06 Astrophysics

Astrophysics
DP-2
07-01-2024 Dr. Vaibhav Kaware 1

https://www.visualcapitalist.com/cp/map-of-the-entire-known-universe/
A logarithmic map of the Entire Observable Universe

Every object in
our Solar system
• https://www.visualcapitalist.com/mapping-
every-object-in-our-solar-system/

https://youtu.be/zR3Igc3Rhfg

Constellation
What it looks like: How it actually is:

Astronomical Distances
• Distances in astronomy are too large to be measured by conventional units
(metre, km, …)
• Hence, larger units used.
• Three chief units
• 1 Astronomical Unit (AU): Average distance between earth and sun
(to measure distances within solar system) (1.5 × 1011 𝑚)
• 1 Light year (LY): Distance that light travels in one year (9.46 × 1015 𝑚)
• 1 ParSec (Pc): Distance of a star that shows parallax of 2 arcsecond over 6
months of earth’s movement (more on next slide)
1
• ** arc second is used to measure very tiny angles 1 arcsecond = °
3600
1/7/2024 Dr. Vaibhav Kaware 6

Jeans’ criteria
• Condition for a gas cloud to
condense into forming a star
• When the gravitational energy

of a given gas mass exceeds
the average kinetic energy of
the random thermal motion
of its molecules, the gas
becomes unstable and tends
to collapse (condense into a
ball)

Jeans’ criteria • 𝐺𝑃𝐸 ≥ 𝐾𝐸𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑮𝑴𝟐 𝟑
• ≥ 𝑵𝒌𝑩 𝑻
𝑹 𝟐
• 𝑀: Mass of gas cloud
• 𝑅: radius of gas cloud
• 𝑁: Total number of gas molecules
in the gas cloud
• 𝑇: Average temperature of gas
cloud
𝑘𝐵 : Boltzmann constant

The carbon nucleus has a charge of +6, so the barrier that must
The most basic proton-proton cycle to be overcome for carbon to fuse is much higher. This requires
convert Hydrogen into Helium higher temperatures.
07-01-2024
The proton–proton cycle and the CNO cycle are both main-sequence star processes.
Dr. Vaibhav Kaware 12
Main-sequence towards red giant: Medium mass
• Triple Alpha process
• Produces 𝐶 − 12 from 𝐻𝑒
•`
• In even more massive stars, neon, sodium,

and magnesium, upto iron are produced

Very Massive Star
Lifecycle
• 𝑴 > 𝟒𝟎 𝑴⊙

Hertzsprung-Russel (HR) Diagram
• Left y-axis : Luminosity (and Mass)

• Right y-axis: Radius of star (oblique axis)
• Both axis in units of Sun
(Solar luminosity/Mass and radius)
• x-axis: Surface temperature of star
• (Reversed scale)
• X-axis: Left side- blue stars, right side-red stars
• Lower left region: White dwarfs
• Upper right region: Red giants/ supergiants
• Lower right region: Red dwarfs
• Upper left region: Blue giants/ supergiants
• Central curve: Main sequence stars
Hertzsprung-Russel (HR) Diagram

Mass-Luminosity
relation
• Main sequence stars
• Mass-luminosity Relation
• 𝑳 ∝ 𝑴𝟑.𝟓
• HR-Diagram:
More luminous stars are
More massive as well

