Reinforced Concrete

Structures
Lecture-2
June, 2022GC

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2. Basic concepts of design

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OBJECTIVE
❑Student will be able to:
√ Understand the Design philosophies

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From previous lecture
Concrete Steel
Strength in tension Poor Good
Strength in Good Good, but slender bars will
compression buckle
Strength in shear Fair Good
Durability Good Corrodes if unprotected
Fire resistance Good Poor – suffers rapid loss of
strength at high temperature

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 Behavior of RC Beam
under Lateral Loading

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Behavior of RC Beam under Lateral Loading cont…

❑ When beam is subjected to gradually increasing lateral load,

there is change in stresses & deformations.

❑ If these stresses and deformations exceed the capacity of

the materials of the beam, the beam will fail.

❑ Tests have shown that RC beams may fail either along a

vertical (normal) plane or a diagonal plane. The aim of design
of a member is to ensure resistance of section of a beam
along all planes.

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Behavior of RC Beam cont…

❑ Three stages of behavior can be observed at a section of

maximum moment, when singly reinforced beam is subjected
to gradually increasing load till failure.

[See Handout,pp8-10]

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Behavior of RC Beam cont…
Stage I: Uncracked
✓In initial stages of loading
(under low loading), tension-
cracks will not develop in
the section of RC beam.

✓The stresses in
compression & tension zone
of concrete are within
elastic range; and the
maximum tensile stress, fct
in the concrete is smaller
than the tensile strength
(modulus of rapture) of
concrete.
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Behavior of RC Beam cont…
Stage I: Un-cracked cont…
✓The reinforcing steel deforms the same amount of the
adjacent concrete and subjected to tensile stress.

✓These strain & stress distributions are used in design of

water-tight structures.

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Behavior of RC Beam cont…
Stage II: Cracked Section Under Working Load
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✓ When the loading is further
increased, the tensile
strength of concrete is
soon reached, at this stage
tension cracks start to
develop in tension zone of
the beam.
✓ These cracks make the
concrete not to resist any
tension stresses, the entire
tensile stresses are to be
resisted by the
reinforcing steel placed in
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tension zone. 10
Behavior of RC Beam cont…
Stage II: Cracked Section Under Working Load cont..

✓At moderate loading, if the concrete stresses do not exceed

approximately fcu/3, stresses & strains continue to be
closely proportional.
✓These strains & stresses distributions are used in working
stress (elastic) design method and in serviceability limit
state for crack.

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Behavior of RC Beam cont…
Stage III: Cracked Section Under Ultimate Load
✓ When the load is still
further increased, the
cracks in the tension
zone open and the
tension in the bars
reaches yield stress.

✓The compressive stress

in the concrete is no
longer proportional to
the strain and, concrete
continue to deform
plastically.
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Behavior of RC Beam cont…
Stage III: Cracked Section Under Ultimate Load cont…
✓As the load is increasing, plastic deformation in concrete is
complete and failure commences.

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 2.1. Design Philosophies (Methods)
❑ The objective of reinforced concrete design is to
achieve a structure or part of a structure that will
result in a safe and economical solution.

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Design Philosophies (Methods) cont…

❑ For a given structural system, the design problem

consists of the following steps:
1. Idealization of structure for analysis (dimension of
members, support condition of structure and etc.)
2. Estimation of loadings.
3. Analysis of idealized structural model to determine
stress-resultants (axial forces, shear forces, torsions &
bending moments) and their effects (deformations).
4. Design of structural elements (if assumed dimensions
are adequate).
5. Detailed structural drawings and schedule of
reinforcing bars.
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Design Philosophies (Methods) cont…

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Design Philosophies (Methods) cont…

❑ To achieve safe and economic structures, three

philosophies of design had been adopted by codes of
practices. These are:

1. Working Stress Design (WSD) or Elastic Design

Method
2. Ultimate Strength Design (USD) Method, and
3. Limit State Design (LSD) Method.

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 2.1.1. Working Stress Design (WSD) method
❑ Is the oldest and simplest method of design used for
reinforced concrete structures.

❑ It is based on the assumption that concrete is elastic,

steel & concrete together act elastically.

❑ Also, the stresses developed in concrete & steel does not

exceed the respective allowable stresses any where in the
structure when structure is subjected to the worst
combination of service design loads.

