lOMoARcPSD|41813002

Theoretical Foundations of Nursing Reviewer

 lOMoARcPSD|41813002

Theoretical Foundations of Nursing

Reviewer

Evolution of Nursing • Leader

Nursing as a science provides knowledge to
describe, explain, and predict outcomes. Fourfold Functions of Nursing

Nursing is a process. • Promote health

The first nursing theories appeared in the late • Prevent illness
1800s. • Restore health
• Alleviate suffering
Theoretical thinking shifted on the relationship
between the nurse and the patient in 1960s. Categories of nursing theories

Historical Eras of Nursing • Nursing philosophy – the most abstract

• Curriculum Era (1900 to 1940s) focused
on what curriculum content should
student nurses study to be nurses.
• Research Era (1950 to 1970s) focused
on what is the focus of nursing research.
• Graduate Education Era (1950 to 1970s)
focused on what knowledge is needed
for nursing practice.
• Theory Era (1980 to 1990s) focuses on
how do these frameworks (nursing
theories) guide research and practice.
• Theory Utilization Era (21st century)
focused on what new theories needed to
produce evidence of quality care.
Academic Discipline is specific to academia and
refers to a branch of education, a department of
learning, and a domain of knowledge.
Professional Discipline/Profession refers to a
specialized field of practice, founded upon the
theoretical structure of the science or knowledge
of that discipline and accompanying practice
abilities.
Professional Discipline adds component of
clinical practice.
type and sets forth the meaning of
nursing phenomena through analysis,
reasoning and logical presentation
• Nursing conceptual models –
comprehensive nursing theories that are
regarded by some as pioneers in nursing.
These theories address the nursing
metaparadigm and explain the
relationship between them
• Grand nursing theories – are works
derived from nursing philosophies,
conceptual models, and other grand
theories that are generally not as specific
as middle range theories
• Middle range theories – are precise and
answer specific nursing practice
questions. They address the specifics of
nursing situations within the model’s
perspective or theory from which they
are derived
Rationalism and empiricism are the 2
philosophical foundations of science.
Rationalist epistemology emphasizes the
importance of priori reasoning as the appropriate
method for advancing knowledge.

The focus of academic disciplines are research Empiricist view is based on the central idea that
and education. scientific knowledge can be derived only from
sensory experience.
Nursing Metaparadigm
Rationalism is theory-then-research strategy.
• Persons (Recipients of care) Empiricism is research-then-theory strategy.
• Health (Defined by person)
Nursing theory is a systematic organized
• Environment (internal and external
perspectives that serves as guides for nursing
factors)
action in administration, education, research and
• Nursing (nursing actions) practice. It provides framework to develop new
Roles of a nurse and validate current knowledge.

• Researcher Nursing theory explains, describes, predicts, and

prescribes nursing care/phenomena.
• Care Provider
• Communicator Analysis of theory
• Counselor
• Clarity (how clear is this theory?)
• Teacher
• Simplicity (how simple is this theory?)
• Client Advocate
• Generality (how general is this theory?)
• Manager
• Change Agent
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• Accessibility (how accessible is this Watson’s Theory of Human Caring

theory?
Summary: This theory is concerned how nurses
• Importance (how important is this care for their patients and how that caring
theory?) progresses into better plans to promote health
and wellness, prevent illness, and restore health.
Nightingale’s Environmental Theory Jean Watson pioneered the philosophy and
Summary: This theory basically says you have to theory of transpersonal caring
configure the environmental settings of the Goal: Developing a helping-trusting relationship
patient for faster recovery. promotes support to embark on healing
Florence Nightingale is the founder of modern processes within the mind-soul-spirit wholeness.
nursing and pioneer of the environmental theory. Caring for patients promotes growth; a caring
Also known as <The lady with the lamp= environment accepts a person as they are and
She defined nursing as <the act of utilizing the looks to what they may become.
environment of the patient to assist him in his Carative Factors (1st three are the philosophical
recovery= foundation for the science of caring)
She also stated that nursing <ought to signify the
• Forming humanistic-altruistic value
proper use of fresh air, light, warmth cleanliness,
systems
quiet, and proper selection and administration of
diet – all at the least expense of vital power to • Instilling faith-hope
the patient.= • Cultivating a sensitivity to self and
others
5 environmental factors
• Developing a helping-trust relationship
• Fresh air • Promoting an expression of feelings
• Pure water • Using problem-solving for
• Efficient drainage decisionmaking
• Cleanliness or sanitation • Promoting teaching-learning
• Light or direct sunlight • Promoting a supportive environment
The nursing action is to put the patient in the • Assisting with the gratification of human
best condition for nature to act upon him. needs
• Allowing for
existentialphenomenological forces

