art is somewhat critical, implying that the style or work of art is done not from
the inner convictions and perceptions of the artist, but rather out of the artist's historical
artistic habits or preconceptions. In other words, the work appears contrived or forced, as
opposed to arrived at by genuine and self-aware creative impulses.

Mass/masses - Shapes or forms used in visual art, as contrasted with lines; also masses often
form the large part(s) of the compositional structure, without the additional complexity of
detail.

Medium - Material or technique an artist works in; also, the (usually liquid or semi-liquid)
vehicle in which pigments are carried or mixed (e.g., oil, egg yolk, water, refined linseed oil).

Mobile - (pronounced mo-beel) - A type of kinetic sculpture (that which moves), invented and
first used by the artist Alexander Calder. Trained as an engineer, Calder built many hanging
mobiles with various attached forms, which moved and changed with air currents, etc. Many
of them were very large, and hang in museum lobbies or auditoriums, from the ceiling. The
forms which rotate and change their configurations are often of a biomorphic nature, similar
to those used by Hans Arp and Juan Miro.
Modeling - Three-dimensional effect created by the use of changes in color, the use of lights
and darks, cross-hatching, etc.

Modern art - Generally considered to be the period from about 1905-6 to the mid-1950's,
when Pop art ushered in what is referred to as the postmodern period in art. Modern art is
generally characterized by formal experimentation and exploration, and mostly seriousness of
purpose. (Dada and Surrealism may be the exceptions to this rule.)

Motif - (pronounced mo-teef) - A French term which refers to: the subject matter or content of
a work of art (e.g., a landscape motif); also refers to a visual element used in a work of art, as
in a recurring motif (i.e., Warhol used the motif of soup cans in his early works; or Mondrian
used rectangles as a visual motif.

Naturalism - A style of painting which uses an analysis of tone (value) and color of its subject,
resulting in a representation of the appearance of forms or landscapes. Impressionism has
naturalistic tendencies, because it analyzes tone and color in the play of light on surfaces.
Naturalism can also have a sensual character (as against composition and drawing). The
Impressionists were influenced by 19th century researches into the physics of color by
Chevreul (a scientist) and others, which showed that an object casts a shadow which contains
its complementary color (see complementary color). This theory eventually hardened into
Neo-Impressionism, where Seurat and others sought the maximum optical truth about nature
and the ideal composition and color relationships. This line of inquiry also led eventually to
Post-Impressionism, where Gauguin and Van Gogh, among others, used color in a purely
artistic and anti-naturalistic manner, which was non-intellectual. (Color used by Gauguin and
Van Gogh is often deliberately independent of the local or light-influenced color of objects;
and beyond that in the early 20th century, the Fauve painters used bright color and forms even
more distant from their perceptual origins.)

Negative space - In a painting or sculpture, the areas where there are no forms (the "empty"
areas). In a painting, this means the areas which have no forms or objects (sometimes also
called the 'background' ). In sculpture, this means the "holes" between forms or within a form
(e.g., Henry Moore sculptures). Negative space is the other side of the coin of positive space,
which is space actually occupied by forms in a painting or sculpture (the figure in a portrait).
The notions of positive and negative space were advanced during the late 19th and early 20th
centuries, replacing the more traditional notion of a 'background' which was subordinate to
and separate from the subject image - portrait, still life, etc. Since about 1950, the notions of
positive and negative space have also been replaced by much contemporary art, which sees
the picture surface not as positive and negative areas, but rather one continuous surface
where every area is equally important, and at the same spatial depth. (See also positive space.)

Neutral color - A color which in color theory is neither warm nor cool. Neutral colors are said
to result from the combination of two complementary colors (e.g., red and green, blue and
orange, and yellow and purple). Neutral colors can also be mixed by other means. (See also
complementary colors, and warm and cool colors.)

Non-objective - A term used to describe visual art which is not based on existing, observable
forms, but rather on abstract or idealized forms, such as geometric, mathematical, imaginary,
etc. Non-objective art came into existence in the early 20th century, often with much
theoretical accompaniment. Mondrian is an example of an artist whose work is non-objective.
(See also abstract.)
Non-representational - Non-representational art is art which is not based on external
appearances; this covers several types of art - abstract, non-objective, and decorative; as
contrasted with representational art, which is art based on "real" imagery, whether actually
existant or existant only in the artist's imagination.

