ENGS1506

LECTURE 4
PHRASES,
CLAUSES, AND
SENTENCE
ERRORS
In our previous lectures…
∙ Sentences consist of:
 Words (different parts of speech)
 Subjects, verbs, direct and/or indirect objects
o
REMEMBER that a sentence always has a subject and a verb
∙ Other element of sentences:
 Phrases
 Clauses
o
To understand these elements, knowing what a sentence subject is, is
vitally important
WHAT ARE PHRASES?
∙ A unit of a sentence without a subject-verb unit
Subject-verb unit = subject and verb in a
sentence

The new act was passed in 2004.

∙ A phrase cannot stand alone as a complete sentence when removed from a longer sentence.
∙ It has no meaning on its own.

As a result, the new act was passed in 2004.

The new act was passed, after much deliberation, in

2004.
EXAMPLES OF PHRASES

The Act, amongst others, was published in 2004.

In general, this legislation is considered supplementary to the Constitution, as

discussed below.

This ruling, as well as similar ones, was presented as legal precedent in the case.

Many scholars argue that customary law does not, in fact, have equal standing to
common law.
A phrase is not
She died intestate. Her lawyer is working on the matter. With her family. a sentence.
WHAT ARE CLAUSES?
∙ A sentence can comprise one or more clauses
∙ A clause is a sentence unit with a subject-verb unit
Subject-verb unit = subject and verb in a
sentence

The new act was passed in 2004.

As a result, the new act was passed in 2004.

The new act was passed, after much deliberation, in

2004.
EXAMPLES OF CLAUSES
The Act, amongst others, was published in 2004.

In general, this legislation is considered supplementary to the Constitution, as

discussed below.

This ruling, as well as similar ones, was presented as legal precedent in the case.

Many scholars argue that customary law does not have equal standing to common
law.

Many scholars argue that customary law does not have equal standing to common
law. Subject-verb unit = Subject-verb unit =
clause clause
Not a sentence Complete sentence
Dependent clause Independent clause
  Has subject-verb unit
 Needs something to complete it
 Not a complete sentence on its own
DEPENDENT CLAUSES
∙ Contains a subject-verb unit
∙ Relies on rest of sentence for it to have meaning
∙ Is often accompanied by a dependent marker word
∙ You cannot take this type of clause out of the sentence for it to stand
alone as a complete thought.
∙ Examples
 [When you go to the shops], would you please get me some
chips?
 We can go to the park [after we have finished our work].
 [As it was raining], I thought it best to take my umbrella.
 [While I enjoy cooking and baking], I hate cleaning up
afterwards.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSES
∙ Contains a subject-verb unit
∙ Does not rely on rest of sentence for it to have meaning
∙ You can take this type of clause out of the sentence, and it can stand
alone as a complete thought.
 In other words, an independent clause can be its own sentence.

∙ Examples
 When you go to the shops, [would you please get me some
chips]?
 [We are going shopping tomorrow], because we need books
and other stationery for the new term.
 Sitting on the couch, [I could see the dogs playing outside],
chasing each other around the tree.
 [I am sure you will pass the module]; after all, [you are such a  Has subject-verb unit
hard worker].  Needs nothing else to complete it
 Complete sentence on its own
 DEPENDENT or INDEPENDENT clause(s)?

Underlined clause in sentence Dependent / independent?

In such matters, legislation prescribes that exculpatory evidence should be

I
considered.

After the judgment was read, the plaintiff thanked their legal team. D+I

The lawyers conferred when the judge called a recess. I+D

Since he pleaded not-guilty, the defendant was returned to his cell. D

The plaintiff said: “Don’t get me started on what a liability the defendant was!” I

Please bring the docket the next time you run to the office. I+D
IS IT A SENTENCE OR NOT?
∙ In order for a sentence to be considered a complete thought, it needs to have either:
One or more independent clauses with appropriate punctuation; or
One or more dependent and independent clauses with appropriate punctuation; or
One or more independent clauses and phrases with appropriate punctuation; or
One or more dependent clauses, independent clauses, and phrases with appropriate
punctuation.

∙ A dependent clause on its own is not a sentence.

∙ A phrase on its own is not a sentence.
These need an independent clause (with subject-verb unit) to become complete
thoughts.
WHAT ARE SENTENCE ERRORS?

∙ A sentence error occurs when

∙ A sentence does not contain a subject-verb unit; and/or
∙ Punctuation is used where it should not be; and/or
∙ Punctuation is not used where it should be.
SENTENCE ERROR 1: FRAGMENTS
∙ Subject and/or verb not included in sentence OR an dependent clause on its own.
Therefore, fragments are essentially phrases or dependent clauses.
Remember: a phrase on its own cannot be a complete sentence.
∙ Locked the watch in the safe (no subject).
∙ Fikile also (no verb).
∙ In the meantime (no verb or subject). No subject

∙ Can you spot the fragments in this text?

No verb

We arrived home. Put the kettle on. John wanted tea and took out four cups.
Dependent clause
“Who wants some?” Lelethi wanted tea and biscuits. Madri too. While they were waiting.
For the kettle to boil, they played cards. Dependent clause

∙ How can we correct it?