Evolution of stars
on HR diagram

• 𝐿 ∝ 𝑀3.5
• Both stars have same radius, hence same volume
• Luminosity of Altair is ~10 times mass of the Sun
3.5
• 𝐿𝐴 ∝ 𝑀𝐴
3.5
• 𝐿𝑆 ∝ 𝑀𝑆
3.5
𝐿𝐴 𝑀𝐴
• =
𝐿𝑆 𝑀𝑆
3.5
10𝑳𝑺 𝑀𝐴
• =
𝑳𝑺 𝑀𝑆
3.5
𝑀𝐴
• 10 =
𝑀𝑆
1
𝑀𝐴
• 10 3.5 = = 19.03
𝑀𝑆
• Volumes are same, so ratio of mases is the ratio
of densities (𝜌 = 𝑀/𝑉)
• Altair is ~19 times denser than the Sun
• Peak wavelength of Altair?
• 𝜆𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 × 𝑻 = 2.89 × 10−3 𝑚 ⋅ 𝐾
2.89
• 𝜆𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = × 10−3 𝑚
12000
• 𝜆𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 2.4 × 10−4 𝑚 = 0.24 𝑚𝑚
• Altair’s peak lies in the microwave
region of the EM spectrum

Synthesis of heavier elements
• Heaviest element formed inside the
core of heavy starts is Iron (or
Nickel)
• Elements heavier than that do not
form inside the star
• But during their supernova
explosion
• Through process of neutron-capture
• Supernova remnant hurl them into
the space

Neutron capture process
• During supernova explosion, nuclei of 𝐹𝑒 gather more neutrons to form
unstable isotopes
• Extra neutrons decays into a proton via the 𝛽 − decay process
.10 𝑛 + 𝜈 → 1
1 𝑝 +0−1 𝑒
• If the rate of gathering neutrons is slow this is the 𝒔 −process forming

nuclei up to 𝐵𝑖smuth, or 𝑃𝑏 (Lead)
• Further heavy elements form by the 𝒓 −process where neutrons are

gathered rapidly and some decay later

The (slow) 𝑠-process of neutron capture
• 𝑠-process occurs in an environment with a much lower neutron
density (than the 𝑟-process)
• The 𝑠-process occurs over a much longer time period
(compared to 𝑟-process)
• The neutrons gather one/two at a time
• Time between one neutron capture and the next is sufficient for the
decay reaction .10 𝑛 + 𝜈 → 11 𝑝 +0−1 𝑒 to occur

The (rapid) 𝑟-process of neutron capture
• 𝑟-process occurs in an environment with a very rich neutron density
like supernovae that creates or involves neutron stars
• The 𝑟-process occurs over a shorter time period (compared to the 𝑠-
process)
• The stable nuclei (≥Fe) gather neutrons greedily
• Thus, creating a supermassive super unstable ‘isotope’ of Fe
• Decay reaction .10 𝑛 + 𝜈 → 𝟏𝟏 𝒑 +0−1 𝑒 then occurs slowly afterwards
increasing the number of protons, creating newer element nuclei
(≥ Pb, Bi)
• Some of this decay reaction is still going on (𝛽 − radioactivity of heavy
elements)
COSMOLOGY
• In the 1920’s it was it was discovered that

the spectral lines of distant galaxies didn’t
show the expected wavelengths, but
instead appeared red-shifted, as if due to
the Doppler effect. This implied that
galaxies were moving away from Earth.

Cosmology: What is Doppler shift?
• Doppler Shift:
Shift in “observed” frequency

and wavelength due to relative
motion of the source and/or
observer
• Doppler shift for light (waves)

𝝀−𝝀𝟎 𝒗
•𝒛= =
𝝀𝟎 𝒄

+ =
Hydrogen Hydrogen
PIasma spectrum
+ =
07-01-2024 --Dr. Vaibhav Kaware 30
Cosmology: Doppler shift
• Doppler shift for
light (waves)
•𝒛= =
𝝀𝟎 𝒄
• If the source and
observer are
separating,
• Red shift
• If the source and
observer are
coming closer
• BLUE shift
Cosmology:
Doppler shift
• Blue shifts observed are

comparatively smaller
• Go away after a short time
• Are mostly due to periodic
orbits of stars
•𝒛 = =
𝝀𝟎 𝒄

