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Organ (music)
what is the organ ?
In music, the organ is a keyboard instrument of one or
more pipe divisions or other means for producing Organ
tones. The organs have usually two or three, up to five
manuals, for playing with the hands, and pedalboard,
with the feet. With the use of registers, several groups of
pipes can be connected to one manual.
How many types of organ ?
Types of organs
Varieties of organs include: What is the most popular type
of organ ?
Pipe organs, which use air moving through pipes to
produce sounds. Since the 16th century, pipe
organs have used various materials for pipes, which Organ in church
can vary widely in timbre and volume. Increasingly
hybrid organs are appearing in which pipes are Classification Keyboard instrument
augmented with electric additions. Great economies Playing range
of space and cost are possible especially when the
lowest (and largest) of the pipes can be replaced;
Non-piped organs, which include: Examples :
pump organs, also known as reed organs or
harmoniums, which like the accordion and
mouth organs (both Eastern and Western),
notably the harmonica, which use air to excite (a standard tuned organ)
free reeds; Related instruments
electronic organs (both analog and digital),
see Keyboard instrument
notably the Hammond organ, which generate
electronically produced sound through one or Musicians
more loudspeakers;
see List of organists
Mechanical organs, which include the barrel
Builders
organ, water organ, and Orchestrion. These are
controlled by mechanical means such as pinned see Category:Organ builders
barrels or book music. Little barrel organs dispense
More articles or information
with the hands of an organist and bigger organs are
powered in most cases by an organ grinder or today Pipe organ · Theatre organ · Electric organ ·
by other means such as an electric motor. Hammond organ · Allen organ · Reed organ ·
Organ repertoire
History

Predecessors

Predecessors to the organ include:

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Panpipes, pan flute, syrinx, and nai, etc., are considered as

ancestor of the pipe organ.
Aulos, an ancient double reed instrument with two pipes, is the
origin of the word Hydr-aulis (water-aerophone).
who invented the organ?
Origins how is it developed ?
When the organ is invented? 2:22
The organ is a relatively old musical instrument,[2] dating from the
time of Ctesibius of Alexandria (285–222 BC), who invented the Carol Williams performing at the
water organ. It was played throughout the Ancient Greek and United States Military Academy
Ancient Roman world, particularly during races and games.[3] West Point Cadet Chapel.
During the early medieval period it spread from the Byzantine
Empire, where it continued
to be used in secular (non- some detailes :
religious) and imperial
court music, to Western
Europe, where it gradually
assumed a prominent place
in the liturgy of the Catholic
Church.[3] Subsequently, it
re-emerged as a secular and
recital instrument in the
Classical music tradition.

Early organs detailes :

Panpipes Hydraulis Portative
Early organs include:

3rd century BC: the

Hydraulis, ancient Greek
water-powered organ
played by valves.[4]
1st century (at least):
the Ptera and the Positive Regal before the 16th century Regal after the 16th
Pteron, an ancient century[1]
Roman organ similar in
appearance to the
portative organs[5]
2nd century: the Magrepha, ancient Hebrew organ of ten pipes
played by a keyboard[6][7][8]
8th century: Pippin's organ of 757 (Carolingian dynasty) was
sent as a gift to the West by the Byzantine emperor
Constantine V[9]

Depiction of an organ in the Utrecht

Psalter

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9th century: the automatic flute player (and possibly automatic hydropowered organ), a
mechanical organ by the Banū Mūsā brothers

Medieval organs

Medieval organs include:

Portative organ: a small portable medieval instrument

Positive organ: a somewhat larger though still portable instrument
Regal: a portable late-medieval instrument with reed pipes and bellows; forerunner of the
harmonium and reed organ

Pipe organs

4th century AD "Mosaic of the Female Musicians"

showing a woman playing organ from a Byzantine
villa in Maryamin, Syria.[10]

Pipe organ music sample

1:46

Improvisation in e, played on the organ located in the St. George's Minster in the town of Dinkelsbühl

Problems playing this file? See media help. Details about the pipe organ :

The pipe organ is the largest musical instrument. These instruments vary greatly in size, ranging from
a cubic meter to a height reaching five floors,[11] and are built in churches, synagogues, concert halls,
and homes. Small organs are called "positive" (easily placed in different locations) or "portative"
(small enough to carry while playing).
how the organ is different from the piano ?
The pipes are divided into ranks and controlled by the use of hand stops and combination pistons.
Although the keyboard is not expressive as on a piano and does not affect dynamics (it is binary;
pressing a key only turns the sound on or off), some divisions may be enclosed in a swell box, allowing

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the dynamics to be controlled by shutters. Some organs are totally enclosed, meaning that all the
divisions can be controlled by one set of shutters. Some special registers with free reed pipes are
expressive.

