THEORIES OF CRIME

CAUSATION

- Fe D. Calixto RCrim
 Comes from the Greek word Theoria which
means “viewing”, “thinking” or “reflecting”

- “formal statement of ideas that are

suggested to explain a fact or event, or how
Theory something works”

- an integrated body of assumptions,

propositions, and definitions that explain
and predict relationships between two or
more variables
 Are abstract concepts
that systematically
describe the cause or
Theories of genesis of crime.
Crime These theories often
provide empirical
Causation insights to anyone who
ventures unto crime
analysis
Foundations of Crime
causation
Demonological Theory

-Earliest theory of crime causation that

is grounded on the belief that criminals
were possessed by evil spirit – a
supernatural force beyond one’s control
which compel them to commit crimes
TREPANATION
 1. Classical School – Views
crime as a product of free
will, hedonism, and rational
choice. It anchors on the
argument that human
School of beings are endowed with
thought free will and rationality and
that human actions are
results of the rational
calculation of the costs and
benefits
 •It refers to human
freedom or
1. Free will
capacity to act or
decide in his own
 •Often known as pain-
pleasure principle”it is
basic assumption that
people engage on
2. Hedonism things that will make
them happy and avoid
things that give them
sufferings and pain
 •Means performing
an act or make a
decision with sound
judgement, logic,
3.Rationality reasonableness, and
often conformity
with established
societal norms
 A)CESARE BECCARIA
– An Italian scholar,
philosopher, reformist who is
PROPONENTS widely recognized as the
OF CLASSICAL founder of the classical school.
SCHOOL He rose into fame after he
published his 17 pages entitled,
“On Crimes and Punishment” in
1764
 A)In forming a human
society, men, and women
sacrifice a portion of their
liberty so as to enjoy
peace and security
Highlights B)Punishments that go
beyond the need of
preserving the public
safety are in their nature
unjust
 C) Criminal laws must be
clear and certain. Judges
must make uniform
judgements in similar crimes
Highlights D) The law must specify the
degree of evidence that will
justify the detention of an
accused offender prior to
his trial
 E) Accusations must be
public. False accusations
should be severely
Highlights punished
F) To torture accused
offenders to obtain a
confession is inadmissible
 G) The aim of punishment can
only be to prevent the criminal
from committing new crimes
against his countrymen, and to
keep others from doing
Highlights likewise. Punishments,
therefore, and the method of
inflicting them, should be
chosen in due proportion to
the crime, so as to make the
most lasting impression on the
minds of men
 G) Capital punishment s
Highlights inefficacious and its place
should be substituted by
life imprisonment
 B. Jeremy Bentham- founder of
utilitarianism. He was credited in
the development of a
Panopticon, a circular structure
PROPONENTS placed at the center of a circular
OF CLASSICAL glass roof. It serves as a central
tower where prison staffs can
SCHOOL overall supervise surrounding
cells. To Bentham, human
conduct can fall in either one of
the following categories:
 • Morally Best- an action in which an
individual pursues the greatest
happiness of all those affected even at
the expense of his own happiness
• Less Moral- an action in which he
PROPONENTS pursues others happiness only when it
promotes his own happiness as well
OF • Minimally Moral- an action where
CLASSICAL an individual pursues his own
happiness, taking care not to cause
SCHOOL pain to others, but not pursuing their
happiness either.
• Immoral- an action where an
individual harms others
 10

 GENERAL DETERRENCE

 SPECIFIC DETERRENCE

It is the fact that the individual has

 INCAPACITATION
committed a wrongful act that justifies
 RETRIBUTION
punishment, and that the punishment
should be proportional to the wrong
committed.

Purpose of punishment (Classical)

.
 . 11

Elements of
deterrence
 Celerity. Celerity refers to how quickly an
individual is punished after committing a crime.
 Certainty. Certainty refers to how likely it is that
an individual will be caught and punished for a
crime that he or she has committed.
 Severity. Severity refers to how harsh the
punishment for a crime will be.
 2. Neo-Classical School- from the word
"neo" which means new. It argued that
since children and lunatics are incapable of
calculating pain and pleasure, they should
School of be treated differently.

thought 3. Positivist or Italian School-views crime as

a product of the internal and external
factors which are beyond one's control. It
implores science in explaining the causes of
crime and proposed the idea of
individualized treatment of offenders.
Criminal offenders should be considered as
part of and not apart from the society.
 Proponents of the Positivist School
• A. Dr. Cesare Lombroso- an army physician in
Italy who is credited today as the "father of
SCHOOLS modern criminology". He studied prisoners`
anatomical dispositions and correlated it with
OF criminal's propensity to commit crime and
published a book entitled "Criminal Man".
THOUGHT • Criminal Man- The first book which describes
the causes of crime. It contains the argument
that a criminal can be identified through his or
her biological makeup or physical appearance.
 Proponents of the Positivist School
• Enrico Ferri - a student of Cesare Lombroso.
He argued that it is not only caused by
SCHOOLS anthropological or individual factors (e.g.
intelligence, age, sex, psychological makeup,
OF etc.), rather by sociological factors (e.g.
family circumstances, religion, societal
THOUGHT status, etc.), and even environmental or
geographical factors (e.g. weather condition,
etc.)- He coined the term Criminal Sociology
which incorporated the aforementioned
factors of crime causation.
 Proponents of the Positivist School
• c. Raffaele Garofalo- an Italian jurist, a
politician, and a notable writer, was also a
SCHOOLS student of Cesare Lombroso.
• -conceptualized the so called natural
OF crime, those conducts that offend or
violated the two basic moral sentiments-
THOUGHT pity and probity.
• - argued that criminals are morally
deficient and are therefore be eliminated
from the society either through death
penalty or other forms of incapacitation.
BIOLOGICAL These are theories that link
THEORIES crime with human being's
physical or biological
OF CRIME dispositions. It clings on
CAUSATION the idea that criminality
has something to do with
person's genetic blueprint.
 Theory of Atavism or Born
Criminal
originated from the work of Dr.
BIOLOGICAL Cesare Lombroso- the father of
modern criminology.
THEORIES - grounded on the belief that
criminals are identifiable through
OF CRIME their physical anomalies or
stigmata. Lombroso asserted that
CAUSATION unlike law abiders, criminals are
having the appearance of pre-
human forms- a primitive stage of
evolution.
 • Characteristics of an Atavistic
BIOLOGICAL • Person
• Twisted or Flat nose
THEORIES • Long arms in relation to their
• lower limbs
OF CRIME • Drooping eyes

CAUSATION • Large ears

• Protruding jaws
• Sloped foreheads
• Dark skin
• Small and deformed skulls
BIOLOGICAL • Lombroso`s Classification of Criminals
• 1. Born Criminals- those with atavistic
THEORIES characteristics.
• 2. Insane Criminals- those having anatomical and
OF CRIME biological abnormalities. These include imbeciles,
idiots, as well as alcoholics, hysterics, and
CAUSATION epileptics.
• 3. Criminals by passion- those who are triggered
by emotional force such as love, anger, hatred,
jealousy, and others.
BIOLOGICAL Lombroso's Classification of
THEORIES Criminals
4. Occasional criminals- those who commit crimes given the