• EXAMPLE: A star in another galaxy is traveling
away from us at a speed of 5.6 × 106 𝑚𝑠 −1 . It has
a known absorption spectrum line that should be
located at 520 𝑛𝑚 on an identical stationary star.
Where is this line located on the moving star?
Δ𝜆 𝑣 𝑣×𝜆
• = ∴ Δ𝜆 =
𝜆 𝑐 𝑐
5.6×106 × 520×10−9 5.6×106 × 5.20×10−7
• Δ𝜆 = =
3×108 3×108
5.6×5.2
• Δ𝜆 = × 106−9−8 = 9.71 × 10−11 𝑚
3
• Δ𝜆 = 97 𝑝𝑚 = 0.097 𝑛𝑚
1/7/2024 Dr. Vaibhav Kaware 33

A
B
• The absorption spectra of stars of
varying distances from Earth are
shown here. The sun is the C
bottom spectrum (D).
• (a) Is it moving towards us, or away D
from us?
• (b) Which star has the highest velocity
relative to Earth?
𝑐 Δ𝜆
• 𝑣=
𝜆

What causes the
Doppler shift?
• Correct questions to ask is

“What causes the relative
motion?”
• The answer is expansion of
the space
•𝒛= =
𝝀𝟎 𝒄
• If the source and observer are
separating,
Red shift
What causes the expansion?
Expansion of the
space-time is an
artifact of the Big
Bang

Hubble’s law
• Edwin Hubble observed Red Shift for
very far away galaxies
• Since, red shift is observed,
the sources (galaxy) and observer (us)
are separating
• Also, farther away an object is from
earth, the faster it is receding from us
• *Receding: Going away
• 𝒗 = 𝑯𝟎 𝒅
• 𝐻0 : Hubble’s constant (Gradient,
constant of proportionality)
Hubble’s observations ….confirmed

Hubble’s constant
• Since
𝒗
𝑧 = and 𝒗 = 𝑯𝟎 𝒅,
𝑐
𝑯𝟎 𝒅 𝒛𝒄
•𝑧= ; Hence, so 𝒅 = for 𝑧 ≤ ~0.2 (*Conditions Apply)
𝑐 𝑯𝟎
• 𝐻0 = 67.80 ± 0.77 𝑘𝑚 𝑠 −1 𝑀𝑝𝑐 −1 (From Hubble graphs)
𝜆−𝜆0
• 𝑧 can be measured (observations)
𝜆0
• Hence, distance 𝑑 of newer galaxies can be measured using above equation
• Calculate its distance from earth
𝝀−𝝀𝟎
•𝒛= •𝑑=
𝒛𝒄
𝝀𝟎 𝐻0
0.12 𝑐 0.12 ×(3×𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝒌𝒎 𝒔−𝟏 )
𝟒𝟖𝟔−𝟒𝟑𝟒 •𝑑= =
•𝒛= 𝐻0 70 𝒌𝒎 𝒔−𝟏 𝑀𝑃𝑐 −1
𝟒𝟑𝟒
• 𝑑 = 514.28 𝑀𝑃𝑐
• = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐
𝑣 𝑣
• Since, 𝑧 = , 0.12 = Hence,
𝑐 𝑐
• 𝑣 = 0.12 × 𝑐
• 𝑣 = 3.6 × 107 𝑚𝑠 −1
• A particular galaxy shows a doppler shift of 𝑧 = 0.32. The observed redshifted
wavelength is 782 𝑛𝑚.
(a) Calculate the original unshifted wavelength.
(b) Calculate the distance of the galaxy from the earth in 𝑀𝑃𝑐.
• A far away galaxy is 781 𝑀𝑃𝑐 away from the earth.
(a) Find the doppler shift factor 𝑧 for this galaxy.
(b) Calculate the unshifted value of the observed wavelength 484 𝑛𝑚 for this galaxy.
(c) Velocity of separation
• A galaxy shows a Doppler shift of 𝑧 = 0.08 Calculate the
• (a) separation of a galaxy and
• (b) separation velocity
• A particular galaxy shows a doppler shift of 𝑧 = 0.32. The observed redshifted wavelength is 782 𝑛𝑚.
(a) Calculate the original unshifted wavelength
• 𝟓𝟗𝟐. 𝟒𝟐 𝒏𝒎
(b) Calculate the distance of the galaxy from the earth in 𝑀𝑃𝑐
• 𝟏𝟑𝟕𝟏. 𝟒𝟑 𝑴𝑷𝒄
• A far away galaxy is 781 𝑀𝑃𝑐 away from the earth.