It has existed in its current form since the 14th century, though similar designs were common in the
Eastern Mediterranean from the early Byzantine period (from the 4th century AD) and precursors,
such as the hydraulic organ, have been found dating to the late Hellenistic period (1st century BC).
Along with the clock, it was considered one of the most complex human-made mechanical creations
before the Industrial Revolution. Pipe organs range in size from a single short keyboard to huge
instruments with over 10,000 pipes. A large modern organ typically has three or four keyboards
(manuals) with five octaves (61 notes) each, and a two-and-a-half octave (32-note) pedal board.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart called the organ the "King of instruments".[12] Some of the biggest
instruments have 64-foot pipes (a foot here means "sonic-foot", a measure quite close to the English
measurement unit) and it sounds to an 8 Hz frequency fundamental tone. Perhaps the most
distinctive feature is the ability to range from the slightest sound to the most powerful, plein-jeu
impressive sonic discharge, which can be sustained in time indefinitely by the organist. For instance,
the Wanamaker organ, located in Philadelphia, USA, has sonic resources comparable with three
simultaneous symphony orchestras. Another interesting feature lies in its intrinsic "polyphony"
approach: each set of pipes can be played simultaneously with others, and the sounds mixed and
interspersed in the environment, not in the instrument itself.

Church

Most organs in Europe, the Americas, and Australasia can be found in Christian churches.

The introduction of church organs is traditionally attributed to Pope Vitalian in the 7th century. Due
to its simultaneous ability to provide a musical foundation below the vocal register, support in the
vocal register, and increased brightness above the vocal register, the organ is ideally suited to
accompany human voices, whether a congregation, a choir, or a cantor or soloist.

Most services also include solo organ repertoire for independent performance rather than by way of
accompaniment, often as a prelude at the beginning the service and a postlude at the conclusion of the
service.

Today this organ may be a pipe organ (see above), a digital or electronic organ that generates the
sound with digital signal processing (DSP) chips, or a combination of pipes and electronics. It may be
called a church organ or classical organ to differentiate it from the theatre organ, which is a different
style of instrument. However, as classical organ repertoire was developed for the pipe organ and in
turn influenced its development, the line between a church and a concert organ became harder to
draw.

Concert hall

In the late 19th century and early 20th century, symphonic organs flourished in secular venues in the
United States and the United Kingdom, designed to replace symphony orchestras by playing
transcriptions of orchestral pieces. Symphonic and orchestral organs largely fell out of favor as the

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orgelbewegung (organ reform movement) took hold in the middle of the 20th century, and organ
builders began to look to historical models for inspiration in constructing new instruments. Today,
modern builders construct organs in a variety of styles for both secular and sacred applications.

Theatre and cinema Detailes and examples :

The theatre organ or cinema organ was designed to accompany

silent movies. Like a symphonic organ, it is made to replace an
orchestra. However, it includes many more gadgets, such as
mechanical percussion accessories and other imitative sounds
useful in creating movie sound accompaniments such as auto
horns, doorbells, and bird whistles. It typically features the Tibia
pipe family as its foundation stops and the regular use of a
Theatre organ in State Cinema,
tremulant possessing a depth greater than that on a classical
Grays. (Compton Organ)
organ.

Theatre organs tend not to take nearly as much space as standard

organs, relying on extension (sometimes called unification) and
higher wind pressures to produce a greater variety of tone and larger volume of sound from fewer
pipes. Unification gives a smaller instrument the capability of a much larger one, and works well for
monophonic styles of playing (chordal, or chords with solo voice). The sound is, however, thicker and
more homogeneous than a classically designed organ.

In the USA the American Theater Organ Society (ATOS) has been instrumental in programs to
preserve examples of such instruments.
Detailes about the Chamber organ :
Chamber organ

A chamber organ is a small pipe organ, often with only one manual, and
sometimes without separate pedal pipes that is placed in a small room,
that this diminutive organ can fill with sound. It is often confined to
chamber organ repertoire, as often the organs have too few voice
capabilities to rival the grand pipe organs in the performance of the
classics. The sound and touch are unique to the instrument, sounding
nothing like a large organ with few stops drawn out, but rather much
more intimate. They are usually tracker instruments, although the
modern builders are often building electropneumatic chamber organs.