Watson’s Hierarchy of Needs

• Lower Order Biophysical

Needs/Survival Needs
• Lower Order Psychophysical
Needs/Functional Needs
• Higher Order Psychosocial
Needs/Integrative Needs
• Higher Order IntrapersonalInterpersonal
Sub concepts Need/Growth-Seeking Need

• Health of houses Benner’s Stages of Nursing Expertise

• Ventilation and warming Summary: This theory emphasizes that gaining
• Light nursing abilities via experience is a
• Cleanliness requirement for becoming an excellent nurse.
• Hygiene Patricia Benner
• Noise • Bed making Novice to Expert Model
• Variety
• Chattering hopes and advice • Novice
• Taking food • Advanced Beginner
• Petty management • Skilled Nurse/Competent
• Observation of the sick • Great Nurse/Proficient Nurse
• Expert
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Theoretical Foundations of Nursing

Reviewer

Eriksson’s Caritative Caring Theory individual initiate and perform on their

own
Summary: In this theory, caring is to lighten
suffering and serve life and health. • Self-care deficit theory – nursing is
required when an adult is incapable of or
Caring consists of love and charity/mercy limited in providing continuous effective
(caritas) self-care
Roger’s Science of Unitary Human Beings o 5 methods of helping
Nursing Conceptual Model ▪ Acting for and doing for
Summary: This theory views nursing as both a ▪ Guiding others
science and an art as it provides a way to view
▪ Supporting another
the unitary human being, who is integral with
the universe. ▪ Providing an
environment promoting
Martha Rogers personal development
about meet future
A patient can’t be separated from his/her demands
environment when addressing health and
▪ Teaching another
treatment.
• Theory of nursing systems o Wholly
2 dimensions compensatory (e.g. care of a newborn)
• Science of nursing (knowledge specific o Partially compensatory (e.g.
to the field that comes from scientific assist the post op client in
research) ambulating)
• Art of nursing (creativity of nurse to o Supportive-educative (e.g. guide
help patients) a breastfeeding mother)

Building blocks King’s Theory of Goal Attainment

• Energy fields – fundamental unit of both Summary: This theory explains that the nurse
the living and non-living and patient go hand-in-hand in communicating
information, set goals together, and then take
• Openness – no boundaries that stop actions to achieve those goals.
energy flow between the human and
environmental fields Imogene M. King
• Pattern – distinguishing characteristic of 3 Interacting systems
an energy field as seen as a single wave.
It is an abstraction ang gives identity to • Personal System – perception, self,
the field. growth and development, body image,
• Pan-Dimensionality – non-linear domain space, and time
without spatial or temporal attributes. • Interpersonal System – interaction,
communication, transaction, role, and
Principles of Homeodynamics
stress
• Reciprocity • Social System – organization, authority,
• Synchrony power, status, and decision-making
• Integrality (Synchrony + Reciprocity) Neuman’s Systems Model
• Resonancy
Summary: This theory focuses on the client as a
• Helicy
system and on the client’s responses to stressors
Orem’s Self-Care Deficit Model
Betty Neuman
Summary: This theory focuses on each
Nursing is a unique profession that is concerned
individual’s ability to perform self-care with all of the variables affecting an individual’s
Dorothea Elizabeth Orem response to stress.
Nursing is the act of assisting others in the
provision and management of self-care…
3 Interrelated Theories