(a) Find the doppler shift factor 𝑧 for this galaxy.
• 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖
(b) Calculate the unshifted value of the observed wavelength 484 𝑛𝑚 for this galaxy
• 𝟒𝟏𝟎. 𝟐 𝒏𝒎
(c) Velocity of separation
• 𝒗 = 𝟓. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒎𝒔−𝟏
• A galaxy shows a Doppler shift of 𝑧 = 0.08 Calculate the (a) separation of a galaxy
• 342 MPc and
• (b) separation velocity
𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒎𝒔−𝟏
• 𝟐. 𝟒 ×07-01-2024 Dr. Vaibhav Kaware 42
BBT and
Hubble
• Big bang theory is an
extrapolation of
Hubble’s observation
that farther away
galaxies move faster
away from us.

Scale Factor and expansion
….and Big Bang
• Two dots on a number line Fig. (a)
• Coordinate distance of the dots is Δ𝑥
• When number line is stretched (See Fig. (𝑏)), Δ𝑥 won’t change
• But physical distance 𝑑 between them increases
• that tells you how much distance there is between any two coordinates:
𝑑 = 𝑅Δ𝑥
Where, scale factor 𝑅 is the multiplying factor
• When the number line is stretched,Δ𝑥 does not change but the distance 𝑑
increases. This is because of increased scale factor 𝑹
• For the universe, scale factor 𝑹(𝒕) increases
07-01-2024 Dr. Vaibhav Kaware
with time. 44
Scale factor of the universe
• For the universe, scale factor
𝑹(𝒕) increases with time
• It is loosely referred to as the
radius of the universe
sometimes

• We can express redshift 𝑧 in terms of
the scale factor 𝑅 Scale factor and
• Let 𝑅 be the scale factor now, when the the Doppler Shift
light arrives on Earth (from a distant
galaxy)
• And 𝑅0 be the scale factor at the time
when this light was emitted (by the
distant galaxy)
• If distance between two consecutive
peaks of the wave is Δ𝑥, this distance has
changed due to changing scale factor
• 𝜆0 = 𝑅0 Δ𝑥 and 𝜆 = 𝑅Δ𝑥, then,
𝜆 𝑅
• =
𝜆0 𝑅0
• If distance between two consecutive
peaks of the wave is Δ𝑥, this distance has Scale factor and
changed due to changing scale factor
• 𝜆0 = 𝑅0 Δ𝑥 and 𝜆 = 𝑅Δ𝑥, then,
the Doppler Shift
𝝀 𝑹
• =
𝝀𝟎 𝑹𝟎
• Thus, velocity of separation is an artefact
of expanding space containing two static
objects
• Since expanding space give illusion of
motion, application of Doppler shift gives
the appropriate red shift.
𝜆
• Since, 𝑧 = − 1, we can write
𝜆0
𝑹
𝒛= −𝟏
07-01-2024 𝑹𝟎 Dr. Vaibhav Kaware 47
• Thus, velocity of separation is an artefact
of expanding space containing two static Scale factor and
objects the Doppler Shift
• Since expanding space give illusion of
motion, application of Doppler shift gives
the appropriate red shift.
𝜆
• Since, 𝑧 = − 1, we can write
𝜆0
𝑹
𝒛= −𝟏
𝑹𝟎
• In current situation, the we can observe
the modified radiation (𝜆) as Cosmic
Microwave Background Radiation
(𝐶𝑀𝐵𝑅)