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 Working Stress Design (WSD) method cont..

❑ The allowable stresses of materials are determined

dividing material strengths by a factor of safety.

✓ Safety factors specified by British standard are 3 for

concrete and 1.8 for reinforcing steel. These safety
factors are obtained from many years of practical
experience and engineering judgment.

❖ The safety factors specified by codes are assumed to cover

all uncertainties existing in estimations of service design
loads and material strengths.

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Working Stress Design (WSD) method cont..
Advantages of WSD method
1. It results in relatively large sections of structural
members (compared to ULM and LSM), thereby
resulting in better serviceability performance (less
deflections, crack-widths, etc.) under the usual working
loads.
2. Its essential simplicity — in concept, as well as
application.

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Working Stress Design (WSD) method cont..

Drawbacks of WSD method

❑The main drawbacks of WSD method are as follows:
1. Concrete is not elastic material. The inelastic behavior of
concrete starts right from very low stresses. The actual
stress distribution of concrete in section can not be
described by a triangular stress diagram.
2. Since factor of safety is applied on the strength of
materials, there is no way to account for different
degrees of uncertainty associated with different types
of loadings.
3. It is difficult to account for creep and shrinkage by
computations of elastic stresses.
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2.1.2. Ultimate Strength Design (USD) method

❑Design of structure or part of a structure in USD method

is based on ultimate load theory; and it is made to resist
the desired ultimate (collapse) loads using idealized
strength model (either parabola or parabola-rectangle
stress block) just before failure of section plastically.

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Ultimate Strength Design (USD) method cont..

❑The desired ultimate loads are obtained by increasing

sufficiently the service loadings using specified factors.
✓These factors are called over-load factors. Separate
over-load factors are applied for different loadings
considering uncertainties existing in estimation of
different loadings.
❑ Design format used in USD method may be expressed as:

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Ultimate Strength Design (USD) method cont..

Advantages of USD method over WSD method

❑ A major advantage of USD method over WSD method is
that total safety factor of structure thus found to be
nearer to its actual value.
❑ Further, structures designed by USD method require less
reinforcement than those designed by the WSD method.
➢generally results in more economical design of beams and
columns (compared to WSM), particularly when high
strength reinforcing steel and concrete are used.

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Ultimate Strength Design (USD) method cont..

Drawbacks of USD method

❑The main draw backs of USD method are as follows:
✓Since load factor is used on the service loads, there is
no way to account for different degrees of uncertainty
associated with variation in material strengths.
✓There is complete disregard for control against
excessive deflections and crack-width.
i.e. the satisfactory ‘strength’ performance at ultimate loads does
not guarantee satisfactory ‘serviceability’ performance at the
normal service loads.

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2.1.3.Limit State Design (LSD) method:
• Unlike WSM, which based calculations on service load
conditions alone, and unlike ULM, which based calculations
on ultimate load conditions alone, LSM aims for a
comprehensive and rational solution to the design
problem, by considering safety at ultimate loads and
serviceability at working loads.
• The LSM philosophy uses a multiple safety factor format
which attempts to provide adequate safety at ultimate
loads as well as adequate serviceability at service loads,
by considering all possible ‘limit states’.

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Limit State Design (LSD) method cont…

❑ The selection of the various multiple safety factors is

supposed to have a sound probabilistic basis, involving
the separate consideration of different kinds of
failure, types of materials and types of loads.
❑ Design of structure in limit state is made to achieve
an acceptable probability that structure or part of it
will not become unfit for use for which it is intended
during expected life.

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Limit State Design (LSD) method cont…

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 2.2. Limit State Design (LSD) method
Characteristic Material Strength and Characteristic Loads
1. Characteristic Material Strength
✓ The strengths of materials upon which design
is based are those strengths below which
results are unlikely to fall. These are called
Characteristic strengths.
✓ The Characteristic strength is taken as that
value below which it is unlikely that more than
5% of the results will fall. This is given by
𝒇𝒌 = 𝒇𝒎 − 𝟏. 𝟔𝟒𝒔

Where; 𝒇𝒌 is characteristic strength, 𝒇𝒎 is

mean strength & 𝒔 is standard
deviation.
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Characteristic cont…