• Theory of self-care – focuses on the

performance or practice of activities that
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Lines of Resistance is the series of concentric
circles that surrounds the basic structure
Normal line of defense is an adaptational level
of health developed overtime and is considered
normal for a particular individual client or
system; it becomes a standard for
wellnessdeviance determination
Flexible Line of Defense is a protective
accordion-like mechanism that surrounds and
protects the normal line of defense from
invasion by stressors
3 Prevention Modalities
• Primary prevention (before; prevention)
• Secondary prevention (during;
treatment)
• Tertiary (after; rehabilitation)
Roy’s Adaptation Model
Summary: This theory sees the individual as a
set of interrelated systems that maintain a
balance between various stimuli.
Internal processes
• Regulator (physiological)
• Cognator (mental)
4 Adaptive modes
• Physiological-Physical Mode – basic
need is composed of the needs
associated with oxygenation, nutrition,
elimination, activity and rest, and
protection
• Self-Concept Group Identity Mode –
includes body image and self-ideals
• Role Function Mode – focuses on the
primary, secondary, and tertiary roles
that a person occupies in society and
knowing where they stand as a member
of society
• Interdependence Mode – focuses on
attaining relational integrity through the
giving and receiving of love, respect,
and value
Johnson’s Behavioral Systems Model
Summary: This theory advocates to foster
efficient and effective behavioral functioning in
the patient to prevent illness
Dorothy Johnson
Nursing is an external regulatory force that acts
to preserve the organization and integrate the
patient’s behaviors at an optimum level under
those conditions in which the behavior
constitutes a threat to the physical or social
health or in which illness is found.
A person is a behavioral system
Subsystems
• Achievement
• Attachment-affiliative
• Aggressive-protective
• Dependency
• Ingestive
• Eliminative
• Sexual
Peplau’s Theory of Interpersonal Relations
Summary: This theory emphasizes the
nurseclient relationship as the foundation of
nursing practice.
Hildegard Peplau defined nursing as <an
interpersonal process of therapeutic interactions
between an individual who is sick or in need of
health services and a nurse specially educated to
recognize, respond to the need for help.=
According to her
• A client is an individual with a felt need.
• Health implies forward movement of
personality and other ongoing human
process in the direction of creative,
constructive, productive, personal, and
community living.
• Nursing is a significant, therapeutic,
interpersonal process
Phases
• Orientation (problem defining) –
involves engaging the client in
treatment, providing explanations and
information, and answering questions
• Identification – the client works
interdependently with the nurse,
expresses feelings, and begins to feel
stronger
• Exploitation – the client makes full use
of the services offered
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• Resolution – the client no longer needs • Implementation

professional services and gives up • Evaluation
dependent behavior
Travelbee’s Human to Human Relationship
Summary: This theory focuses on developing
Nursing roles rapport or relationship with the patient.

• Stranger This theory extended the interpersonal

• Resource relationship theories of Peplau and Orlando.
• Teaching Phases:
• Counseling
• Surrogate • Original encounter – nurse and patients
are strangers
• Active leadership
• Emerging identities – relationship begins
• Technical expert
to form
Difference of nursing process and Peplau’s • Empathy – sharing another’s
Interpersonal relations theory psychological state but standing apart
and not sharing feelings
• Sympathy – sharing, feeling and
experiencing what others are feeling and
experiencing is accomplished
• Rapport – the sick person shows trust
and confidence in the nurse