• 𝜆0 𝑇0 = 𝜆𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Wien’s law
𝜆 𝑇0 𝑹
• = = ∴ 𝑅0 𝑇0 = 𝑅 𝑇
𝜆0 𝑇 𝑹𝟎
1
•𝑇 ∝
𝑅
• Temperature drops with
expanding universe
• Radiation existing in the
universe will change as
universe expands
• Radiation’s wavelength will
keep increasing as the
universe expands

CMBR map
• Cosmic Microwave Background
Radiation (CMBR) is ubiquitous
• It is not visible since its
wavelength has changed to
microwave region
(𝜆 = ~1.06 𝑚𝑚; 𝑇 = 2.725 𝐾)
• It is the afterglow of the Big
Bang
https://www.space.com/33892-cosmic-microwave-background.html
https://pages.uoregon.edu/imamura/SCS123/lecture-1/cmbr.html
https://sos.noaa.gov/catalog/datasets/cosmic-microwave-background-wmap-third-year/
𝝀 𝑹
•𝑧= −𝟏= −𝟏
𝝀𝟎 𝑹𝟎
𝜆 𝑅 1×10−3 𝑚
• = = = 2.5 × 103
𝜆0 𝑅0 4×10−7 𝑚
𝑅
•∴ = 2500
𝑅0
• Thus, the universe was 2500
times smaller than current size
when CMBR was visible blue

CMBR map
• Cosmic Microwave Background
Radiation (CMBR) is ubiquitous
• It is not visible since its
wavelength has changed to
microwave region
(𝜆 = ~1.06 𝑚𝑚; 𝑇 = 2.725 𝐾)
• Another proof of the Big Bang!!
• It is the afterglow of the Big
Bang
https://www.space.com/33892-cosmic-microwave-background.html
https://pages.uoregon.edu/imamura/SCS123/lecture-1/cmbr.html
https://sos.noaa.gov/catalog/datasets/cosmic-microwave-background-wmap-third-year/
Layers of the CMBR https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Videos/2013/03/Revealing_the_cosmic_microwave_background_with_Planck

https://youtu.be/wNDGgL73ihY
The Big Bang
𝐻0 and the age of universe
• Hubbles principle 𝑣 = 𝐻0 𝑑
• Let 𝑑 be the current separation of a galaxy from earth and the time
taken for this separation to occur is 𝑇 then,
𝑑
• Assuming uniform rate of expansion, 𝑣 =
𝑇
𝑑
• Thus, = 𝐻0 𝑑. Thus, 𝑇 = 1/𝐻0
𝑇
1 1
•𝑇= = × 106 × 3.09 × 1016
67.8 𝑘𝑚 𝑠 −1 𝑀𝑃𝑐 −1 67.8×103
• 𝑇 = 4.557 × 1017 𝑠 ≅ 14.5 × 109 𝑦𝑟𝑠
• This is Hubble time 𝑇𝐻 the upper bound for the age of universe since
it assumes uniform expansion whereas, expansion was rapid initially
• Actual age is ≅ 13.8 × 109 𝑦𝑟𝑠
Rate of expansion and Red-Shift
𝑐𝑧
•𝑑= for (𝑧 ≤ 0.2) . What about 𝑧 > 0.2 ?
𝐻0
𝑐𝑧 1
• Equation modifies to 𝑑 = 1+ 1 − 𝑞0 𝑧
𝐻0 2
• If 𝑞0 > 0 the rate of expansion is decreasing
(since gravity pulls everything together ultimately
• Value of 𝑞0 was measured by two groups independently using the
type 𝐼𝑎 supernovae

• All type 𝐼𝑎 supernovae have
the same peak intensity that
drops over next few days
• Since the mechanism of
powering their increased
luminosity is the same
Type 𝐼𝑎 supernovae
Type 𝐼𝑎 supernova