OF CRIME opportunity. This type of criminals has innate characteristics

to commit crime. Occasional criminals are composed into
four subtypes:
CAUSATION •Criminaloid- those who are easily swayed or tempted to do
evil. Criminaloids are normal persons who commit crimes
under the pressure of circumstances.
•Epileptoid- those who are suffering from epilepsy, a
neurological disorder.
BIOLOGICAL Lombroso's Classification of
THEORIES Criminals
OF CRIME •Habitual criminal- those who live normally but later on
develop an undesirable habit (i.e. gambling, drugs) which
influence him to commit lifetime criminality.
CAUSATION •Pseudocriminal- like criminaloids, pseudocriminals are
normal persons. They only commit crimes when the situation
forces them to do so. A best example of this one is self
defense.
BIOLOGICAL Physiognomy
THEORIES •dubbed as "face
reading"
OF CRIME •-the study of the
CAUSATION person's personality
traits or character based
on facial appearance.
 Physiognomic Interpretations
BIOLOGICAL •Men with big upper lips signified stupidity
•Fat nose like of the pig indicated stupidity
THEORIES •Pointed nose like of the dog signified choleric
temperament
OF CRIME •Lion-like nose implied generosity
•Persons with noses like the hawk or eagle
CAUSATION were magnanimous
•Fine hair like of the rabbit and sheep
indicated timidity
•Rough hair like of the lion or boar implied
courage
•Fat ears like of the Ox implied laziness
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
OF CRIME CAUSATION

Phrenology/craniology
• the study of the
person's personality
traits or character
based on skull
formation.
BIOLOGICAL
THEORIES OF Kretschmer's Body Physiques
CRIME • - assumed that there is a link between the
individual's physical makeup and his
CAUSATION personality and that certain body builds
correspond to certain temperaments.
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

Four Types of Body Physiques

1. Asthenic - are those persons who are thin, with narrow
shoulders, flat chest, loose skin, and long limbs. Asthenic
are shy, timid, introvert, with serious personality but with
fondness in reading and studying. To Kretschmer, asthenic
is likely to commit petty theft and fraud.
2. Athletic - people under this category are muscular and
with strong development of the skeleton. The personality of
being aggressive is linked to this type. Athletic people are
prone to commit violence compared to asthenic.
BIOLOGICAL
THEORIES OF Four Types of Body Physiques
CRIME CAUSATION 3. Pyknic - are those that are fat with rounded
bodies with fleshy arms and legs. This
category is more likely to commit fraud and
deception and sometimes violence. On the
temperament side, pyknic people are into
mood swings, who sometimes are happy and
at other times are irritable and depressed.
4. Dysplastic type (mixed type) - people
who have no desired body physiques belong to
this category. Kretschmer argued that
individuals under this type are prone to
commit crimes against decency and morality.
BIOLOGICA
L THEORIES • Somatotypes
Popularized by William Sheldon, an
OF CRIME American psychologist who made his
own version of body types which he
CAUSATION termed somatotypes.
BIOLOGICAL Somatotypes
THEORIES 1. Ectomorph - this is similar to Kretschmer's
asthenic body physique. Similarly,
OF CRIME ectomorphs are thin or slender. Sheldon
associated this type to cerebrotonic
CAUSATION temperament with characters of being
introverted, insomniac, full of complaints,
sensitivity to noise and distractions, and self
conscious.
 Somatotype
BIOLOGICAL 2. Endomorph - this is similar to
THEORIES Kretschmer's pyknic body
physique. Endomorphs are those
OF CRIME whose body is fat, soft, and round.
CAUSATION It is attributed to a viscerotonic
type of temperament -
extroverted, jolly, relaxed, lazy,
comfortable, and sociable.
 Somatotype
BIOLOGICAL 3. Mesomorph - the athlectic type
THEORIES in Kretschmer's classification.
Mesomorphs are characterized by
OF CRIME dominated muscles, large hands
CAUSATION and wrists, and heavy chest.
Mesomorphs are somotonic
having the characters of being
active, aggressive, and dynamic.
 Karyotype Studies: The "Supermale"
• - this theory associated aggressive
BIOLOGICAL behavior and crime to abnormality in the
chromosomal pattern of a person. The
THEORIES OF normal chromosome pair for male is XY;
female on the other hand follows an XX
CRIME pattern.
CAUSATION • - some males have an XYY pattern and
some females have an XXX structure. This
theory suggests that additional maleness
brought by the extra "Y" chromosome
(which makes "supermales") provides
higher inclination for a person to commit
heinous, violent crimes.
 Family Studies
• Juke Family Tree
• spearheaded by Richard L. Dugdale, a
BIOLOGICAL sociologist and a prison reformer.
THEORIES • Dugdale started his study on the five
daughters of Max Juke, Ada, Bell, Clara,
OF CRIME Delia, and Effie.
• Ada Juke who is better known to the
CAUSATION public as "Margaret, the mother of
criminals"
• after tracing the family had out 709
descendants, 181 were prostitutes, 142
paupers and 106 illegitimate births
BIOLOGICAL 2. Kalikak Family Tree By Henry
H. Goddard.
THEORIES • - “Kalikak” from the Greek word "kallos" which
OF CRIME means "beauty or good" and "kakos" which
means "bad"

CAUSATION • - Involved Martin Kalikak, a revolutionary war

soldier. Martin had two separate relationships
which in turned represents the "good
offspring" and the “bad offspring". These
relationships are the following:
 • 2. Kalikak Family Tree By Henry H.
Goddard.
BIOLOGICAL • Quaker (member of a Christian group
known as Society of Friends)- girl whom
THEORIES he married and bore seven children. Upon
tracing, descendants considered to be the
OF CRIME "good side" of the family tree.
• feebleminded woman - resulted to an
illegitimate son named Martin Kalikak
CAUSATION Junior who later rose into adulthood,
married and fathered seven children.
Goddard upon tracing the "bad side" of the
family tree found out descendants who were
prostitutes, thieves, brothel owners,
alcoholics, and licentious individuals.
 Family Studies
Jonathan Edwards Family Tree
BIOLOGICAL • was an exemplar of an ideal
family structure. Jonathan who
was married to Sara in 1727, was a
THEORIES famous Puritan preacher and once
a president in Princeton College.
OF CRIME • this family tree was traced by A.E.
Winship.
CAUSATION • none of the descendants was found
to be criminal. Rather, many
became judges, physicians, college
presidents, mayors, vice president,
senators, professors, and other vital
positions in the society.
 Twin studies
BIOLOGICAL • This study was centered on studying twin pairs,
investigating their distinct and similar behavioral
THEORIES patterns. The theoretical assumption was, if genes
are inherited, then twins would likely exhibit the
same set of behaviors. With this, researchers
OF CRIME grouped twin pairs into two:
• MZ - refers to identical twins.
CAUSATION • DZ-refers to fraternal twins who are not identical,
twins who share only half of their genes.
• 52 percent similarity in behavioral patterns among
MZ (identical twins) compared to DZ (fraternal
twins) which has 22 percent only.
 Adoption Studies
BIOLOGICAL •This study examined the life and behavior of
THEORIES OF the adopted children and correlated it with
the criminal behaviors of the parents who
CRIME adopted them and with their biological
CAUSATION parents who send them away.
•Adoption studies argued that criminal
behaviors exhibited by adopted children were
hereditary in nature
 Hormones and Behavior
•Hormones are chemical messengers inside the body of a
person. It affects psychological and physiological human
BIOLOGICAL aspects including behavior, fertility, etc.
•Persons with high level of testosterone are prone in
THEORIES OF committing domestic abuse, verbal and physical domestic
violence.
CRIME •Prisoners who were violent during their adolescence were
found to have higher testosterone levels than those who
CAUSATION were non-aggressive ones.
•Higher quantity of testosterone is released during
adolescent period. Increase of testosterone is correlated
with substance use, delinquency, as well as conflicts with
authority figures, and promiscuity (indiscriminate sexual
relation).
Early health defects
1. Minor birth defects
2. Nicotine or alcohol exposure
3. Birth complication
 1. SERATONIN
low serotonin syndrome” implying that
people in such a state have an “impulsive
NEURO- personality”, and the “irritable aggression
model” postulate that hypo-functioning of
serotonin neurons lead to increased
TRANS- irritation and increased reactivity to
triggers and situations (Badaway, 2003).
Low levels of serotonin in the