Hall’s Care, Cure, Core

Summary: This theory emphasizes the
importance of the total patient rather than
looking at one part or aspect. Lydia Hall
<The Three Cs: Care, Cure, Core=
Care is the sole function of nurses while core
and cure are shared with the health team
Care addresses the role of nurses and is focused
on performing the task of nurturing patients
Cure is the attention given to patients by medical
professionals
Orlando’s Theory of Deliberative Nursing Core is the patient receiving nursing care
Process
Hall confined the concepts for patients with the
Summary: In this theory, the nurse’s role is to age of 16 and above but can still be applied to
find out and meet the patient’s immediate needs every age group Abdellah’s 21 Nursing
for help. Problems
Ida Jean Orlando Summary: This theory focuses on what the nurse
should give and what the patient should receive.
Automatic Nursing Actions are nursing actions
decided upon for reasons other than the patient’s Faye Glenn Abdellah changed the focus of
immediate need nursing from disease-centered to patientcentered
Deliberative Nursing Actions are actions decided Nursing is based on an art and science that
upon after ascertaining a need and then meeting molds the attitudes, intellectual competencies,
this need. and technical skills of the individual nurse into
the desire and ability to help people, sick or
The patient’s participation is critically important
well, cope with their health needs.
in the nursing process.
Categories:
Stages
• Physical
• Assessment
• Sociological
• Diagnosis
• Emotional
• Planning
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21 Nursing Problems
• To maintain good hygiene and physical
comfort
• To promote optimal activity: exercise,
rest, sleep
• To promote safety by preventing
accidents, injuries, or other trauma and
preventing the spread of infection
• To maintain good body mechanics and
prevent and correct the deformity
• To facilitate the maintenance of a supply
of oxygen to all body cells
• To facilitate the maintenance of nutrition
for all body cells
• To facilitate the maintenance of
elimination
• To facilitate the maintenance of fluid and
electrolyte balance
• To recognize the physiologic responses
of the body to disease conditions
• To facilitate the maintenance of
regulatory mechanisms and functions
• To facilitate the maintenance of sensory
function
• To identify and accept positive and
negative expressions, feelings, and
reactions
• To identify and accept interrelatedness
of emotions and organic illness
• To facilitate the maintenance of effective
verbal and nonverbal communication
• To promote the development of
productive interpersonal relationships
• To facilitate progress toward
achievement and personal spiritual goals
• To create or maintain a therapeutic
environment
• To facilitate awareness of self as an
individual with varying physical,
emotional, and developmental needs
• To accept the optimum possible goals in
the light of limitations, physical and
emotional
• To use community resources as an aid in
resolving problems that arise from an
illness
• To understand the role of social
problems as influencing factors in the
cause of illness Further Categories:
• Basic to all patients
• Sustenance care needs •
Remedial care needs
• Restorative care needs
Henderson’s Nursing Need Theory
Summary: This theory focuses on the
importance of increasing the patient’s
independence to hasten their progress in the
hospital.
Virginia Henderson
14 Components
• Breathe normally
• Eat and drink adequately
• Eliminate body wastes
• Move and maintain desirable postures
• Sleep and rest
• Select suitable clothes – dress and
undress
• Maintain body temperature within
normal range by adjusting clothing and
modifying environment
• Keep the body clean and well-groomed
and protect the integument
• Avoid dangers in the environment and
avoid injuring others
• Communicate with others in expressing
emotions, needs, fears, or opinions
• Worship according to one’s faith
• Work in such a way that there is a sense
of accomplishment
• Play or participate in various forms of
recreation
• Learn, discover, or satisfy the curiosity
that leads to normal development and
health and use the available health
facilities
Levels of Nurse-Patient Relationship
• The nurse as a substitute for the patient
• The nurse as a helper to the patient
• The nurse as a partner with the patient
Pender’s Health Promotion Model
Summary: This model is a basis for behavioral
counseling to promote a healthy lifestyle
Nola Pender is the living legend of the American
Academy of Nursing
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The goal of nursing is to help people care for Newman’s Theory of Health as Expanding
themselves Consciousness
Targets: well patients (instead of ill patients) Summary: every person in every situation is part
of the universal process of expanding
Health promoting behaviors are the desired
consciousness, which is a process of becoming
behavioral outcome.
more of oneself, finding greater meaning in life,
Health promotion is defined as behavior and of reaching new dimensions of
motivated by the desire to increase well-being connectedness with other people and the world
and actualize human healthy potential. It is an
Margaret Newman
approach to wellness
Health is an expansion of consciousness defined
Health protection or illness prevention is
as the informational capacity of the system and
described as behavior motivated desire to
seen as the ability of the person to interact with
actively avoid illness, detect it early, or maintain
the environment
functioning within illness constraints.
Consciousness includes not only the cognitive
Individual characteristics and experiences – prior and affective awareness but also the
related behavior and personal factors interconnectedness of the entire living system,
including physiochemical maintenance and
Behavior-specific cognitions and affect –
growth processes as well as the immune system
perceived benefits of action, perceived barriers
of action, perceived self-efficacy, activityrelated
affect, interpersonal influences, and situational
influences

Behavioral outcomes – commitment to a plan of

action, immediate competing demands and
preferences, and health promoting behavior)
Leininger Theory of Culture Care, Diversity &
Universality
Summary: Knowing and understanding different
cultures to provide optimal nursing care.
Madeleine Leininger
Ethnonursing is the study of nursing care beliefs,
values, and practices as cognitively perceived
and known by a designated culture through their
direct experience, beliefs, and value system.
Transcultural nursing focuses upon the
comparative study and analysis of cultures
concerning nursing and health-illness caring
practices, beliefs, and values to provide
meaningful and efficacious nursing care services
to their cultural values and health-illness context
3 modes of nursing care decisions and actions

• Cultural care preservation or

maintenance – retain or preserve
relevant care values
• Cultural care accommodation or
negotiation – adapt to or negotiate with
others for a beneficial or satisfying
health outcome
• Cultural care repatterning or
restructuring – reorder, change, or
greatly modify their lifeways
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Pattern is characterized by movement, diversity,

and rhythm and is described as a design or
framework as is seen in person-environment
interactions
Parse’s Theory of Human Becoming\
Summary: Guides nurses to focus on the quality
from each person’s own perspective a s the goal
of nursing
Rizzo Parse

The primary concern of this theory is people’s

perspective of living quality with human dignity.