Type Ia SN 2018gv
• Peak luminosity 𝐿 = 2 × 1036 𝑊
𝐿
•𝑏= ; Measuring 𝑏 knowing
4𝜋𝑑 2
peak 𝐿, 𝑑 can be measured
• Substituting it in equation:
𝑐𝑧 1
𝑑= 1 + 1 − 𝑞0 𝑧 ,
𝐻0 2
• 𝑞0 value can be found

𝑐𝑧 1
•𝑑= 1+ 1 − 𝑞0 𝑧
𝐻0 2
• If 𝑞0 > 0 the rate of expansion is decreasing
(since gravity pulls everything together ultimately
• Both groups found 𝑞0 < 0
• This means expansion of universe is not slowing down, but contrary
to belief, accelerating !!

Occam’s Razor
• “Simplest explanation is likely to be the most correct”
• CMBR and Hubble’s data both point to simplest explanation , the Big
Bang, for the observed data
• BBT cannot explain what happened at the very instant the universe
was created.

Anisotropy
and
Homogeneity

Cosmological principle
• Inhomogeneous ⇒ Lumpyness
• Anisotropy ⇒ Special direction
• Universe is neither
• In contrast, it is Isotropic and Homogeneous
on the largest of the scales
– The Cosmological Principle
• It implies the universe has no edge (All parts
look same)
• Has no centre (Same point of view from
everywhere)
• E.g. CMBR
Inhomogeneities in CMBR
• CMBR is isotropic
• But has fine fluctuations, giving it
a granular structure

Inhomogeneities in CMBR
• CMBR is isotropic
• But has fine fluctuations, giving it
a granular structure
• Inhomogeneous fluctuation of
Δ𝑇
order ≅ 10−5 with average
𝑇
𝑇 = 2.723 𝐾.
• Inhomogeneity is key to
formation of structures like stars
and galaxies
• Anisotropy of CMBR points to
shape of universe
CMBR and curvature of universe
• Anisotropy would be different if universe has
+ 𝑣𝑒, −𝑣𝑒, or 0 curvature
• Compare three theoretical predictions of
inhomogeneity with obtained data
• Data matched with flat universe prediction
• CMB anisotropy hints about cosmological
density of matter and energy
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oCK5oG
mRtxQ&t=16s

Mass Density of Universe

Matter density and the rotation curve
• Solar system: Sun has ~99% of mass
• System: Central large mass with
planets orbiting around it
• Orbital speed of planets:
𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 = ;Since =
𝑟 𝑟2 𝑟
𝟏
• 𝒗𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕 ∝
𝒓

Rotational curve: Solar system type
• Solar system: Sun has ~99% of mass
• System: Central large mass with
planets orbiting around it
• Orbital speed of planets:
𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 = ;Since =
𝑟 𝑟2 𝑟
𝟏
• 𝒗𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕 ∝
𝒓
• A 𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 against distance 𝑟 (from the
Sun), is called the rotation curve

Rotational curve: Uniform density
• Now consider a spherical cloud of uniform density
• 𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 for the red dot at distance 𝑟?
𝐺𝑴
• 𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 = but now, 𝑀 is the mass of the
𝑟
spherical cloud up to distance (radius) 𝑟 from
centre
𝑀 𝑀 3𝑀
• Density 𝜌 = = 4𝜋𝑟3 = 3 ; Hence,
𝑉 4𝜋𝑟
3
4𝜋𝑟 3 𝝆 4𝐺𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌
•𝑴= ; So, 𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 =
3 3𝑟
𝟒𝑮𝝅𝝆
• Hence, 𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 = 𝑟×
𝟑
• Thus, 𝒗𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕 ∝ 𝒓
•
Rotational curve: Uniform density
• Now consider a spherical cloud of uniform density
𝝆 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
• 𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 for the red dot at distance 𝑟?
𝐺𝑴
• 𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 = but now, 𝑀 is the mass of the
𝑟
spherical cloud up to distance (radius) 𝑟 from
centre
𝑀 𝑀 3𝑀
• Density 𝜌 = = 4𝜋𝑟3 = 3 ; Hence,
𝑉 4𝜋𝑟
3
4𝜋𝑟 3 𝝆 4𝐺𝜋𝑟 𝟑 𝜌
•𝑴= ; So, 𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 =
3 3𝒓
𝟒𝑮𝝅𝝆
• Hence, 𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 = ×𝑟
𝟑
• Thus, 𝒗𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕 ∝ 𝒓
• Rotation curve of uniform density disc is a straight
line07-01-2024
through origin Dr. Vaibhav Kaware 73
Rotational curve: (linear) Increasing density
• A disc of mass that is heavier towards the rim compared to its centre
𝐺𝑀
• 𝑣=
𝑟
𝐺 𝑘𝒓
• ∴𝑣= = 𝐺𝑘, a constant
𝒓
• Rotational curve in this case will be a horizontal straight line