MITTERS cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) are characteristic

of a person who is impulsive and
aggressive (Glenn & Raine, 2014).
Low Levels of Seratonin –
have been found in impulsive
murderers and arsonist

Norepinephrine – may be
associated with compulsive gambling
 Food and Behavior
• poor diet is correlated with frustration,
aggression, defiance, lack of discipline, poor
BIOLOGICAL self esteem, and depression
• Exercise entwined with improved diet and
THEORIES OF proper education could result to decrease
CRIME chances in antisocial behavioral problems in
later adolescence or adulthood
CAUSATION • increased behavior problems when a person
is exposed to synthetic colorings and
flavorings, preservatives, cow's milk, and
certain chemicals.
 Pregnancy, During and After Childbirth, and Behavior
• children delivered from the mother's womb with high levels of birth
complications were more aggressive than those with low levels.
• Children born prematurely showed learning disabilities, school
BIOLOGICAL problems, and impairment in attention, emotion, and language.
• Excessive consumption of alcoholic beverages of pregnant women
THEORIES OF may result to fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD), which may lead
to mental complications which may cause retardation in the mental
CRIME aspect
• Smoking during pregnancy may lead to conduct disorder in children
CAUSATION between 16 and 18years old.
• Depression, anxiety, stressed, and having history of depression during
pregnancy are predictors of postpartum depression. This is a type of
depression which occurs after pregnancy characterize by the feeling
of being hopeless, without self importance, and sadness.
 • Premenstrual Syndrome and Behavior
BIOLOGICAL • Prior to menstruation, fluctuations occur as
progesterone levels drop while the other
THEORIES OF hormones increase.
CRIME • The abrupt change may lead to what is
CAUSATION called premenstrual syndrome.
• Common effects of premenstrual syndrome
are concentration problems, increased
irritability, mood swings including aggression
and depression.
PSYCHOLOGICAL
THEORIES OF
CRIME • These theories explain crime as caused by
CAUSATION mental, behavioral or emotional aspects.
 Psychoanalytic Theory
PSYCHOLOGICAL
• pioneered by Sigmund Freud.
THEORIES OF
CRIME • views deviant or antisocial behavior as a
result of underdeveloped or overdeveloped
CAUSATION superego.
 Three Elements of Personality
PSYCHOLOGICAL 1.Id - refers to the instincts, or pleasure-seeking
THEORIES OF drives or impulses. This is present since birth. Id
is the unconscious state of the mind of a person.
CRIME 2. Superego - refers to conscience. It sets the
CAUSATION moral standard inconsonance with the norms of
the society. It is developed at the age of five
3. Ego - refers to the self. Its function is to
balance or to mediate between the id and the
superego in the context of reality.
 Types of Personality Conflicts or Anxiety
• 1. Realistic anxiety - this refers to the feeling of
fear towards certain external object, situation, or
action, that the society generally regard as a
threat or dangerous to the concerned person. It is
PSYCHOLOGICAL what a person feels when a criminal points the
muzzle of his firearm towards him.
THEORIES OF • 2. Moral anxiety - this is a type of anxiety
CRIME produced by the tensions between the ego and
the superego. In certain times, the id provokes the
CAUSATION ego to resort in unacceptable behaviors causing
the superego to regulate the former.
• 3. Neurotic anxiety - this is produced by the
conflict between the id and the ego. This is felt
when the impulses of the id overwhelms the ego.
Frustration displacement, losing your temper, and
drinking alcohol, are few examples of neurotic
anxiety.
 Ego Defense Mechanisms
1. Repression - the most fundamental
defense mechanism. It is referred to as
PSYCHOLOGICAL "motivated forgetting"
THEORIES OF 2. Denial - this refers to the refusal on the
CRIME person to accept the reality.
CAUSATION 3. Projection - in this defense mechanism,
the ego attempts to resolve the tension or
discomfort of the individual by attributing the
undesirable thoughts, events, feelings, and
motives to another individual. It resembles
with the act of blaming only that in
literatures, the former is the most widely
used word.
 4. Regression - a defense mechanism of the
ego in which the person reverts or moves
backward in the earlier stages of
development in order to cope with negative
situations.
PSYCHOLOGICAL 5. Isolation or Intellectualization- this
THEORIES OF refers to the ego defense mechanism which
CRIME eliminates the feeling or emotion associated
CAUSATION with a threatening event, object, or person.
The strategy is to become emotionless to
pursue normal psychological function.
6. Sublimation - this is the most mature
defense mechanism which involves
channeling the stress or pain through socially
accepted behavior.
 7. Displacement - a defense mechanism which is
the exact opposite of sublimation. In here the
PSYCHOLOGICAL person channels the pain in a socially
unacceptable way.
THEORIES OF 8. Reaction Formation - this is often called
CRIME "believing the opposite". A primitive version of
CAUSATION sublimation, this ego defense mechanism changes
the anxiety-provoking or unacceptable impulses
into acceptable ones. However, unlike
sublimation, reaction formation, reverses the
individual's conscious experience making him
aware of the opposite feeling.
 9. Rationalization - a defense
mechanism where the ego
excuses an inappropriate
behavior though a gesture (often
PSYCHOLOGICAL an explanation) that is more
THEORIES OF acceptable than the real and
CRIME unconscious motive.
CAUSATION 10. Introjection - an ego
defense mechanism where the
individual imitates the
characteristics of another to gain
acceptance
 Fixation
• refers to either inadequate or excessive pleasure, or to
the conflicts during the stages of psychosexual
development in which the target of the sexual energy
PSYCHOLOGICAL remains attached to an object associated with lower
THEORIES OF level of maturity.
CRIME • it is the state of being confined or being stuck in a
certain stage.
CAUSATION
Reasons for being "fixated" (stuck) in a Stage
• Inadequate fulfillment of the development needs in a
certain stage which causes frustration
• Excessive fulfillment of development needs which
causes indulgence
 1. Oral Stage (birth to 2 years)- In this stage of
psychosexual development, the gratification of
the infant focuses on the mouth. Oral activities
Stages of like eating, swallowing, biting and sucking give
Psychosexual pleasure.
2. Anal Stage (2 to 4 years)- In this stage, the focus
Development of gratification is on the anal region which
consists of the control and the release of feces.
The ability of the child to control and heed on
parental instruction as to bowel movement is the
key in determining the personality styles of the
infant when reaching adulthood.
Stages of
3. Phallic Stage (4-5 years)- sexual attraction to the
Psychosexual parent of opposite sex occurs and that parent of the
Development same sex is considered as rival or competitor. Gender
identity is learned by identifying and mimicking the
same sex parent.
 Oedipus Complex- a term used to describe to a
boy's feeling of jealousy towards their father and
the feeling of desire towards their mother.
PSYCHOLOGICAL Castration anxiety- a term used to describe the
boy's feeling of fear towards their father. In here,
THEORIES OF the boy assumed that his father will take revenge
CRIME and punish him by castrating him.
CAUSATION Electra complex- a term used to describe girl's
desire of affection and love for their dad.
However, unlike boys, Freud (1905) argued that
girls are unable to experience castration anxiety.
In this stage, girls experienced what Freud called
as "penis envy". Sigmund Freud believed that
children do not recognize the external anatomical
differences between males and females prior to
the phallic phase.
 4. Latent (latency) Stage (6 years to puberty)-
takes place when children are at the ages of six to
twelve years.
-the child realizes that desires and affections
directed to the parent of opposite sex (boy child to
Stages of the mother, girl child to the father) are not feasible.
Psychosexual -shifts his focus towards social skills such as
recreation and sports and becomes occupied with
Development socializing with same-sex peers, refining roles, etc.
5. Genital Stage (puberty and up) - commences
when the child enters the period of puberty - a
stage where the little girl or boy transitioned into
adolescence becoming into a sexually matured and
a reproductive ready individual.
- an increase of sex hormones resulting to an
increase of sexual desire with the opposite sex.
 Self Control Theory
• also known as General Theory of Crime which
was formulated by Gottfredson and Hischi (1990).
• This theory argues that person with high level of
PSYCHOLOGICAL self control are less likely to commit crime while
those who have inadequate self control are more
THEORIES OF likely to engage in criminal acts.
CRIME Frustration-Aggression Theory
CAUSATION • also known as frustration - aggression hypothesis
by Yale John Dollard, Neal Miller, Leonard Doob,
Orval Mowrer, and Robert Sears
• a theory which blames aggressive behavior to
events or circumstances which cause frustration.
• frustration is a result of a goal being blocked or
interfered.
 Moral Development Theory
• Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1928)
PSYCHOLOGICAL
THEORIES OF • a theory which states that morality
CRIME progress through a series of stages.
CAUSATION • The sense of right or wrong is
entwined with the person's
progression to the stages.
• Delinquent behavior is a result of
immaturity in moral development
 Stages
Level 1: Pre-conventional - in this level,
actions and moral reasoning are primarily
based on its psychological or physical
consequences such as punishment or
PSYCHOLOGICAL reward. In here, a person acts in
THEORIES OF accordance to the authorities and adults'
CRIME societal interpretation of right or wrong.
CAUSATION Stage 1 - moral actions are based on the
obedience of the law to avoid punishment.
Stage 2 - moral actions are based on self
interest and sometimes to the interest of
others.
 Stages