One-point linear perspective - Developed in 15th century Italy, a mathematical system for
indicating spatial distance in two-dimensional images, where lines converge in a single
vanishing point located on the horizon line, as seen by a stationary viewer. (See also two-point
linear perspective.)

Organic - A description of images which are partly or wholly derived from natural forms, such
as curvilinear, irregular, indicative of growth, biologically-based, etc.

Painterly - An adjective used to describe a style of painting which is based not on linear or
outline drawing, but rather patches or areas of color. In painterly two-dimensional images, the
edges of forms tend to merge into one another, or into the background, rather than be
separated by outlines or contours. Titian and Rembrandt are two artists with painterly
approaches; Botticelli's work is not painterly, but more linear/drawing oriented.

Palette - A thin piece of glass, wood or other material, or pad of paper, which is used to hold
the paint to be used in painting; also, the range of colors used by a particular painter.

Pastel - A drawing stick made of pigments ground with chalk and mixed with gum water; also,
a drawing executed with these pastel sticks; also, a soft, subdued tint (light shade) of a color.

Pentimenti - Italian term, from the word meaning 'repent'; refers to the lines or marks which
remain after an artist corrects his/her drawing (or painting). Traditionally, this meant that
these lines or marks remained unintentionally, in the quest for the perfectly drawn figure, for
instance. However, at the end of the 19th century (with Cezanne), these marks became part of
the visual expression; his figure drawings, for example, often show several contours in the
search for the "correct" one contour. With Cezanne's drawings, these multiple contours in fact
aid in the expression of three dimensions, more than one contour alone would do, giving a
sense of roundness and volume. In addition, these pentimenti contribute in an expressive
sense. In drawings and paintings since, some artists have taken advantage of this expressive
function of pentimenti, particularly in painting, and have left the marks/lines deliberately, or
even created them on purpose. They can add richness to a work.

Photomontage - (pronounced photo-montaj) - A two-dimensional combining of photographs

or parts of photographs into an image on paper or other material (a technique much used by
the Surrealists in the 1920's, such as Max Ernst).

Pictorial/picture surface - The flat plane of the canvas or other support, which is the two-
dimensional arena of the image.

Picture plane - The flat surface on which an image is painted, and that part of the image which
is closest to the viewer. (In modern and contemporary art, the picture plane is synonymous
with pictorial surface, meaning that the entire image is located on the picture plane, as
contrasted with art from the Renaissance until the mid-19th century, where the picture
surface was considered as a window into which the viewer looked into the illusion of distance.)

Positive space - The areas of a painting or sculpture which are occupied by forms or images, as
contrasted with negative space, which are the "empty" areas where no forms/images are
located. For example, in a portrait, the figure would be the positive space, the "background"
would be the negative space. In painting since around 1950, the differentiation between
positive and negative space has given way to a sense of a continuous surface/space/plane,
where all the forms are located on the picture surface, rather than on different planes in
space. (See also negative space.)

Postmodern - A term used to describe the period of art which followed the modern period,
i.e., from the 1950's until recently. The term implies a shift away from the formal rigors of the
modernists, toward the less formally and emotionally stringent Pop artists, and other art
movements which followed.

Printmaking - The category of fine art printing processes, including etching, lithography,
woodcut, and silkscreen, in which multiple images are made from the same metal plate, heavy
stone, wood or linoleum block, or silkscreen, with black-and-white or color printing inks.

Proportion - The relation of one part to the whole, or to other parts (for example, of the
human body). For example, the human body is approximately 7 to 7-1/2 times the height of
the head; the vertical halfway point of the body is the groin; the legs are halved at the knees,
etc. Proportion also refers to the relative sizes of the visual elements in a composition, and
their optimum relationships for good design.

Realism - Representational painting which, unlike ideal art, desires to depict forms and images
as they really are, without idealizing them. Courbet was one of the first realists, in opposition
to the previous reigning Neoclassical art in France; 19th century realist artists wanted to depict
life "as it is," warts and all.

Representational art - Art which is based on images which can be found in the objective world,
or at least in the artist's imagination; i.e., images which can perhaps be named or recognized.
For instance, an objectively faithful depiction of a person is representational art; also, a
depiction of an alien from outer space can also be considered a representational image. (See
also non-representational.)
Rubbing - A product of rubbing a crayon or other tool onto paper or other material over a
textured surface, in order to reproduce that texture into a two-dimensional image. For
example, a rubbing of a gravestone, a penny, etc. (See also frottage.)

