Lesson 47: Luminosity

25. Astronomy & cosmology

25.1 Standard candles

Learning outcomes

1 understand the term luminosity as the total power of radiation emitted by a star

recall and use the inverse square law for radiant flux intensity F in terms of the
2 luminosity L of the source F = L / (4πd2)

3 understand that an object of known luminosity is called a standard candle

4 understand the use of standard candles to determine distances to galaxies

 Standard candles: An astronomical object of known luminosity

There are 2 well-known standard candles:

1.Cepheid variable stars:

are types of stars that pulsates radially, varying in both diameter and temperature and
producing changes in brightness with a well-defined stable period and amplitude
 For a local group of stars of
known distance (determined
using parallax method) it could
said that all stars were
approximately the same
distance away from us. Since, we
know the distance and the
apparent brightness can be
measured, we can calculate the
luminosity of each star.

As it turned out when plotting

the luminosity vs period of
pulsation, a relationship began
to emerge.

∴ When looking at stars in other galaxies we can compare the periods of the two to
determine the luminosity of the star. Since we can also measure the brightness, we can thus
use the radiant flux formula to determine the distance of the star/galaxy.
2. Type 1A Supernovae:
Parallax method can only be used to measure nearby stars. The cepheid
variable method can be used to determine distance between nearby
galaxies. Any further and the fluxes of stars become too weak, therefore
we have to rely on brighter stars called Supernovae.

Type Ia supernovae
Supernovae are stars that rapidly happen when a white
dwarf, the "corpse" of a
implode at the end of their life star similar to the Sun,
cycle. This implosion releases absorbs material from a
twin star until it reaches
matter and energy into space. The a critical mass—1.4
times that of the Sun—
implosion can sometimes be even and explodes
brighter than the whole galaxy
itself. The luminosity of a star at
the time of implosion is always the
same. Therefore, we can measure
the flux and determine the
distance.
Can you tell which star is closest?
Luminosity (L or Lʘ)

Luminosity is a measure of
the total energy given output
by a star at all wavelengths
from gamma radiation to
radio waves.
Example: the Sun gives out
about 3.8 x 1026W. (units W
or Js-1)
 Radiant flux intensity (F)
The radiant power passing normally through a surface per unit area. (units
Wm-2 )

We can relate the brightness of a star to its luminosity if we understand the underlying
assumptions.

1) the power from a star is uniformly radiated through space.

2) There is negligible absorption of this radiated power between the star and the earth
 d = 3,
area = 9
d = 2,
area = 4
d = 1,
area = 1

We can see that doubling the

distance from the source decreases
the radiant flux by factor of 4 and so on

𝟏𝟏 𝑳𝑳
∴ Radiant Flux intensity α 𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐
𝐅𝐅 = 𝟒𝟒π𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐
∴
Lesson 48: Stellar radii
 25. Astronomy & cosmology
25.2 Stellar radii

Learning outcomes
recall and use Wien’s displacement law λmax ∝ 1 / T to estimate the
1 peak surface temperature of a star

2 use the Stefan–Boltzmann law L = 4πσr2T4

use Wien’s displacement law and the Stefan–Boltzmann law to

3 estimate the radius of a star
What colour is our sun?
Wien’s displacement law
Black body radiation: an idealized object that absorbs all
incident electromagnetic radiation falling on it. It has a
characteristic emission spectrum and intensity that depend on
its thermodynamic temperature.

1 example of black body radiation is

a hot stove, which emits red light due
to it temperature.

When heated, the molecules

comprising a perfect black body
vibrate and emit
light of the same wavelength as their
vibration
There is a link between the observed wavelength of light (ie. Its colour)
and its temperature

The higher the temperature of a body:

• the shorter the wavelength at the peak
(maximum) intensity
• the greater the intensity of the
EM-radiation at each wavelength

λ𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
Figure 31.6
 Stefan-Boltzmann law
sun

The star KY Cygni

(red giant) has a
surface temperature
of 3500K but its
luminosity is
.
200,000 times that
of our sun. KY Cygni
is cooler than the
sun, but its large
surface area makes
it more luminous

∴ The luminosity of a star depends on two factors:

• Its Surface thermodynamic temp. (T)
• Its radius (r) 𝐿𝐿 = 4πσ𝑟𝑟 2 𝑇𝑇 4
Determining stellar radii using Wien’s
displacement law and Stefan-Boltzmann’s law
Lesson 49 : Hubble’s law
 25. Astronomy & cosmology
25.3 Hubble’s law and the Big Bang theory

Learning outcomes
understand that the lines in the emission spectra from distant objects
1 show an increase in wavelength from their known values

use Δλ / λ . Δf / f . v / c for the redshift of electromagnetic radiation

2 from a source moving relative to an observer

3 explain why redshift leads to the idea that the Universe is expanding

recall and use Hubble’s law v . H0d and explain how this leads to the Big
4 Bang theory (candidates will only be required to use SI units)
Big bang theory:
A model of creation of the
universe from an
extremely hot and dense
state and its subsequent
evolution

The big bang is estimated to

have occurred around 13.8
billion years ago. Fundamental
particles and forces came into
existence. Subsequent
expansion led to the cooling
and formation of atoms, stars
and galaxies.
Edwin Hubble: the expanding universe
• Edwin Hubble was an American
astronomer. He played a crucial
role in establishing the fields
of extragalactic astronomy
and observational cosmology.
• Hubble proved that many
objects previously thought to
be clouds of dust and gas and
classified as "nebulae" were
actually galaxies beyond
the Milky Way He used the
strong
direct relationship between a
classical Cepheid
variable's luminosity and pulsat
ion period (discovered in 1908
by Henrietta Swan Leavitt) for
scaling galactic and
extragalactic distances
Redshift

The observed wavelengths of all spectral lines from distant galaxies are longer
than the ones observed in the lab. This is known as redshift.

This implies that the distant galaxies must be moving away from us. In fact, we
have observed that from earth’s vantage point, most of the galaxies in all
directions are moving away from us. This would imply that the universe and
space itself must also be expanding. By implication this would mean that in
the beginning of time everything would have originated from a single point.
Blueshift

The observed wavelengths of a few spectral lines from nearby galaxies are
shorter than the ones observed in the lab. This is known as blueshift.

These tend to be from

stars in orbiting in
nearby galaxies
Hubble’s Law
Edwin Hubble noticed that not only were distant galaxies moving away
from us, but also that the further away these galaxies were, the faster
they moving away. The relationship between velocity (v) and distance (d)
can be seen from the following formula. Where Ho is Hubble’s constant

𝑣𝑣 = 𝐻𝐻𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑

(Where 𝑯𝑯𝒐𝒐 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒔𝒔−𝟏𝟏 )

 Doppler Redshift
The fractional increase in the wavelength depends on the recession speed
v of the source (ie. galaxy).
For non-relativistic speeds- those moving with speeds far less than the
speed of light in a vacuum c- we can use the following relationship.

∆𝜆𝜆 ∆𝑓𝑓 𝑣𝑣 Where:

• f is the frequency of the em-wave from the source
≈ ≈ • ∆f is the change of frequency
𝜆𝜆 𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐 • λ is the wavelength of the em-wave from the source
• ∆ λ is the change of wavelength

Note: Scientists often assign a value for the term ‘redshift’. E.g. a galaxy shows redshift
of 7.0% means that:

∆𝜆𝜆 ∆𝑓𝑓 𝑣𝑣
≈ ≈ = 0.070
𝜆𝜆 𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