Level 2: Conventional-moral decision

making is based on establishing harmonious
relationship with others. An action is adjudged
dependent to the expectations of the
PSYCHOLOGICAL surrounding individuals.
THEORIES OF Stage 3 - moral actions are based on the
CRIME approval or expectations of others. The person
CAUSATION chooses to adapt a group and act in
consonance with its culture.
Stage 4 - the stage of law and order
orientation. The individual recognizes the
diversity within the society and view laws and
behavioral percepts as necessary.
 Stages
Level 3: Post - conventional - in this stage,
moral actions is based on the established
principles of the person and moral reasoning is
directed towards justice.
PSYCHOLOGICAL Stage 5 - Laws are believed to benefit the
THEORIES OF greatest number of people (utilitarianism).
CRIME Stage 6 - this is known as the universal ethical
CAUSATION consideration. Laws are considered to be vital
for the common good of the many
(utilitarianism), however, sometimes there is a
need for this to be overridden to benefit
others and to adhere o self imposed
principles..
 Rational Choice Theory
assumes that people make rational
PSYCHOLOGICAL decisions or choices if they think that such
THEORIES OF actions is perceived to maximize benefits
CRIME and minimize losses, risks or costs
CAUSATION Rationality- the capacity of a person to
render decisions based on the dictates of
reason.
 Low IQ Theory
blames criminality to a defect in the
cognitive aspect of a person.