Scumbling - A painting technique (the opposite of glazing), consisting of putting a layer of

opaque oil paint over another layer of a different color or tone, so that the lower layer is not
completely obliterated, giving an uneven, broken effect.

Shade - A dark value of a color, i.e., a dark blue; as opposed to a tint, which is a lighter shade of
a color, i.e., light blue. Also, to shade a drawing means to add the lights and darks, usually to
add a three-dimensional effect.

Sfumato - (pronounced sfu-ma-to) - Italian term meaning smoke, describing a very delicate
gradation of light and shade in the modeling of figures; often ascribed to da Vinci's work (also
called blending). Da Vinci wrote that 'light and shade should blend without lines or borders, in
the manner of smoke', in his Notes on Painting.

Sgraffito - (pronounced sgraf-ee-to) - Italian term meaning scratched; in painting, one color is
laid over another, and scratched in (with the other end of the brush, for example) so that the
color underneath shows through.
Shaped canvas - A type of painting/stretched canvas first begun in the 1960's, where the
canvas takes other forms than the traditional rectangle. Canvas is stretched over multiple
three-dimensional shapes, which are combined to form a three-dimensional, irregularly
shaped canvas on which to paint (often abstract or non-objective) images.

Spatial cues - Methods of indicating three-dimensional space in two-dimensional images.

Examples are: the modeling of forms with light and shade to indicate volume; overlapping of
forms to indicate relative spatial position; decrease in the size of images as they recede in
space; vertical position in the image (the further away an object is, the higher it is normally
located in the image); the use of increased contrast of light and dark (value) in the foreground;
the decreasing intensity of colors as they recede in space; the use of a perspective system, of
lines converging toward the horizon line. Spatial cues are used also in abstract or non-objective
art to indicate relative position in relation to the picture plane, by means of overlapping forms,
color and size relationships, and other spatial cues, but generally without perspective and
other indications of Renaissance (illusional) space.

Stabile - (pronounced stah-beel) - A type of 20th century sculpture which consists of a

stationary object, usually on a base of some kind. Described in contrast to a mobile, the free-
hanging sculptural invention of sculptor Alexander Calder, stabiles were also created by Calder.

Stained canvas - A method of painting first begun in the 1960's, consisting of the application of
(liquid) paint directly to canvas by pouring or rolling, rather than with the traditional brush,
and without the prerequisite layer of priming normally done to stretched canvas. Helen
Frankenthaler is one example of an artist who worked with stained canvas. This way of
applying paint gives a totally different image than one brushed on - obviously a more fluid
image, with translucent fields of color - perhaps like the aurora borealis - an effect impossible
with traditional brushes.

Stippling - A drawing technique consisting of many small dots or flecks to construct the image;
obviously, this technique can be very laborious, so generally small images are stippled. The
spacing and darkness of the dots are varied, to indicate three dimensions of an object, and
light and shadow; can be a very effective and interesting technique, which can also be used in
painting.

Study - A preliminary drawing for a painting; also, a work done just to "study" nature in
general.

Subject matter - As opposed to content, the subject matter is the subject of the artwork, e.g.,
still life. The theme of Vanitas (popular a few centuries ago) of vanity, death, universal fate,
etc., used in the still life, can be considered the content. The still life objects used in the image
are the subject matter. (See also content.)

Tint - A light value of a color, i.e., a light red; as opposed to a shade, which is a dark value, i.e.,
dark red.

Tone - The lightness or darkness of an area in terms of black to white; also called value, i.e., a
light or dark red, or light or dark gray.

Two-point linear perspective - A more recent version of perspective than one-point

perspective; using two (or more) points instead of one on the horizon line gave artists a more
naturalistic representation of space in two-dimensional images.
Triptych - A painting which consists of one center panel, with two paintings attached on either
side by means of hinges or other means, as "wings."

Underpainting - A layer of color or tone applied to the painting surface before the painting
itself is begun, to establish the general compositional masses, the lights and darks (values) in
the composition, or as a color to affect/mix with subsequent layers of color. Underpainting is
generally a thin, semi-opaque layer of paint.

Value - The lightness or darkness of a line, shape or area in terms of black to white; also called
tone; e.g., a light red will have a light value; a dark red will have a dark value.

Volumetric - A quality of two-dimensional images characterized by a sense of three

dimensions, solidity, volume, as contrasted with atmospheric, which is characterized more by a
sense of space, or airiness, than with volume. Volumetric is generally more characteristic of
representational or traditional art, than with modern or contemporary art, which is generally
less concerned with the depiction of three dimensions in objects and space.