Meaning – uncovering what was and what will

be by associating varying degrees of
significance to the happenings

Rhythmicity – living paradox encompasses

apparent opposite experiences that coexist in
rhythmical patterns

Transcendence – process of reaching out beyond

the self to dream of new possibilities and the
making plans to reach them.
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Theoretical Foundations of Nursing

Reviewer

Locsin’s Technological Nursing as Caring engaged in workshop is the spiritual

Model
Summary: Technology and caring in nursing are
concepts that harmoniously coexist Rozzano
Locsin
Modern healthcare is greatly dependent on
technology.
The nurse can know the person fully only in the
moment.
*Dimensions of Technological Value
*The process of nursing
*Risk with technology in nursing Relationship
between structure and function
A person is defined as the nurse or the patient.
The nurses use technology in order to know the
patient better and through deeper knowledge in
technology there will be a deeper connection
between the nurse and patient. Patients are
viewed as participants in their care rather than
objects.
Technology is used to know a person’s health
from moment to moment.
The environment centers mainly on the
technological world.
The function of a nurse is to be with the patient
and the patient’s pursuit of health desires. The
nurse acts as the interface between technology
and the patient.
Agravante’s CASAGRA Transformative
Leadership Model
Summary: Nurses are leaders and should exhibit
leadership like Jesus’s
Sr. Carolina S. Agravante is the first Filipina
theorist
exercise organized in an ambience of
prayer where the main theme is the
contemplation of Jesus Christ as a
Servant-Leader
• Servant-leadership Behavior – refers to
the perceived behavior of nursing faculty
through the ability to model the servant
leadership qualities
• Nursing leadership – the force within the
nursing profession that sets the vision
for its practitioners, lays down the roles
and functions, and influences direction
toward which the profession should go
Transformative teaching/Reflective teaching
– an umbrella term covering ideas, such as
thoughtful instruction, teacher research
teacher narrative, and teacher empowerment
Care complex is the nucleus of care
experiences.
Divinagracia’s Composure Model
Summary: To determine the effects of
<COMPOSURE= behavior of the advanced
nurse practitioner on the wellness outcome of
the patients
Carmelita Divinagracia
Advanced Nurse Practitioners is a BSN
graduate, licensed, has clinical experience of at
least 2 years, and has undergone special training
in critical area
Composure behavior are set of behaviors or
nursing measures that the nurse demonstrates to
selected cardiac patients
Wellness status refers to a condition of being in a
state of well-being, a coordinated and integrated
living pattern that involves the dimensions of
wellness.

This model is a psycho-spiritual model Key Concepts:

Care complex is a structure in the personality of • COMpetence

the caregiver that is significantly related to the • Presence & prayer
leadership behavior • Open-mindedness
Vitality of Care Complex of the nursing faculty • SURE – Stimulation, Understanding,
is directly related to leadership behavior. Respect & relaxation, Empathy

This is designed to lead to radical change from Kuan’s Retirement and Role Discontinuity
apathy or indifference to a spiritual person. Model

This is a Three-Fold Transformation Leadership Summary: In retirement, role discontinuity

Concept rolled into one. occurs, and a person has to adapt to the change

3 parts (servant-leader formula) Letty Kuan

• Special expertise – the level of Also known as the Theory of Graceful Aging
competence in the particular nursing Good health makes retirement happy.
area that the professional nurse is
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In old age, a person must show a radiance of • Age

acquisition (the culmination of all experiences • Sex
and knowledge you have acquired through the • Civil status
years)
• Educational status
Abaquin’s Prepare Me Holistic Nursing • Length of work
Interventions • Experience
Summary: This theory provides a framework on Enhancing factors
non-pharmacologic, non-surgical approach of
care to advanced cases of cancer patients. • One’s caring experience, beliefs and
attitudes
Carmencity Abaquin created these as nursing
interventions for cancer patients • Feeling good about
• Learning at school
This theory emphasizes holistic approach to
• What patients tell about the nurse coping
nursing care
mechanism to problems encountered
Nurses are the facilitators of peaceful acceptance • Communication
of condition
Synchronicity in Human-Space-Time: A
PREPARE ME Theory of Nursing Engagement in a Global
Community
• Presence • Reminisce Therapy
Summary: Focused on the meaningful
• Prayer
connectedness in an individual’s self,
• Relaxation-Breathing
environment and time
• Meditation
• Values Clarificiation Lim-Saco, Kilat, Locsin
• Quality of life Principles
Laurente’s Theory of Nursing Practice and
• Interconnectivity – connectedness of
Career
beings and systems
Summary: Helping the patient through the • Emancipation – liberation from
family, when the nurses can be of great oppressive situations or human health
assistance to prevent at the very beginning conditions
serious complications.
• Equitability – the system of fairness and
Cecilia Laurente justice within and across healthcare
systems
Nurse can help strengthen the family’s term of
• Transcendence – the ability to go beyond
knowledge, skills, and attitude through:
the limits of HST boundaries
• effective communication Application
• informative technique
• psychotherapeutic technique • Interpersonal relating
• modeling technique • Rhythmical connecting
• behavioral technique • Technological knowing
• cognitive-behavioral technique • Transformational engaging
• hypnotic technique Maslow’s Human Needs Theory
Anxiety is a mental state of fear or nervousness Abaraham Maslow
about what might happen
Needs
Nursing care behavior that affects anxiety:
• Physiological (if not met, body may not
• Presence – contact between client and function optimally)
nurse
• Safety (if not met, may cause
• Concern – mutual trust posttraumatic stress)
• Stimulation – nurse stimulation through • Love and belonging (if not met may
words tops the powerful resources of cause depression and anxiety)
energy of person for healing
• Esteem (if not met may cause depression
Predisposing Factors and anxiety)
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• Self-actualization (if not met may cause A system contains energy and matter and can
depression and anxiety either be opened or closed.