PSYCHOLOGICAL
The earliest proponent of this theory was
THEORIES OF
Charles Goring (1870-1919) who after
CRIME
CAUSATION studying the mental characteristics of
3,000 convicts, argued that crime is not
caused by the atavistic feature of man
(which Lombroso theorized) but by
defective intelligence which is hereditary
in nature.
 Personality Trait Theory
•This theory by Gordon Allport (1897-
1967) assumes that criminal behavior is
PSYCHOLOGICAL caused by certain personality traits of a
THEORIES OF person.
CRIME
CAUSATION •Unlike psychoanalytic theory which
pinpoints deviant behaviors to have come
from unconscious causes(overbearing or
weak superego), personality trait theory
posits that antisocial behavior comes
mainly from personality.
 Levels of Traits
1. Cardinal traits- these refer to the primary
and dominant traits, the major personality
PSYCHOLOGICAL description, something that are used to
describe about the person.
THEORIES OF
2. Central traits- these are major traits that
CRIME are used to ordinarily describe a person. From
CAUSATION the above example, a person who is sociable
may manifests central traits such as kindness,
hospitable, generous, and altruistic..
3. Secondary traits- these are personality
traits that arise only to specific situations and
are not dominant and are not integral part of
personality, unlike central or cardinal traits.
 Eysenck's Personality Theory
•This theory was founded by Hans
PSYCHOLOGICAL Eysenck (1964) which blames criminality
THEORIES OF to genetically inherited nervous system
CRIME which behaves in a particular level of
CAUSATION physiological arousal or temperament
•Physiological arousal in here may refer to
how a person responds to his environment
 Eysenck's Personality Theory
Three Dimensions of Personality
1. Introversion-extraversion- introverts are
characterized of being thoughtful, quiet, reserved,
calm, controlled, conforming, and passive. This
kind of people avoids social interactions. At the
PSYCHOLOGICAL opposite, extroverts are sociable, lively, outgoing,
carefree, assertive, and active. Between the two,
THEORIES OF extroverts are risk-seeking and are more prone to
CRIME commit crime
CAUSATION 2. Neuroticism- stability - neurotics are
characterized by being unstable, anxious, impulsive,
restless, and moody. At the opposite, emotionally
stable individuals are those that are relaxed and
calm.
3. Psychoticism- this is characterized of being
cruel, non-conforming, insensitive, remorseless,
and is prone to commit criminal tendencies.
 Other Psychological Theories
Psychodynamic Theory
PSYCHOLOGICAL •It is the study of the interrelationship of various
THEORIES OF parts of the mind, personality, or psyche as they
CRIME relate to mental, emotional, or motivational
CAUSATION forces especially at the unconscious level.
•The psychology of mental or emotional forces
or process developing especially in early
childhood and effects on behavior and mental
states.
 Terms used to explain further the Psychodynamic
theory
1. Jointness- dynamic process representing an
emotional system for attachment and for
PSYCHOLOGICAL communication between separate individuals who
THEORIES OF jointly approach each encounter, between mother
CRIME and infant, psychotherapist and patient, or any
CAUSATION partners experiencing simultaneously mutual
intimacy.
2. Psychotherapy- is the use of psychological
methods, particularly when based on regular
personal interaction, to help change and overcome
problems in desired ways. It aims to improve an
individual's well-being and mental health and to
resolve or mitigate troublesome behaviours, etc.
 Behavioral Theory-propounded that
human behavior is developed through the
learning experience.
•It has the notion that people alter or
PSYCHOLOGICAL change their behavior depending on their
THEORIES OF environment
CRIME *Children or people learn violence through
CAUSATION the observation of others. •Aggressive acts
are modeled in three primary sources:
a) Family interaction
b) Environmental experiences, and
c) The mass media.
 Cognitive Theory
In this theory, the psychologist focus
on the mental process of individuals.
PSYCHOLOGICAL
THEORIES OF explain criminal behavior as a
CRIME defect in moral thinking, thought
CAUSATION processes, and mental development.
a thought process that stores
information, so that the information
can be interpreted correctly by a
criminal.
 Cognitive Dissonance Theory
*refers to a situation involving
conflicting attitudes, beliefs or
behaviors.
PSYCHOLOGICAL
THEORIES OF •This produces a feeling of mental
discomfort leading to an alteration in
CRIME one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors
CAUSATION to reduce the discomfort and restore
balance.
*postulates that an underlying
psychological tension is created when
an individual's behavior is inconsistent
with his or her thoughts and beliefs.
SOCIOLOGICAL
THEORIES OF
• These theories seek to explain crime causation
CRIME through social or surrounding conditions,
associating crime with poverty, broken family,
CAUSATION social disorganization, peer pressure, and others.
 Differential Association
Theory
SOCIOLOGICAL • maintains that the society is
THEORIES OF composed of different group
CRIME organizations, the societies
CAUSATION consist of a group of people
having criminalistics and
anti-criminalistics tradition
and that criminal behavior is
learned and not inherited..
 Differential Association
Theory
SOCIOLOGICAL • maintains that the society is
THEORIES OF composed of different group
CRIME organizations, the societies
CAUSATION consist of a group of people
having criminalistics and anti-
criminalistics tradition and
that criminal behavior is
learned and not inherited..
 Sutherland's Nine Points on
Differential Association
SOCIOLOGICAL Theory
THEORIES OF 1. Criminal behavior is learned.
CRIME 2. Criminal behavior is learned in
interaction in a process of
CAUSATION communication.
3. The principal part of the
learning of criminal behavior
occurs within intimate personal
groups.
 Sutherland's Nine Points on
Differential Association Theory
4. When criminal behavior is learned,
SOCIOLOGICAL the learning includes:
THEORIES OF a. techniques of committing the crime,
which is sometimes very complicated
CRIME and sometimes very simple; and
CAUSATION b. the specific direction of motives,
drives, rationalizations, and attitudes.
5. The specific direction of motives
and drives is learned from definitions
of the legal codes as favorable or
unfavorable.
 Sutherland's Nine Points on
Differential Association
Theory
SOCIOLOGICAL 6. A person becomes delinquent
THEORIES OF because of an excess of
CRIME definitions favorable to violation
CAUSATION of law over definitions
unfavorable to violation of the
law.
7. Differential associations may
vary in frequency, duration,
priority, and intensity.
 Sutherland's Nine Points on
Differential Association
Theory
SOCIOLOGICAL 8. learning criminal behavior by
THEORIES OF association with criminal and
CRIME anti- criminal patterns involves
CAUSATION all the mechanisms that are
involved in any other learning.
9. Although criminal behavior is
an expression of general needs
and values, it is not explained by
those general needs and values.
 According to Differential
Association Theory (DAT) the
learning process may be
SOCIOLOGICAL influenced by four factors such as:
THEORIES OF •Priority-The associations that occur
CRIME early
CAUSATION •Duration- Last longer or occupy a
disproportionate amount of one's time.
•Frequency-number of
times/repetitions.
•Intensity- Involve the intimate,
closest, or most important
partners/peer groups.
 2. Anomie Theory
- Advocated by Emile Durkheim.
SOCIOLOGICAL -Breakdown of social orders as
THEORIES OF results of loss of standards and
CRIME values
CAUSATION that replaced social cohesion.
A - Absence
Nomos-Laws or standards.
*Anomie-refers to the
breakdown of norms.
 3. Strain Theory
defined as the tension between
social expectations and aspirations
SOCIOLOGICAL and the socially acceptable ways of
accomplishing those expectations
THEORIES OF and goals
CRIME •By Robert Merton
CAUSATION •States that various strains or
pressures increase the chance of
criminal activity.
•These tensions result in unpleasant
emotions such as frustration and
anger, among other things.
KEYWORDS TO DEFINE STRAIN THEORY
1. FRUSTRATION
2. ANGER
3. RESENTMENT
4. DISPARITY
5. UNDER GREAT PRESSURE
 Five Responses to Strain
1. Conformity- Individuals are
pursuing a societal aim by
employing legal means to achieve
SOCIOLOGICAL it.
THEORIES OF 2. Innovation- the individual
CRIME achieves this goal using unethical
CAUSATION means. Thieves are innovators
because they share the cultural
objective of acquiring riches but do
so by breaking the law example: To
gain financial stability, one may
resort to drug trafficking or
stealing.
 Five Responses to Strain
3. Ritualists- given up all hope of
accomplishing society's acceptable
SOCIOLOGICAL aims, but who continues to function
THEORIES OF within the confines of society's
approved methods, using the same
CRIME means to achieve less elusive goals
CAUSATION (more modest and humble). A
ritualist is someone who, for
example, acknowledges that they
will never advance in their current
position but continues to work in
that position.
 Five Responses to Strain
4. Retreatists; have rejected both a
society's goals and the legitimate means of
obtaining them, and live outside
conventional norms altogether. It is the
SOCIOLOGICAL tendency of some people to withdraw
from the society of which they are a part,
THEORIES OF rejecting both the goals and the means of
achieving those goals.
CRIME - Example of the high school to college
CAUSATION transition, the retreatist might not
graduate from high school, drop contact
from family, etc.
5. Rebellion: to reject the cultural goals
and means, then work to replace them.
Rebels seek to replace society goals with
their own, as well as to design their own
methods of achieving those goals driven
by ideology.
 4. General Strain Theory
SOCIOLOGICAL (GTS)
THEORIES OF •Developed by Robert Agnew
CRIME (1992).
CAUSATION
• refers to "relationships in which
others are not
treating the individual as he or
she would like to be treated".
SOCIOLOGICAL General Strain Theory (GTS)
THEORIES OF
CRIME • Objective strains- are events or
conditions that are hated by the
CAUSATION
majority of the members of a
certain group and are thus
classified as such.
 General Strain Theory (GTS)
• Subjective strains- it is concerned
with how a person perceives and
SOCIOLOGICAL reacts to a specific incident or
THEORIES OF scenario.
CRIME In short term, strains are most likely to
cause criminality when:
CAUSATION (1) are seen as unjust;
(2) are seen as high in magnitude;
(3) are associated with low social
control; and
(4) create some pressure or incentive
to engage in criminal coping.
 5. Social Bond Theory
SOCIOLOGICAL
* states that deviant behavior is
THEORIES OF caused by weak or broken bonds
CRIME with the society
CAUSATION *the bonds that are formed with
prosocial people, prosocial
institutions, and prosocial values,
are the bonds that
discourage deviant behavior.
 5. Social Bond Theory
Components of Social Bonds
SOCIOLOGICAL 1. Attachment - this is a bond which an
THEORIES OF individual establishes with the members or
groups in the society (peers, family, school,
CRIME church, organization, etc.). Poor
relationship with these groups is
CAUSATION instrumental to crime.
2. Commitment - this bond refers to the
value or importance of the relationship
which a person protects. People conform
with the norms of the society so as not to
look bad in front of peers, family,
neighbors, or organizations whom he is a
member of.
 Social Bond Theory
Components of Social Bonds