Warm colors - In color theory, colors which contain a large amount of yellow, as opposed to
cool colors, which contain more blue. For example, a yellow-orange color would be warm; a
greenish-blue would be cool. Warm colors are thought to appear to be closer to the viewer,
while cool colors are thought to recede into the distance. (See also cool colors.)

Wash - A thin layer of translucent (or transparent) paint or ink, particularly in watercolor; also
used occasionally in oil painting.

SCRIPTIONS OF MAJOR MODERN ART MOVEMENTS: (See also Glossary of Art Terms)

(Note: Some art movements were formed by artists organized to promote their shared beliefs;
often these movements, like Futurism in the early 20th century, would write a manifesto
expressing their credo, and profess a collective aesthetic philosophy and style. Although the
Surrealists also wrote a manifesto, the styles of individual artists associated with Surrealism
varied widely. Other movements, like Impressionism in 19th century France, were a somewhat
looser confederation of artists who came together because of certain common aesthetic
principles, and the opportunity to exhibit their work collectively. Again, the style of individual
artists varied, from Degas to Monet. Still other movements were not really movements at all,
not being organized officially, but were instead either loosely associated artists, or even artists
who came from different times and places, who happened to share a similarity of style or way
of thinking. Examples of these movements would be expressionism and post-impressionism.
We live in a world of sometimes brutal speed and pressure. Without the humanizing influence
of art, people become more desensitized and alienated. What is difficult for an adult to deal
with becomes impossible for a child. I'm thinking of the series of school shootings, for
example. Art has the same effect on humans as nature - one gets an appreciation of the
beauty, fragility and preciousness of all creation, including ourselves. And of the
interconnectedness of all life. Without this spirit, corporations can deceive consumers about
the hazards of their products; create defective cars and other products that take human lives;
leave toxic waste near schools and neighborhoods, and not seem to have any sense of
accountability or human feeling. Art is a creative, not destructive, activity, and soothes the
savage beast with its only aim to enrich, extoll, cry out, or joyfully be alive. Its side effects are
gentleness, generosity of spirit, appreciation of other cultures, innocence, bliss, sensitivity,
industriousness, earnestness, goodwill and understanding, for artists and viewers.
It is estimated that 1% of artists are able to make a living from their work. Most are not making
money - they're doing it because their genetic makeup precludes not doing it - they have a
vision to express, and will sacrifice everything to express it. Many have full-time jobs, and
paint/sculpt/write/compose nights and weekends, or even driving down the highway, and also
work on their career activities - exhibitions, book publishers, galleries, etc. This is a 7-day-a-
week proposition, often with no material gain. There were many years when I was happy to
break even in my expenses for materials, frames, etc. So, the idea of a scam is ludicrous.
Another misconception about art is that it exists mostly for those with the economic means to
buy it. Quite simply, art is for everyone - not an elite. To be an artist only takes sensitivity,
maybe some training, and a vision. Most are not born with this vision - it develops gradually
with working. And it is a being rather than a doing - I find that I am looking at the world as one
gigantic painting - everything is colors and shapes - not labeled objects with objectively defined
names and characteristics. I get impulses to create from in my car, at the supermarket, at the
dentist's office. It is an ever-present consciousness. Which explains the spaced-out
personalities of many artists.
Impressionism: A painting movement of sometimes varying styles which began in mid-19th
century France, including such artists as Monet, Renoir, Pissarro, Degas, Morisot, Cezanne (in
his early years), and the American painter, Mary Cassatt. The group practiced plein air painting
(working from life mostly out-of-doors), wanting to capture modern life in a spontaneous,
direct manner. Impressionism also at times included breaking up the picture surface into small
dabs of broken color, rather than blended, smooth surfaces, which the viewer would merge
together when looking at the painting.
Post-Impressionism: Not really a movement in the usual sense, but a description of painting
which followed Impressionism in France, and was influenced by it, but evolved beyond it. Post-
Impressionism generally existed in the 1880's, and included artists such as Cezanne, Gauguin,
Seurat, and Van Gogh, and tended to be less naturalistic than Impressionism, seeing the
picture surface more as a flat plane than an illusion of depth. This thinking led toward the 20th
century notion of painting as essentially colors and forms on a flat surface, rather than the
imitation of objective reality. Seurat and others began the Pointillist movement, which carried
the color and optical ideas of the Impressionists to an almost scientific extreme, consisting of