Pre-Beethoven keyboard music may usually be as easily played on a

Chamber organ by Pascoal
chamber organ as on a piano or harpsichord, and a chamber organ is
Caetano Oldovini (1762).
sometimes preferable to a harpsichord for continuo playing as it is more
suitable for producing a sustained tone.

Non-piped organs

Reed or pump organ

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The pump organ, reed organ or harmonium, was the other main
type of organ before the development of the electronic organ. It
generated its sounds using reeds similar to those of an accordion.
Smaller, cheaper and more portable than the corresponding pipe
instrument, these were widely used in smaller churches and in
private homes, but their volume and tonal range was extremely
limited. They were generally limited to one or two manuals; they
seldom had a pedalboard. examples :

Harmonium or parlor organ: a reed instrument, usually with A harmonium. Operation of the two
several stops and two foot-operated bellows. large pedals at the bottom of the
American reed organ: similar to the Harmonium, but that works case supplies wind to the reeds.
on negative pressure, sucking air through the reeds.
Melodeon: a reed instrument with an air reservoir and a foot-
operated bellows. It was popular in the US in the mid-19th century. (This should not to be
confused with the diatonic button accordion which is also known as the melodeon.)
who invented the chord organ and when ?
The chord organ was invented by Laurens Hammond in 1950.[13] It provided chord buttons for the left
hand, similar to an accordion. Other reed organ manufacturers have also produced chord organs,
most notably Magnus from 1958 to the late 1970s.[14]

Electronic organs types of organ :

Since the 1930s, pipeless electric instruments have been available to produce similar sounds and
perform similar roles to pipe organs. Many of these have been bought both by houses of worship and
other potential pipe organ customers, and also by many musicians both professional and amateur for
whom a pipe organ would not be a possibility. Far smaller and cheaper to buy than a corresponding
pipe instrument, and in many cases portable, they have taken organ music into private homes and
into dance bands and other new environments, and have almost completely replaced the reed organ.

Hammond

Hammond B3 organ,
with Leslie cabinet.

Medley
3:27

Medley played with a 1935's Hammond organ with Leslie cabinet

Problems playing this file? See media help.

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The Hammond organ was the first successful electric organ, released in the 1930s. It used mechanical,
rotating tonewheels to produce the sound waveforms. Its system of drawbars allowed for setting
volumes for specific sounds, and it provided vibrato-like effects. The drawbars allow the player to
choose volume levels. By emphasizing certain harmonics from the overtone series, desired sounds
(such as 'brass' or 'string') can be imitated. Generally, the older Hammond drawbar organs had only
preamplifiers and were connected to an external, amplified speaker. The Leslie speaker, which rotates
to create a distinctive tremolo, became the most popular.

Though originally produced to replace organs in the church, the Hammond organ, especially the
model B-3, became popular in jazz, particularly soul jazz, and in gospel music. Since these were the
roots of rock and roll, the Hammond organ became a part of the rock and roll sound. It was widely
used in rock and popular music during the 1960s and 1970s by bands like Emerson, Lake and Palmer,
Procol Harum, Santana and Deep Purple. Its popularity resurged in pop music around 2000, in part
due to the availability of clonewheel organs that were light enough for one person to carry.

Allen how it is developed ?

In contrast to Hammond's electro-mechanical design, Allen Organ Company introduced the first
totally electronic organ in 1938, based on the stable oscillator designed and patented by the company's
founder, Jerome Markowitz.[15] Allen continued to advance analog tone generation through the 1960s
with additional patents.[16] In 1971, in collaboration with North American Rockwell,[17] Allen
introduced the world's first commercially available digital musical instrument. The first Allen Digital
Organ is now in the Smithsonian Institution.[18]

Other analogue electronic

Frequency divider organs used oscillators instead of mechanical

parts to make sound. These were even cheaper and more portable
than the Hammond. They featured an ability to bend pitches.

In the 1940s until the 1970s, small organs were sold that
simplified traditional organ stops. These instruments can be
considered the predecessor to modern portable keyboards, as they
included one-touch chords, rhythm and accompaniment devices,
and other electronically assisted gadgets. Lowrey was the leading A Vox Continental combo organ
manufacturer of this type of organs in the smaller (spinet)
instruments. Combo organ :

In the 1960s and 1970s, a type of simple, portable electronic organ called the combo organ was
popular, especially with pop, Ska (in the late 1970s and early 1980s) and rock bands, and was a
signature sound in the rock music of the period, such as The Doors and Iron Butterfly. The most
popular combo organs were manufactured by Farfisa and Vox.