SOCIOLOGICAL 3. Involvement - this bond requires the

person to engage in pro social activities
THEORIES OF which in turn, diminishes his chances from
CRIME committing a crime. This is because a
person who is engaging in productive
CAUSATION activities is technically not spending his or
her time in anti-social matters.
4. Belief- refers to the degree of trust or
faith with the validity of the laws and
regulations of the society. Thus, the more
a person has belief in the value of the law,
the less likely for him to engage in crimes.
 6. Containment Theory (Walter
Reckless In 1960)
SOCIOLOGICAL contends that a series of
THEORIES OF external social factors and internal
qualities effectively insulate certain
CRIME individuals from criminal
CAUSATION involvement even when ecological
variables induce others to engage in
crime.
• It states that pushes and pulls are
buffered by inner and outer
containments.
 6. Containment Theory (Walter
Reckless In 1960)
SOCIOLOGICAL • Inner containment includes self-
concept, goal orientation,
THEORIES OF frustration tolerance, and norm
CRIME commitment and retention (i.e.,
CAUSATION elements within the individual's
self ).
The outer commitment includes the
social environment in which the
individual resides and reflects
socialization within the community
(i.e., elements outside one's self )..
 7. Interactional Theory
• proposes that the fundamental or
primary cause of delinquent behavior
SOCIOLOGICAL is a weakening of bonds to
conventional society.
THEORIES OF It suggests that societal, learning
CRIME and delinquency factors all contribute
to an individual's involvement in
CAUSATION organized crime.
• The theory further states that
individuals with weak social bonds will
form other bonds with other
delinquents who share the same poor
values.
• Developed by Thornberry and Krohn
 8. Situational Crime Prevention
Theory
SOCIOLOGICAL States that crime can be
THEORIES OF prevented not by altering the
criminal's disposition but rather
CRIME altering the situation that causes
CAUSATION him to commit crimes. For
example, a thief who has the
inclination to steal may be deprived
of an opportunity if a police officer
is visible within his range.
• Developed by Ron Clarke
 9. Deterrence Theory
• This theory asserts that if legal
SOCIOLOGICAL penalties are certain, swift, and
THEORIES OF severe, people will be deterred
CRIME from committing crime.
CAUSATION
although requires
rationalization, gives more
emphasis on a person's outlook
of the pain of punishment.
 9. Deterrence Theory

Types of Deterrence
SOCIOLOGICAL • General Deterrence - the general public is
discouraged from committing the same crime
THEORIES OF after seeing someone being punished.
• Specific Deterrence- this refers to the idea
CRIME of discouraging the criminal from committing
further crimes after receiving the punishment.
CAUSATION Components of Deterrence Theory
• Severity- the intensity of legal punishment.
• Certainty- the assurance that punishment is
imposed to those who commit crime
• Swiftness or Celerity- the promptness of
legal punishment
 10. Social Learning Theory
posits that criminal behavior is learned
through exposure or socialization with
SOCIOLOGICAL others in the community.
THEORIES OF • It has parallelism with the concept of
Sutherland's differential association
CRIME theory, but believes that "the probability
that persons will engage in criminal and
CAUSATION deviant behavior is increased and the
probability of their conforming to the
norm is decreased when they differentially
associate with others who commit criminal
behavior and espouse definitions favorable
to it. To simply put, one may engage in
crime because of his or her association
with the one who engages with the same.
 10. Social Learning Theory
Major Concepts of Social
SOCIOLOGICAL Learning Theory
THEORIES OF A. Differential Association -
CRIME this refers to the process
CAUSATION whereby a person is exposed to
what is called "normative
definitions" which a person may
view as favorable or unfavorable
to legal or illegal behaviors
(Akers, 1999).
 10. Social Learning Theory
Components of Differential
Association
SOCIOLOGICAL Interactional - refers to the direct
process of association with others
THEORIES OF engaging in certain behaviors. This
CRIME also includes the indirect
CAUSATION association with other distant
groups.
• Normative - this refers to the
various values and norms which a
person is exposed to in his
association with a certain individual
or group..
 10. Social Learning Theory

SOCIOLOGICAL Major Concepts of Social

Learning Theory
THEORIES OF B. Definitions - this refers to a
CRIME person's meanings or
CAUSATION interpretations towards a certain
behavior. These are the
"orientations, rationalizations,
definitions of the situation, and
other evaluative and moral
attitudes that define the
commission of an act as right or
wrong"
 Social Learning Theory

Components of Definitions
• General - refers to religious or moral
SOCIOLOGICAL beliefs and other societal norms that are
THEORIES OF favorable to law conforming behaviors and
are not favorable to deviance.
CRIME • Specific - refers to the individual's self
orientation to a certain act or to a series
CAUSATION of acts. For example, a person may
believe that killing another is a violation
of the law and is morally wrong, but at
the same time rationalizing on the idea
that there is little fault in petty theft or in
illicit drugs. Interpretation usually varies
depending upon how an individual
defines a particular act.
 Social Learning Theory
Major Concepts of Social
Learning Theory
SOCIOLOGICAL
THEORIES OF C. Differential Reinforcement
CRIME refers to the individual's process
of weighing and anticipating the
CAUSATION
possible outcomes of his or her
actions. With this, behaviors are
determined by foreseeing
possible rewards or
punishments.
 Social Learning Theory
Components of Differential
Reinforcement
• Positive Reinforcement - refers to
those positive outcomes or pleasing
SOCIOLOGICAL reactions a person obtained from his or
THEORIES OF her performance of the act.
.
CRIME • Negative Reinforcements refers to
CAUSATION those which remove the negative
consequences if the act is performed. A
teenager who has been called by names
such as, weird, cowardly, childish, or old
fashioned, when he or she refuses to
drink alcohol or use marijuana, if the
experience occurs in considerable
repetitions, eventually, he or she will be
into alcohol and marijuana.
 Social Learning Theory