tiny dots of color.
Symbolism: A literary as well as a visual art movement, in the 1890's in Europe, particularly
France, which included the painter Odilon Redon. A group of painters was influenced by
Symbolist ideas, and also carried further the ideas of the Post-Impressionists, such as Gauguin.
Painters influenced by Symbolist ideas, calling themselves the Nabis (French for 'prophets'),
included Pierre Bonnard and Vuillard. The Symbolists were also influenced by Art Nouveau
(with its curvilinear quality), and carried forward the notion of painting being colors and
shapes on a flat surface, rather than "objective" reality. There was also a tendency toward
dreamlike imagery, such as Gauguin's and Redon's.
Fauvism: Also a movement of loosely connected French painters, of the first years of the 20th
century, which included Matisse and Derain. The main emphasis in Fauvism was on color -
bright, free use of arbitrary (independent of objective reality) color (les fauves meant 'wild
beasts,' a term coined by those critical of the paintings). The shapes were also not confined to
objective reality, and showed strong exuberance of spirit.
Cubism: A new structural and spatial organization in painting (and sculpture), begun in France
following Fauvism, in the first years of the 20th century, by Picasso and Braque, which was
inspired by African sculpture and Cezanne's paintings, among other influences. Cubism dealt
mainly with space - the disintegration of traditional illusionistic space in art, and the beginning
of pictorial space, which again was based on the notion that a painting is not an illusion of
three dimensions, but has its own two-dimensional reality which overrides the depiction of
depth. There was also a tendency toward flattening images as geometrical shapes, and the
notion of multiple perspectives, as opposed to the previous one vantage point of Renaissance
space. Other artists, such as Gris and Feininger, followed Picasso and Braque, and spelled out
their cubist theories in writing.
Abstraction: Abstraction (in painting and sculpture) was not really a movement per se, but an
idea which took root in the 1890's in Europe, came to fruition around 1910, and continues to
be a viable tradition today. Some of the first abstractionists included Kandinsky and Mondrian.
They believed that art does not exist to depict external reality, anymore than music exists to
imitate the sounds of nature. Abstract art modifies or distorts objective reality (nature), as
opposed to "non-objective" art, which refers to art which exists independently of, and is not
based on, external reality. Kandinsky's essay, Concerning the Spiritual in Art, recounts his
passage from more conventional painting to his ideas on the higher ideals of abstract art.
Dada: Dada was a European precursor to Surrealism, and included artist Marcel Duchamp. The
dadaist movement extended to both visual art and literature. It was an anti-movement born in
the second decade of the 20th century, and affected by the disillusionment after World War I.
Dadaism was out to shock, to shake up conventions, to be anti-art, to question the very
definitions of art. The most famous example of dada is Duchamp's entry into the 1917 Society
of Independent Artists exhibition in New York - a 'found' urinal displayed with his pseudonym
of "R Mutt." (Duchamp was way ahead of his time, and is considered the first exponent of
conceptual art, a movement of the late 20th century.) Dada expressed itself in the forms of
collage and sculpture, among others.
Surrealism: Some of the members of Dada went on to create the Surrealistic movement of the
1920's, which was also a literary movement, in Europe. Surrealistic painters had wildly
divergent styles, but some of the elements they had in common were: the effect of the
subconscious and dreams in art; the importance of the element of chance in art; the idea of an
absolute, or 'super-reality' in art. The most famous exponent of Surrealism was Salvador Dali;
other Surrealists were Joan Miro, Max Ernst, and Rene Magritte.
Abstract Expressionism: A mainly American movement of artists who came together
informally, Abstract Expressionism began in the 1940's, influenced by European abstraction
and Surrealism. Many emigre artists from World War II Europe and before came to America
and became major influences on artists here before, during and after World War II, including
Max Ernst, Mondrian, Arshile Gorky, Leger and Hans Hoffman. Major figures of Abstract
Expressionism were Willem de Kooning (who came from Holland in the 1920's), Jackson
Pollock, Barnett Newman, and Mark Rothko. Stylistically, there was a wide range, from the
large drip paintings of Pollock to the geometric abstraction of Newman, and the soft color field
paintings of Rothko, and the painterly work of de Kooning. Common elements included a
certain spiritual nature of the work, the elements of chance and the unconscious, and the
absence or distortion of objective reality. The movement was at its height during the early
1950's; several sculptors can also be considered abstract expressionist, such as Reuben Nakian.
Expressionism: Mainly centered in early 20th century Germany, with loosely connected
painters, Expressionism was also found in other places and even other times (James Ensor,
Edvard Munch, and Van Gogh are considered to be three precursors of Expressionism). It can