Conn-Selmer and Rodgers, dominant in the market for larger instruments, also made electronic
organs that used separate oscillators for each note rather than frequency dividers, giving them a richer
sound, closer to a pipe organ, due to the slight imperfections in tuning.

Hybrids, starting in the early 20th century,[19] incorporate a few ranks of pipes to produce some
sounds, and use electronic circuits or digital samples for other sounds and to resolve borrowing
collisions. Major manufacturers include Allen, Walker, Compton, Wicks, Marshall & Ogletree,
Phoenix, Makin Organs, Wyvern Organs and Rodgers.

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Digital

The development of the integrated circuit enabled another

revolution in electronic keyboard instruments. Digital organs sold
since the 1970s utilize additive synthesis, then sampling
technology (1980s) and physical modelling synthesis (1990s) are
also utilized to produce the sound.
A modern digital organ (Nord Electro
Virtual pipe organs use MIDI to access samples of real pipe organs 2) utilizing modeling and DSP
stored on a computer, as opposed to digital organs that use DSP technology
and processor hardware inside a console to produce the sounds or
deliver the sound samples. Touch screen monitors allows the user
to control the virtual organ console; a traditional console and its physical stop and coupler controls is
not required. In such a basic form, a virtual organ can be obtained at a much lower cost than other
digital classical organs.

Mechanical organs types of mechanical organs :

Mechanical organs include:

Barrel organ: made

famous by organ
grinders in its portable
form, the larger form
often equipped with
keyboards for human
performance
Organette: small,
accordion-like
instrument
manufactured in New Barrel organ Orchestrion from Germany Band organ from USA
York in the late 1800s
Novelty instruments or
various types that
operate on the same
principles. These pipe
organs use a piano roll
player or other
mechanical means Fairground organ Dutch street organ Dance organ from Belgium
instead of a keyboard to
play a prepared song:
Orchestrion
Fairground organ (or band organ in the USA)
Dutch street organ
Dance organ

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The wind can also be created by using pressurized steam instead of air. The steam organ, or calliope,
was invented in the United States in the 19th century. Calliopes usually have very loud and clean
sound. Calliopes are used as outdoors instruments, and many have been built on wheeled platforms.

Music

Classical music

The organ has had an important place in classical music,

particularly since the 16th century. Spain's Antonio de Cabezón,
the Netherlands' Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck, and Italy's Girolamo
Frescobaldi were three of the most important organist-composers
before 1650. Influenced in part by Sweelinck and Frescobaldi, the
North German school rose from the mid-17th century onwards to
great prominence, with leading members of this school having
included Buxtehude, Franz Tunder, Georg Böhm, Georg Philipp
Telemann, and above all Johann Sebastian Bach, whose
contributions to organ music continue to reign supreme.

During this time, the French Classical school also flourished.

François Couperin, Nicolas Lebègue, André Raison, and Nicolas de
Organ in St Giles' Cathedral
Grigny were French organist-composers of the period. Bach knew
Grigny's organ output well, and admired it. In England, Handel
was famous for his organ-playing no less than for his composing;
several of his organ concertos, intended for his own use, are still frequently performed.

After Bach's death in 1750, the organ's prominence gradually shrank, as the instrument itself
increasingly lost ground to the piano. Nevertheless, Felix Mendelssohn, César Franck, and the less
famous A.P.F. Boëly (all of whom were themselves expert organists) led, independently of one
another, a resurgence of valuable organ writing during the 19th century. This resurgence, much of it
informed by Bach's example, achieved particularly impressive things in France (even though Franck
himself was of Belgian birth). Major names in French Romantic organ composition are Charles-Marie
Widor, Louis Vierne, Alexandre Guilmant, Charles Tournemire, and Eugène Gigout. Of these, Vierne
and Tournemire were Franck pupils.

In Germany, Max Reger (late 19th century) owes much to the harmonic daring of Liszt (himself an
organ composer) and of Wagner. Paul Hindemith produced three organ sonatas and several works
combining organ with chamber groups. Sigfrid Karg-Elert specialized in smaller organ pieces, mostly
chorale-preludes.