Rotational Curves of different types
SYSTEM ROTATIONAL CURVE
Central large mass and

smaller objects (e.g. 𝒗 ∝ 𝟏/ 𝒓
solar system)
Uniform density disc Increasing line 𝒗 = 𝒌 𝒓
Linear increasing
Constant line 𝒗 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
density disc

Rotational Curve of Milky way

INVISIBLE !!
• Picture: Less mass in the arms (outer edge)
• Rotation curve: Increasingly more mass in the
arms (Outer edge)
• Implication ⇒ There is too much mass that is
not visible !!

The milky way galaxy
What it looks like What is actually is!

• What is it that causes this
discrepancy in observed and
expected rotational curve ?
• The answer is ….

https://64.media.tumblr.com/54b6afba41d2005fbe31f79f1be
ef302/3e6a619eda937dd1-
66/s1280x1920/9677a6e41eb1d96f627b95c5c22db0f50c5f97
65.jpg

POSSIBLE CANDIDATES
• Nearly 85 % of universe is composed of dark matter (not visibleIt )
• It affects gravitational interactions of other objects though
1. Ordinary matter too cold to emit sizeable radiation
MACHO (MAssive Compact Halo Objects)
2. WIMP (Weakly interacting Massive Particles)
• Too cold ordinary matter: brown/black/red dwarfs, small planets,

interstellar debris (MACHO)
• MACHO can only constitute at best 15% of invisible matter Hence,
WIMP possible
• WIMP not confirmed yet!
• Conclusion: Universe has 85% missing mass that we know nothing
about !!
Cutting Edge!
• Far away galaxies are

devoid of dark matter
!!
• ⇒ Dark matter was
formed at the later
stages of evolution of
universe

https://scitechdaily.com/eso-observations-show-dark-matter-less-influential-in-galaxies-in-early-universe/ MARCH 17, 2017
Critical Density of the Universe
1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
• Total energy 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 −
2 𝑟
4
• Substitute 𝑣 = 𝐻0 𝑑 and 𝑀 = 𝜌 𝜋𝑟 3
3
1 8𝜋𝜌𝐺
•𝐸= 𝑚𝑟 2 𝐻02 −
2 3
• If 𝐸 > 0 mass 𝑚 will escape with accelerated motion

• If 𝐸 < 0 mass 𝑚 will come back
• If 𝐸 = 0 mass 𝑚 will escape at uniform velocity
8𝜋𝜌𝐺
• Decided by 𝐻02 − =<> 0
07-01-2024 3 Dr. Vaibhav Kaware 83
Critical Density of the Universe
• If 𝐸 > 0 mass 𝑚 will escape with accelerated motion
• If 𝐸 < 0 mass 𝑚 will come back
• If 𝐸 = 0 mass 𝑚 will escape at uniform velocity
8𝜋𝜌𝐺
• Decided by 𝐻02 − =<> 0
3
8𝜋𝜌𝐺
• When 𝐻02 − = 0; 𝜌 = 𝜌𝑐 The critical density
3
3𝐻02
• 𝜌𝑐 = ≈ 10−26 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3
8𝜋G
• If 𝜌𝑢𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 = 10−26 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3 universe will expand at uniform speed
• 𝜌𝑢𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 > 10−26 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3 universe will expand at accelerated speed
• 𝜌𝑢𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 < 10−26 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3 universe will come back
Why should density of the
universe determine its evolution
and then it’s ultimate fate?
Ans: General theory of relativity
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tzQC3uYL67U
85 Dr. Vaibhav Kaware 1/7/2024