be considered to be the German version of Fauvism. As well as being a movement,
expressionism is also a characteristic applied to any art which holds as its primary focus the
expression of emotion, as opposed to a description of external reality. Stylistic tendencies
include bright or even garish color, sharply linear, or dark and brooding quality, black and
white woodcuts. Kirchner and Emil Nolde can be characterized as Expressionists.
Pop Art: Also an American (and non-organized) movement, Pop is well-known as a late 1950's,
early 1960's art movement. A reaction to Abstract Expressionism and the new consumer
culture in the United States, Pop's early figures were Robert Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns and
Andy Warhol; Claes Oldenburg is a Pop sculptor. Pop artists generally wanted to make art that
was 'cool' as opposed to the strong emotion of Abstract Expressionism; that avoided Abstract
Expressionism's tendency to serious artistic individualism to instead divorce the artist's
personality from the work. Everyone is familiar with Warhol's Soup Cans, and other images
taken from advertising and the contemporary world. Styles of Pop ranged from painterly to
hard-edge, but generally had a certain 'deadpan' attitude.
Op Art: Generally a minor (and not organized) movement of painters, Op art came to
prominence following Pop art in 1960's America, although artists had been creating works
using optical effects since the 1930's. It focused on a strictly visual exploration of the inter-
relatedness of colors and other optical effects in painting, often resulting in striking and
dramatic effects that also were illusionary in terms of depth (optical illusion). The best known
of the Op artists was Victor Vasarely; Josef Albers is sometimes considered to be an Op artist,
but I feel his work, though dealing with the interaction of colors, was more of an intense
lifetime study of color, rather than a superficial interest in optical effects.
Earth, or Environmental Art: This international movement began in the 1970's, and used the
natural world as its material and content, generally making large 'earthworks'. Environmental
artists work as individuals, rather than as part of an organized art movement. Coming from
Europe to America, Christo and Jeanne-Claude are the best known environmental artists (they
work as partners). They create temporary works that are a combination of natural and
manmade, often involving large numbers of workers to construct their projects. Examples of
their work: In Japan and California, a series of large umbrellas in the landscape; a miles-long
and tall running fence in California; a "wrapped" building in an urban setting, such as their
covering of the Reichstag in Germany. There is a conceptual, or idea, sense to their work, and
generally a poetic and art-for-all quality. Other earthworks consist of natural materials, such as
large rocks, arranged in patterns over a large and perhaps isolated area, such as Spiral Jetty by
Robert Smithson.
Conceptual Art: Not an organized movement, Conceptual art can be thought to have begun in
the early 20th century with Marcel Duchamp of the European dada movement (see above),
but its official genesis was the 1960's. Basically, conceptual art places its emphasis on
the idea of the work of art as its primary identity, rather than the object itself. This idea is as
old as Plato, meaning that the idea of an object is more real than the actual object (the chair
can be destroyed, but the idea of the chair is eternal and immutable). There is perhaps a
contemporary addition of the notion that art is not a commodity, as so much else in our
society is, but rather a non-saleable idea. Conceptual art, as is much art in the late 20th and
early 21st centuries, is an international movement, and comes in many forms and mediums,
sometimes being an act or acts done by an artist, that may or may not result in a physical
object. Conceptual art can sometimes be very cerebral in nature. Good examples of conceptual
artists are Ann Hamilton and Christian Boltanski, whose work contains poetic and powerful
ideas on the nature of reality.
Installation Art: Not a movement per se, installation art consists of very large, mainly three-
dimensional, collections of objects and forms, often filling a large gallery or museum space.
Entire environments can be created (or re-created), often evocatively. One of the first
installation artists was Kienholz, an American artist first known in the 1960's, and loosely
connected with the Pop artists. He created large three-dimensional groupings of objects, such
as smashed-up cars, etc., with an air of violence, or perhaps death, but also an element of
tongue-in-cheek. Some of his later work contained elements from such institutions as prisons
or state mental hospitals, perhaps with social comment in mind. Another installation artist
beginning in the 1960's was George Segal, who made white plaster casts from real people, and
placed them in contemporary mundane settings, such as a man putting letters on a movie
marquee, reflecting the poetry of the mundane. Artists since have created many site-specific
installations, meaning that the work was conceived to fit physically and aesthetically in a given
area. One contemporary sculptor and installation artist is Judy Pfaff.