Sullivan’s Interpersonal Theory Every living organism is essentially and open

Harry Sullivan
This theory focuses on relationships and social
context.
Humans develop a personality through their
interaction with others
Personality is an energy system
*Developmental Epochs
• Infancy
• Childhood (ages 1-5) - speech forms the
framework of learning
• Juvenile (ages 6-8) - wide variety of
playmates and access to healthy
socialization is increasingly important
• Preadolescence (ages 9-12) – ability to
form close friendships helps in
developing self-esteem
• Early adolescence (ages 13-17) -
friendship takes on a sexual dimension
• Late adolescence (ages 18-early 20s) –
struggles with conflicts between parental
control and their desire to form an
independent identity
• Adulthood – struggles include family,
financial security, and rewarding career
Von Bertalanffy’s General Systems Theory
Summary: A general theory to explain all
systems in all scientific fields
Ludwig von Bertalanffy
Complex systems share several basic organizing
principles
This theory may be considered as a
specialization of systems thinking and a
generalization of systems science.
The general science of wholeness
• Input – energy and info received form
the environment
• Throughput – energy and info that is
modified or transformed within the
system
• Output – energy and info that is released
from the system into the environment
• Feedback – energy, info regarding the
environment responses used by the
system (may be positive, neg, or neutral)
A system is composed of subsystem each with
its own function.
system.
Lewin’s Change Theory
Kurt Lewin is the father of social psychology
The goal is to change behavior without going
back to the old behavior.
Equilibrium is the state of being where driving
forces equal restraining forces, no change
occurs.
Restraining forces are forces that counter the
driving forces. They hinder change because they
push the patient in the opposite direction
Driving forces are forces that push in a direction
that causes change to occur. They facilitate
change because they push the patient in a
desired direction.
Stages
• Unfreezing is the process which involves
finding a method of making it possible
for people to let go of an old pattern that
was somehow counterproductive.
• Refreezing establishing
is the change as a
new habit, so that it now
becomes the
<standard operating procedure=
• Change is also called <movement=
which involves a process of change in
thoughts, feeling, behavior, or all three,
that is in some way more liberating or
more productive.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Development
Erik Erikson
This theory is based on Sigmund Freud’s
psychosexual theory.
We are motivated by the need to achieve
competence in certain areas of our lives.
Stages
• Trust vs Mistrust (Infancy)
• Autonomy vs Shame/Doubt (Early
childhood)
• Initiative vs Guilt (Preschool)
• Industry vs Inferiority (School Age)
• Identity vs Roe confusion (Adolescence)
• Intimacy vs Isolation (Young Adulthood)
• Generativity vs Stagnation (Middle
Adulthood)
• Integrity vs Despair (Maturity)
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Kohlberg’s Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier
work of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to explain
the moral development of children, which he
believed follows a series of stages.
Morality is the recognition of the distinction
between good and evil or between right and
wrong
Levels

• Preconventional – a child’s sense of

morality is externally controlled
(authority figures); they judge actions
based on its consequences
• Conventional – an individual’s sense of
morality is tied to personal and societal
relationships. (Accepting rules of
authority is necessary to ensure positive
relationships and societal order)
• Post conventional – a person’s sense of
morality is defined in terms of more
abstract principles and values. (some
laws are unjust and should be changed or
eliminated)