1. Characteristic Loads
✓ Ideally it should also be possible to assess loads statistically, in which case
Characteristic load = mean load ± 1.64 standard deviations
✓ In most cases it is the maximum loading on a structural member (i.e. the
upper, positive value) is used, but the lower, minimum value may apply
when considering stability or the behavior of continuous members.
✓ These characteristic values represent the limits within which at least 90 per
cent of values will lie in practice.
▪ It is to be expected that not more than 5 per cent of cases will exceed
the upper limit and not more than 5 per cent will fall below the lower
limit.
✓ They are design values which take into account the accuracy with which the
loads can be predicted.
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 ES’S RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LIMIT STATES DESIGN
1. ACTIONS
Introduction
❑The term action is used in the ES in order to group together
generally all external influences on a structure’s performance.
❑It encompasses loading by gravity and wind, but includes also
vibration, thermal effects, fire and seismic loading.

❑Separate combinations of actions are used to check the

structure for the design situation being considered. For each
of the particular design situations an appropriate
representative value for each action is used.
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1. ACTIONS cont…

Representative Values of Actions

❑ The main actions to be used in load cases used for design are:
a) Permanent actions (𝑮): e.g. self‐weight of structures and
fixed equipment;
b) Variable actions (𝑸): e.g. imposed loads on building floors
and beams; snow loads on roofs; wind loading on walls
and roofs
c) Accidental actions (A): e.g. fire, explosions and impact.

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1. ACTIONS cont…

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1. ACTIONS cont…

Load combinations for design

❑ The values of actions to be used in design are governed by a number
of factors. These include:
✓ The nature of the load- as the confidence in the description of each will vary
✓ The limit state being considered - the value of an action governing design
must be higher for the ultimate limit state than for serviceability
✓ The number of variable loads acting simultaneously - Statistically, it is
improbable that all loads will act at their full characteristic value at the same
time.
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1. ACTIONS cont…
Load combinations for design cont…
I. Ultimate Limit State

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1. ACTIONS cont…
Load combinations for design cont…

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1. ACTIONS cont…
Load combinations for design cont…

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 2. Materials
Partial factors for materials

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 2. Materials
a) Concrete
Design Compressive Strength

Design Tensile Strength

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a) Concrete cont…

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Concrete cont…
Stress-Strain relations for the design of cross-sections
• For the design of cross-sections, the following stress-strain
relationship may be used.
1. Parabola-Rectangle

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Concrete cont…
2. Bi-linear stress-strain relation

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Concrete cont…
3. Rectangular stress distribution

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b) Reinforcing Steel

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a) Concrete cont…

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 DESIGN CODES AND HANDBOOKS
1. PURPOSE OF CODES

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 2. INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES
BS EN 1990: Eurocode: Basis of design (EC0)
BS EN 1991: Eurocode 1 Actions on structures (EC1)
Part 1-1: General actions – Densities, self-weight and imposed loads
• All Eurocodes follow a
Part 1-2: General actions on structures exposed to fire
common editorial style.
Part 1-3: General actions – Snow loads
• The codes contain ‘Principles’
Part 1-4: General actions – Wind loads
and ‘Application rules’.
Part 1-5: General actions – Thermal actions
• Principles are identified by the
Part 1-6: Actions during execution
letter P following the
Part 1-7: Accidental actions from impact and explosions
paragraph number.
Part 2: Traffic loads on bridges
• Principles are general
Part 3: Actions induced by cranes and machinery
statements and definitions for
Part 4: Actions in silos and tanks
which there is no alternative,
BS EN 1992: Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures (EC2)
as well as, requirements and
Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings (EC2 Part 1-1) analytical models for which no
Part 1-2: General rules - Structural fire design (EC2 Part 1-2) alternative is permitted unless
Part 2: Reinforced and pre-stressed concrete bridges (EC2 Part 2) specifically stated.
Part 3: Liquid retaining and containing structures (EC2 Part 3) • Application rules are generally
BS EN 1993: Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures (EC3) recognized rules which comply
BS EN 1994: Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures (EC4) with the Principles and satisfy
BS EN 1995: Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures (EC5) their requirements.
BS EN 1996: Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures (EC6)
BS EN 1997: Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design (EC7)
BS EN 1998: Eurocode 8: Earthquake resistant design of structures (EC8)
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BS EN 1999: Eurocode 9: Design of aluminum alloy structures (EC9)
 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES cont…

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 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES cont…

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 THANK YOU!

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