We arrived home and put the kettle on. John wanted tea and took out four cups.
“Who wants some?” Lelethi wanted tea and biscuits, and Madri too. While they were waiting for the
kettle to boil, they played cards.
SENTENCE ERROR 2: RUN-ON SENTENCES
∙ A run-on sentence may contain one or more subjects and verbs.
These sentence errors occur when punctuation is not added where it is needed.
∙ The lawyer and the judge met they discussed the case.
∙ Both the plaintiff and the defendant lied under oath they were found to be in contempt.
There errors can usually be corrected by adding a full stop or a semi-colon.
∙ Semi-colons are only used between two independent clauses.
∙ Can you spot the run-on sentences in this text?
The defendant’s lawyer stated the case. He referred to the physical evidence he also cited eyewitness
testimony. The plaintiff’s lawyer looked bored she kept flipping through her notes. She did not listen to what
the other lawyer was saying. The plaintiff was annoyed they gave their lawyer an angry look.
∙ How can we correct it?
The defendant’s lawyer stated the case. He referred to the physical evidence; he also cited eyewitness
testimony. The plaintiff’s lawyer looked bored. She kept flipping through her notes. She did not listen to
what the other lawyer was saying. The plaintiff was annoyed, and they gave their lawyer an angry look.
SENTENCE ERROR 3: COMMA SPLICE
∙ A comma splice sentence may contain one or more subjects and verbs.
These sentence errors occur when a comma or semi-colon is added where it is not needed.
∙ The lawyer and the judge, met to discuss the case.
∙ Both the plaintiff and the defendant lied, under oath and, they were found to be in contempt.
These errors can usually be corrected by correcting the punctuation.
∙ Sometimes, this means breaking sentences up by inserting a full stop.
∙ Can you spot the comma splice sentences in this text?
In the courtroom the atmosphere was tense. The plaintiff had to testify but, they were not there. Their lawyer
and, the defendant’s lawyer were fighting; and, they were about to phone the plaintiff. The plaintiff ran, into
the courtroom. They were out of breath, they had been stuck in traffic and had a flat tyre.
∙ How can we correct it?
In the courtroom the atmosphere was tense. The plaintiff had to testify, but they were not there. Their lawyer
and the defendant’s lawyer were fighting; they were about to phone the plaintiff. The plaintiff ran into the
courtroom. They were out of breath. They had been stuck in traffic and had a flat tyre.
 WHEN SHOULD A SEMI-COLON BE USED?
When to use a semi-colon
[Independent clause] + [independent clause]. (The semi-colon can be replaced with a full stop)
The judge returned from his chambers; he was ready to read his ruling.
The physical evidence was overwhelming; the defendant would be found guilty.
[Independent clause]; [linking word], [independent clause]. (The semi-colon can be replaced with a full stop)
The defendant’s lawyers were prepared for the trial; however, they were still anxious
The physical evidence was overwhelming; furthermore, eyewitness testimony incriminated the
defendant.
 WHEN SHOULD A COMMA BE USED?
When to use a comma
[Independent clause], [phrase], [dependent clause]. (The comma cannot be replaced with a full stop)
The bailiff called the court to order, just in time, as the judge entered.
His lawyer’s files were incomplete, without order, when given to the judge.
[Independent clause], [phrase]. (The comma cannot be replaced with a full stop)
The plaintiff did not answer the question, as usual.
The defendant was incarcerated, per our expectations.
Separating items listed in a sentence.
Judge Molefi required time, patience, and wisdom.
Mr Jones did not present physical, forensic, or other evidence.
[Independent clause], [phrase], [phrase]. (The commas cannot be replaced with full stops)
Advocate Mahabane did not bring his files, as ordered, and as per the rules.
No more appeals would be heard, per the decree, as well as the statute.

The Oxford comma: use this before the “and” or

“or” when you have more than two items listed.
SENTENCE ERROR 4: RAMBLING SENTENCE
∙ Even if we punctuate sentences correctly, they can sometimes be so long that the reader becomes confused.

∙ This may be because we use too many phrases and/or clauses in a sentence, or because we combine ideas that are not related to
each other in one sentence.
The judge and the lawyers arrived on time; however, the defendant was late, and everyone was growing anxious, because he was
the first to take the stand, and they also had two other witnesses who needed to testify later that day; they could not come back on
another day.
The judge and the lawyers arrived on time, even though the judge went to the gym yesterday; the lawyers were tired because they
had worked late, and tomorrow they were going on holiday.

∙ Rule of thumb
Try to limit sentence length to one independent clause and 1-2 dependent clauses or phrases, OR
A maximum of three short independent clauses.
Try to stick to one main idea per sentence.
∙ The judge and the lawyers arrived on time; however, the defendant was late. Everyone was growing anxious, because he was
the first to take the stand, and they also had two other witnesses who needed to testify later that day. They could not come back
on another day.
∙ The judge and the lawyers arrived on time, even though the judge overslept. The lawyers were tired because they had worked
late to prepare the case for today.
 STUDY GUIDE

PREPARATION:
LECTURE 5
Pages 35-41
Textual
Organisation