Major Concepts of Social

SOCIOLOGICAL
Learning Theory
THEORIES OF
CRIME D. Imitation - refers to the
CAUSATION process of adopting a behavior
seen or observed from others,
especially from those who are
close to the person. In imitation,
behaviors are mirrored from a
model or group of models.
 11. Labeling Theory
• This theory postulates that how
SOCIOLOGICAL a person behaves is dependent
THEORIES OF on how society labels him.
CRIME • It asserts that those individuals
CAUSATION who are labeled as deviants or
have been tagged with negative
brands are likely more to amplify
their deviancy, rather than
reducing it, have it not been they
are labeled with such
 12. Routine Activity Theory
SOCIOLOGICAL • by Cohen and Felson (1979)
THEORIES OF • views crime as a by-product of
CRIME individuals' responses to
CAUSATION specific situations. That is,
exposure to certain situations
may influence a person to
commit crime and alteration of
individual's exposure may alter
crime involvement.
 12. Routine Activity Theory
SOCIOLOGICAL Routine activity - refers to the
THEORIES OF recurrent and prevalent activities
CRIME which provide for basic
CAUSATION population and individual
needs...formalized work, as well
as the provision of standard
food, shelter, sexual outlet,
leisure, social
interaction,learning,and child -
bearing"
 12. Routine Activity Theory
Elements of Crime According to Routine
SOCIOLOGICAL Activity Theory
THEORIES OF 1. Motivated offender- this refers to a person
who is prepared in the commission of crime
CRIME 2. Suitable target - this refers to either a
human victim or things which are the subject of
CAUSATION the offense.
3. Absence of capable guardian - refers to
any person who guards, supervises or protects
targets from possible victimization. For
instance, a house owner who locks the door
when he leaves his house, or someone who
installs CCTV cameras to deter criminals, are
examples of guardianship.
 13.Life-Course Theory
• concerned with three main
SOCIOLOGICAL issues: the development of
THEORIES OF offending and antisocial
CRIME behavior, risk factors at
different ages, and the effects of
CAUSATION life events on the course of
development. As a theory,
denotation establishes the
connection between a pattern
of life events and the actions
that humans perform.
 14. Social Disorganization Theory
• people's actions are more strongly
influenced by the quality of their
SOCIOLOGICAL social relationships and their physical
THEORIES OF environment rather than rational
thought.
CRIME • It states that disorganized
CAUSATION communities with high population
• turnover rates, diverse populations,
and poverty are more likely to
experience high levels of crime.
• Its core principle is that place
matters.
• developed by Shaw and Mckay
 15. Imitation-suggestion theory
individuals imitate the behavior of
SOCIOLOGICAL other individual based on the
THEORIES OF degree of their association with
CRIME other individuals.
CAUSATION Developed by Gabriel Tarde
The learning process may either be
conscious type of copying
(imitation) or unconscious copying
(suggestion) of confronting pattern
of behavior.
SOCIOLOGICAL Conflict of Culture theory
THEORIES OF • asserts that the multiplicity of
CRIME incompatible cultures is the
CAUSATION main source of social
disorganization
• Developed by Thorsten Sellin
 Culture Deviance Theory
• states that crime is correlated
strongly to the cultural values and
norms prevalent in society.
SOCIOLOGICAL
• individuals may turn to crime not
THEORIES OF on account of any innate character
CRIME traits, but because they are
CAUSATION influenced by:
✓The place they live in,
✓The people they are surrounded
by, and
✓The socio-economic conditions of
their micro-environment
 . Culture Deviance Theory
• •Those three elements come
SOCIOLOGICAL together to form a unique
THEORIES OF subculture influencing the
CRIME individual and their chances to
CAUSATION turn to crime.
• the major tenet is conformity to
the prevailing cultural norms of
lower-class society causes
crime.
 . Self-Derogation Theory
SOCIOLOGICAL • Self-derogation theory predicts
THEORIES OF that low self-esteem motivates
CRIME youths to try out delinquent
CAUSATION activities that are aimed at
restoring self-esteem.
• juveniles may become involved
in delinquency as a response to
negative self-attitudes
SOCIOLOGICAL
THEORIES OF CRIME 19. Concentric Zone Theory/ Urban
Ecology
CAUSATION
MOST OF THE CRIMES HAPPENS IN
TRANSITIONAL ZONE
 Other Sociological Causes of
SOCIOLOGICAL Crime
THEORIES OF 1. Lack of parental guidance
CRIME
2. Broken homes
CAUSATION
3. Influence of Mass Media
4. Peer pressure
5. Etc.
CPTED Crime Prevention Through
Environmental Design
Traditionally, the community has turned to the
police and the judicial system to protect them
by deterring criminals and punishing offenders
On the other hand, Crime Prevention Through
Environmental Design (CPTED) asserts that the
community, homeowners, planners, developers and
architects can play a greater role in protecting the
community and themselves from crime by
integrating CPTED principles and concepts into the
design and management of the physical environment.
• CPTED was originally coined and formulated by criminologist C. Ray
Jeffery. A more limited approach, termed defensible space, was
developed concurrently by architect Oscar Newman. Jeffery's book,
"Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design" came out in 1971,
but his work was ignored throughout the 1970s. Newman's book,
"Defensible Space: - Crime Prevention through Urban Design" came
out in 1972.
The Broken Windows theory may go hand in
hand with CPTED. Crime is attracted to the
areas that are not taken care of or abandoned
Broken Window Theory
• In contrast to the approach of addressing crime concerns by
implementing visually affronting security or target hardening
measures such as locks, hard barriers, security gates, security
patrols, etc., CPTED promotes high quality and visually
pleasing solutions as first responses that aim to enhance the
legitimate use of space.
• CPTED can be applied without interfering with the normal use
of the space. It is easy to apply and can be economical to
implement, especially if it is done early at the planning and design
stages of a project.
• THE FOUR PRINCIPLES OF CPTED ARE:
• Natural surveillance
• Natural access control
• Territorial reinforcement
• Maintenance and management
 NATURAL SURVEILLANCE
• The fundamental premise is that criminals do not wish to be observed.
Surveillance or the placing of legitimate ‘eyes on the street’ increases the
perceived risk to offenders. This may also increase the actual risk to
offenders if those observing are willing to act when potentially threatening
situations develop. So the primary aim of surveillance is not to keep
intruders out (although it may have that effect) but rather, to keep
intruders under observation.

• Natural surveillance can be achieved by a number of techniques. The

flow of activities can be channelled to put more people (observers) near a
potential crime area. Windows, lighting and the removal of obstructions
can be placed to improve sight lines from within buildings.
 NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL
• Natural access control relies on doors, fences, shrubs, and
other physical elements to keep unauthorised persons out of a
particular place if they do not have a legitimate reason for
being there. In its most elementary form, access control can be
achieved in individual dwellings or commercial establishments
by the use of adequate locks, doors and window barriers.
 NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL

• While access control is more difficult on streets and areas that are
entirely open to public use, there are other techniques for
controlling access in these circumstances. For example, nonphysical
or ‘psychological’ barriers
• Can be used to achieve the objective of access control.
• These barriers may appear in the form of signs, paving textures,
nature strips or anything that Announces the integrity and
uniqueness of an area.
• The idea behind a psychological barrier is that if a target seems
strange, or difficult, it may also be unattractive to potential
criminals.
 TERRITORIAL REINFORCEMENT

• People naturally protect a territory that they feel is their own,

and have a certain respect for the territory of others. Clear
boundaries between public and private areas achieved by using
physical elements such as fences, pavement treatment, art,
signs, good maintenance and landscaping are ways to express
ownership. Identifying intruders is much easier in such well
defined spaces.
• Territorial reinforcement can be seen to work when a space, by
its clear legibility, transparency, and directness, discourages
potential offenders because of users’ familiarity with each other
and the surroundings.
 MAINTENANCE AND MANAGEMENT

• This is related to the neighbourhood’s sense

of ‘pride of place’ and territorial
reinforcement.
• The more dilapidated an area, the more likely
it is to attract unwanted activities. The
maintenance and the ‘image’ of an area can
have a major impact on whether it will become
targeted.
MAINTENANCE AND MANAGEMENT
 MAINTENANCE AND MANAGEMENT

• With clear spatial definitions such as the subdivision of

space into different degrees of public/ semi-public/ private
areas and the raising of standards and expectations, the
level of social estrangement would decline. This is known to
be related to reduction in opportunities for aberrant or criminal
behaviour, such as vandalism.
 THE “THREE D” APPROACH

• Conceptually, the four CPTED principles are applied through

the 3-D approach, i.e. Designation, Definition and Design.
The 3-D approach is a simple space assessment guide that
helps the user in determining the appropriateness of how a
space is designed and used. The 3-D concept is based on the
three functions or dimensions of human space:
 THE “THREE D” APPROACH