Evolution of
Universe
• GTR: Mass (density) distorts space-
time geometry
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eNhJY-R3Gwg
(Minute Physics)
• Summary: Space-time tell matter

how to move and matter tells
space-time how to curve –John H.
Wheeler

Space-time curvature
• What was previously seen

as orbits due to action at a
distance (gravitation) were
now straight (!) line paths
(geodesics) through the
bent space-time fabric.

Evolution of Universe & the GTR
• GTR: Mass (density) distorts space-time geometry
• Applying it to whole universe involves scale factor 𝑅
• Einstein introduced Λ (Cosmological constant) to make 𝑅 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Steady state theory (No big bang)
• Hubble disproved it with observations
• Einstein missed predicting Big Bang due to personal belief/bias (𝑇𝑂𝐾)
• Now 𝛬 is back again in form of “Dark Energy” (𝛬 corresponds to dark
energy effects)

• Russian A. Friedmann solved Einstein’s field equation to arrive at
• ‘how R changes with time?’
𝜌𝑚
• Ω𝑚 = for matter and energy and
𝜌𝑐
𝜌Λ
• ΩΛ = for dark energy
𝜌𝑐
• Ω𝑚 and ΩΛ can have several values giving variety of 𝑅(𝑡) evolutions
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0RApKeMGDnE
(Einstein's Biggest Blunder, Explained: Minute Physics)

• Above red line Spherical
• Below, hyperbolic
• Along red line, universe is flat
• Flat > Follows general relativity locally

No dark matter
models
• Yellow, blue, green:
ΩΛ = 0 (No dark energy)
• Red line: observed ΩΩ ≠ 0
• Ω𝑚 > 1; 𝜌𝑚 > 𝜌𝑐 : Closed model
• Ω𝑚 < 1; 𝜌𝑚 < 𝜌𝑐 : Open model
(Expands forever)
• Ω𝑚 = 1; 𝜌𝑚 = 𝜌𝑐 : Critical model
• Measurements:
𝛀𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟐 & 𝛀𝚲 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟖
• Ω𝑚 + ΩΛ = 1
Future of Universe
• 32% mass-energy is matter
(dark + normal)
• Remaining 68% is dark energy
• Current universe is flat and
expanding at accelerated rate
(Red line)

06 Astrophysics

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Astrophysics

07-01-2024 Dr. Vaibhav Kaware 1

A logarithmic map of the Entire Observable Universe

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What it looks like: How it actually is:

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• When the gravitational energy

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• In even more massive stars, neon, sodium,

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• Left y-axis : Luminosity (and Mass)

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• If the rate of gathering neutrons is slow this is the 𝒔 −process forming

• Further heavy elements form by the 𝒓 −process where neutrons are

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• In the 1920’s it was it was discovered that

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Shift in “observed” frequency

• Doppler shift for light (waves)

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• Blue shifts observed are

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• Correct questions to ask is

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• 𝐻0 = 67.80 ± 0.77 𝑘𝑚 𝑠 −1 𝑀𝑝𝑐 −1 (From Hubble graphs)

• A far away galaxy is 781 𝑀𝑃𝑐 away from the earth.

• 342 MPc and

• (b) separation velocity

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• Rotational curve in this case will be a horizontal straight line

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Central large mass and

Uniform density disc Increasing line 𝒗 = 𝒌 𝒓

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