Among French organist-composers, Marcel Dupré, Maurice Duruflé, Olivier Messiaen and Jean
Langlais made significant contributions to the 20th-century organ repertoire. Organ was also used a
lot for improvisation,[20] with organists such as Charles Tournemire, Marcel Dupré, Pierre Cochereau,
Pierre Pincemaille and Thierry Escaich.

Some composers incorporated the instrument in symphonic works for its dramatic effect, notably
Mahler, Holst, Elgar, Scriabin, Respighi, and Richard Strauss. Saint-Saëns's Organ Symphony
employs the organ more as an equitable orchestral instrument than for purely dramatic effect.
Poulenc wrote the sole organ concerto since Handel's to have achieved mainstream popularity.

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Because the organ has both manuals and pedals, organ music has come to be notated on three staves.
The music played on the manuals is laid out like music for other keyboard instruments on the top two
staves, and the music for the pedals is notated on the third stave or sometimes, to save space, added to
the bottom of the second stave as was the early practice. To aid the eye in reading three staves at once,
the bar lines are broken between the lowest two staves; the brace surrounds only the upper two staves.
Because music racks are often built quite low to preserve sightlines over the console, organ music is
usually published in oblong or landscape format.

Jazz

Electronic organs and electromechanical organs such as the Hammond organ have an established role
in a number of popular-music genres, such as blues, jazz, gospel, and 1960s and 1970s rock music.
Electronic and electromechanical organs were originally designed as lower-cost substitutes for pipe
organs. Despite this intended role as a sacred music instrument, electronic and electromechanical
organs' distinctive tone-often modified with electronic effects such as vibrato, rotating Leslie speakers,
and overdrive-became an important part of the sound of popular music.

The electric organ, especially the Hammond B-3, has occupied a significant role in jazz ever since
Jimmy Smith made it popular in the 1950s. It can function as a replacement for both piano and bass
in the standard jazz combo. The Hammond organ is the centrepiece of the organ trio, a small
ensemble which typically includes an organist (playing melodies, chords and basslines), a drummer
and a third instrumentalist (either jazz guitar or saxophone). In the 2000s, many performers use
electronic or digital organs, called clonewheel organs, as they are much lighter and easier to transport
than the heavy, bulky B-3.

Popular music

Performers of 20th century popular organ music include William

Rowland who composed "Piano Rags"; George Wright (1920–
1998) and Virgil Fox (1912–1980), who bridged both the classical
and religious areas of music.

Church-style pipe organs are sometimes used in rock music.

Examples include Tangerine Dream, Rick Wakeman (with Yes and
solo), Keith Emerson (with The Nice and Emerson, Lake and
A modern digital Hammond organ in
Palmer), George Duke (with Frank Zappa), Dennis DeYoung (with
use
Styx), Arcade Fire, Muse, Roger Hodgson (formerly of
Supertramp), Natalie Merchant (with 10,000 Maniacs), Billy
Preston and Iron Butterfly.

Artists using the Hammond organ include Bob Dylan, Counting Crows, Pink Floyd, Hootie & the
Blowfish, Sheryl Crow, Vulfpeck, Sly Stone and Deep Purple.

Sport

In the United States and Canada, organ music is commonly associated with several sports, most
notably baseball, basketball, and ice hockey.

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The baseball organ has been referred to as "an accessory to the

overall auditory experience of the ballpark." The first team to
introduce an organ was the Chicago Cubs, who put an organ in
Wrigley Field as an experiment in 1941 for two games. Ebbets
Field, home of the Brooklyn Dodgers, hired baseball's first full-
time organist, Gladys Goodding. Over the years, many ballparks
caught on to the trend, and many organists became well-known
and associated with their parks or signature tunes.

See also Nancy Faust playing at Guaranteed

Rate Field, home of the Chicago
List of organ builders White Sox
List of organ composers
List of organists
Residence organ
Street organ