• By using the “Three D’s” as a guide, space may be evaluated by

asking the following questions:
1. DESIGNATION
• • What is the designated purpose of this space?
• • For what purpose was it originally intended?
• • How well does the space support its current use or its
intended use?
• • Is there a conflict?
 THE “THREE D” APPROACH
2. DEFINITION
• • How is space defined?
• • Is it clear who owns it?
• • Where are its borders?
• • Are there social or cultural definitions that affect how space is
used?
• • Are legal or administrative rules clearly set out and reinforced in
policy?
• • Are there signs?
• • Is there conflict or confusion between purpose and definition?
 THE “THREE D” APPROACH
3. DESIGN
• • How well does the physical design support the intended function?
• • How well does the physical design support the desired or accepted
behaviours?
• • Does the physical design conflict with or impede the productive
use of the space or
• the proper functioning of the intended human activity?
• • Is there confusion or conflict in the manner in which physical
design is intended to
• control behaviour?
 I. Feminist Theory
• examines the role of men and women
in crime and deviance and how these
THE sex differences influenced as to how
they are treated.
THEORIES OF • This theory argues that crime is
FEMALE mostly interpreted in the context of
male perspective and with this, crime
OFFENDERS notions are less applied to females.
• For instance, women who are into
alcoholism and drugs are more
negatively criticized compared to
men doing the same.
 I. Feminist Theory
Forms of Feminist Theory
1. Liberal Feminism - focuses on
the ideals of equality among sexes
THE as well as the impact of the role of
gender in political, economic,
THEORIES OF legal, and social aspects.
FEMALE • argues that women should be treated
as co-equal with men as they inherit
OFFENDERS the same capacity of reasoning and
moral agency. believes that gender
inequality is the direct result of
blocking the chances of women to be
involved in various social aspects
such as politics, education,
employment, and others.
 I. Feminist Theory
Forms of Feminist Theory
2. Marxist Feminism - views
THE gender inequality as a by- product
of hierarchical set up between men
THEORIES OF and women viewing the former as
FEMALE having more control in the
economic aspect compared to the
OFFENDERS latter.
-It argues that women performing
housework is viewed as a form of
oppression and the trivialization
thereof is viewed as inequality.
 I. Feminist Theory
Forms of Feminist Theory
3. Radical Feminism - blames
THE women biology as the root cause of
patriarchy and gender inequality.
THEORIES OF -This is fueled by the existence of
FEMALE power relations in which male view
OFFENDERS themselves as superior over the
females.
-It does not only focuses on the
victimization of women but also on
the contributions the women
offered to the society.
 I. Feminist Theory
Forms of Feminist Theory

4. Socialist Feminism - this is similar

THE to marxist feminism only that unlike
THEORIES OF the former which ranks class as the
most important variable, socialist
FEMALE feminism treats gender and class as
equally important.
OFFENDERS - Marxism argues that gender
inequality can be solved through the
elimination of capitalism while socialist
feminism recommends for the
improvement of micro and macro level
conditions.
 I. Feminist Theory
Forms of Feminist Theory

THE 5. Post Modern Feminism - the

THEORIES OF contemporary form of feminism
centering on the rejection of traditional
FEMALE male-female assumptions. - -
OFFENDERS Categorization of women as the
minority for instance, is a traditional
assumption and is therefore far from
the universal truth.
-The hierarchical structure is argued to
be a socially constructed concept.
 2. Masculinity Theories (Freda Adler)
•Asserts that women's crime had begun to
change in both quantity and quality and that
this was due not to an alteration in women's
THE nature but rather because of increased criminal
opportunities for women.
THEORIES OF •Those women who cannot 'adjust' to their
absence of and longing for a penis attempt to
FEMALE acquire symbolic masculinity by aggressively
rebelling against their 'natural' feminine roles.
OFFENDERS •They deny their female role and femininity
and identify with then male role and
masculinity. In short they "attempt to be a
man". •The females who are involved with
crime are dominated by male characteristics in
their personality
 3. Opportunity theories
(developed by Rita J. Simon (1975))
-efficiency and social
communication are increased, then
THE the rate of female criminality
increases accordingly.
THEORIES OF -'when more women get access in
FEMALE labor market as skilled labor and
possess highly specialized position
OFFENDERS in the job sector they commit more
employment related property crime
like men.
-Some women take the advantage
of these opportunities, just as some
men do before'.
 4. Economic Marginalization theories
(Daly and Chesney- Lind (1988))
-female participation in the labor force
does not necessarily indicate either more
THE gender equality or improved economic
condition for women
THEORIES OF -Female criminality has been seen that
FEMALE their position is marginalized by less
salary, un-respectful occupation and less
OFFENDERS secured job.
-Women are motivated to commit crime as
a rational response to poverty and
economic insecurity.
-This theory argues that the major causes
of female crime are unemployment, poorly
paid employment, etc.
 5. Chivalry theory
-argues that historically there have
THE been lower rates of female criminality
THEORIES OF because of the more lenient treatment
of female offenders by criminal justice
FEMALE personnel.
OFFENDERS -females are more prone to violating
the law but according to the economic
standard they treated as less
destructive in nature.
-female offences get less importance
than male ones in the criminal justice
system
 • is a multidisciplinary perspective
that attempts to understand
Biopsychosocial criminal behavior (and related
Criminology outcomes, like antisocial behavior
and its consequences) by
considering the interactions
between biological, psychological,
and sociological factors.
• The biopsychosocial model was
first proposed by George E. Engel
and John R. Romano in 1977.
 3. Differential Opportunity
Theory
• is the idea that people (usually
teens) from low socioeconomic
backgrounds who have few
opportunities for success, will use
ECONOMIC any means at their disposal to
THEORIES OF achieve success.
CRIME • developed by Richard Cloward
and Lloyd Ohlin in 1960
• if juveniles were presented with
more opportunities to succeed,
they would be less likely to turn to
affiliation with subculture groups
for validation.
 Economic Models of Crime
1. The Rational Model of Crime
argue that crime is a result of
individuals' making choices
ECONOMIC between using their scarce
THEORIES OF resources of time and effort in
legitimate or in illegitimate
CRIME activities.
A key assumption is that when
making these choices, individuals
are rational and choose the best
option based on the available
information and resources
 Economic Models of Crime

2. The Static Model Of Crime

the individual considers a single
ECONOMIC time period when making a decision
on whether or not to commit a crime.
THEORIES OF •As individuals do not have perfect
CRIME information, rational individuals will
seek to maximize the expected
benefits.
•An individual will commit a crime
only if his or her expected benefit from
the offense is positive developed by
Gary Becker
 Economic Models of Crime
3. Dynamic Models Of Crime
integrate past experience with
forward-looking behavior.
ECONOMIC •Examines how decisions made in
THEORIES OF the present affect future
consequences related to
CRIME employment and expected benefits.
•Individuals thus seem to change
their behavior when they anticipate
the possible future consequences of
their actions.
 Economic Models of Crime
4. Present-oriented or
Myopic Model of Crime
ECONOMIC •Human beings are generally
THEORIES OF impatient.
CRIME •Most people would prefer to
experience immediate rewards
and postpone the associated
costs.
 Economic Models of Crime

5. Radical Political Economic

Model of Crime- focus on key
political and socioeconomic factors
ECONOMIC that sustain crime. The key factors
THEORIES OF in this model are the following:
CRIME a. Relative Deprivation- focuses
on the relative differences in
income among the different classes
in society. According to this view,
individuals identify themselves with
the group they belong to in society.
 Economic Models of Crime

b. Unemployment- lowers the

opportunity costs of crime or that it
increases the need to supplement
income from sources other than legal
ECONOMIC employment.
THEORIES OF c. Class-The use of laws is assumed to
systematically discriminate against the
CRIME poorer classes. It is revealed in the
attention that crimes, such as burglary
or theft, receive in comparison with
white collar crime, although the latter
type of crimes represent a larger
proportion of monetary losses than the
former type.