Notes
1. "Landkreis Bad Kreuznach - Regal (1988, Gebr Oberlinger) - Copy of an instrument by Michael
Klotz, ca. 1600" (http://www.kreis-badkreuznach.de/cgi-bin/index.cgi?url=/tourismus/orgelmuseum/
02regal.html). Kreis-badkreuznach.de. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
2. The organ developed from older musical instruments like the panpipe, therefore is not the oldest
musical instrument.
3. Douglas Bush and Richard Kassel eds., "The Organ, an Encyclopedia." (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=cgDJaeFFUPoC&pg=PA327) Routledge. 2006. p. 327.
4. "Untitled Document" (https://web.archive.org/web/20061005205839/http://www.culture.gr/2/23/23
2/epked/en/00_standard_menu/00a_ydraulis/00a.htm). 5 October 2006. Archived from the original
(http://www.culture.gr/2/23/232/epked/en/00_standard_menu/00a_ydraulis/00a.htm) on 2006-10-
05. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
5. Bellum Catiline. "Greek and Roman Pipe Organs" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070927190815/
http://users.ipa.net/~tanker/organs.htm). Two items from "The Story of the Organ" by C. F. Abdy
Williams, published in 1903 by Walter Scott Publishing. Archived from the original (http://users.ipa.
net/~tanker/organs.htm) on 2007-09-27.
6. "THE MUSIC OF THE BIBLE by J Stainer: Ch.6" (http://www.katapi.org.uk/MusicOfTheBible/Ch6.
htm). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080820212937/http://www.katapi.org.uk/MusicOfTh
eBible/Ch6.htm) from the original on 2008-08-20. Retrieved 2008-10-15.
7. Hunt 2008
8. Barnes 2007
9. Williams, Peter F. (1993). The Organ in Western Culture, 750-1250. p. 137ff (https://books.google.
com/books?id=tZpE05Ws_BwC&dq=the+organ+in+western+culture+pippins+organ&pg=PA137)
10. Ring, Trudy (1994), International Dictionary of Historic Places: Middle East and Africa (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=R44VRnNCzAYC&q=mariamin+hama), vol. 4, Taylor & Francis,
ISBN 1884964036
11. The Wanamaker Organ is built from the 2nd to 7th floors.
12. The King of Instruments (http://ncregister.com/site/article/4552) Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20090515201615/http://www.ncregister.com/site/article/4552) 2009-05-15 at the Wayback
Machine - National Catholic Register
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3/15/23, 9:18 AM Organ (music) - Wikipedia

13. Laurens Hammond (https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/253678/Laurens-Hammond),

Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2009 - His later inventions included the chord organ (1950, i.e.
Hammond S-6 chord organ).
14. " 'Play by Numbers' Organ Hottest Musical Merchandise" (https://books.google.com/books?id=nh4
EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA1). Billboard. May 11, 1959. p. 1.
15. "Low frequency oscillator" (https://patents.google.com/patent/US2190078A/en).
Patents.google.com. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
16. "Search Patents - Justia Patents Search" (https://patents.justia.com/search?q=Allen+Organ+Com
pany). Patents.justia.com. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
17. "Allen Organ collaborative effort with North American Rockwell" (https://www.allenorgan.com/www/
company/museum/dig1.html). Allenorgan.com. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
18. "Congressional Record Extensions of Remarks Articles" (https://www.congress.gov/congressional-
record/2010/9/29/extensions-of-remarks-section/article/e1778-3). Congress.gov. Retrieved
22 April 2021.
19. Synthetic Radio Organ Church Diagram French Print 1934 (https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/B001RH
0B68), The ILlustration Newspaper of 1934, Paris
20. Szostak, Michał (1 September 2018). "Instrument as a source of inspiration for the performer".
The Organ. Musical Opinion Ltd. 386: 6–27. ISSN 0030-4883 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0030-
4883).

References
Barnes, William Harrison (2007). The Contemporary American Organ - Its Evolution, Design And
Construction (https://books.google.com/books?id=Oian6HrzAdIC&pg=PA13). Barnes Press.
p. 376. ISBN 978-1-4067-6023-1.
Hunt, Henry George Bonavia (2008). A Concise History of Music (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=B59EUzd3_ckC&pg=PA148). BiblioLife. p. 137. ISBN 978-0554753874.

Further reading
Choosing a Church Organ in the 21st Century (http://www.church-organs.com/?p=1)
Rimbault, Edward Francis (c. 1865). The Early English Organ Builders and their work (https://en.
wikisource.org/wiki/The_Early_English_Organ_Builders_and_their_work). London: William
Reeves.

External links
Organ Library (http://www.organlibrary.org) of the Boston Chapter, AGO. 45,000 items of organ
music.
Music and organ recital at Notre-Dame de Paris (http://www.musique-sacree-notredamedeparis.fr)
npor.org.uk (http://www.npor.org.uk/) – Homepage of the National Pipe Organ Register of the
British Institute of Organ Studies, with extensive information on and many audio samples of
original instruments
The Organ Historical Society (http://www.organsociety.org/) – The Society promotes a widespread
musical and historical interest in American organbuilding through collection, preservation, and
publication of historical information, and through recordings and public concerts.

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