A brief Note on Population Biology

Population Biology -Chapter note

Principles of Behavior
The study of ethology involves examining how animals act and react within their environments.
Behavior simply refers to what an organism does and how it does it. Some behavioral characteristics
are learned, while others are instinctive (inherited).
Behavioral characteristics of animals may include how they acquire food, seek out and relate to a
mate, respond to danger, or care for young. Behavior can range from simple reflexes to complex
interactions between the endocrine, nervous, and musculoskeletal systems.
Some behaviors are extremely simple and are innate responses to environmental stimuli. These basic
behaviors exist from birth and are genetic in origin. Innate behaviors, also known as instincts, are
highly stereotyped; all individuals of a species perform these behaviors in the same way. Stereotyped
behaviors can be classified into four basic varieties:
• Taxes (plural of taxis) are directional responses either toward or away from a stimulus.
• Kineses are changes in speed of movement in response to stimuli.
• Reflexes are automatic movements of a body part in response to a stimulus.
• Fixed action patterns (FAP) are complex but stereotyped behaviors in response to a stimulus.
The fixed action pattern is the most complex of stereotyped behaviors. It is a pre-programmed
response to a particular stimulus known as a releaser or a sign stimulus. FAPs include courtship
behaviors, circadian rhythms, and feeding of young. Organisms automatically perform FAPs without
any prior experience; they are not learned.
Some animal behaviors are learned. Learned behaviors may have some genetic basis, but they also
require learning. Generally, there are three types of learned behavior in animals: conditioning,
habituation, and imprinting.
Conditioning involves learning to apply an old response to a new stimulus. The classic example of
conditioning is that of Pavlov’s dogs. Ivan Pavlov, a scientist who studied animal behavior, trained
dogs to salivate when they heard a bell ring by associating the bell with food.
B.F. Skinner, another scientist who studied conditioning, believed that learning occurs through
changes in overt behavior. Skinner proposed that reinforcement of good behaviors results in their
repetition.
Habituation is a learned behavior where the organism produces fewer responses as a stimulus is
repeated without subsequent negative or positive consequences. For example, a cat might initially
respond to a dog’s approach with fear, but if the dog consistently approaches without harm, the cat
may habituate to the dog's presence.
Imprinting is a learned behavior that develops in a critical or sensitive period of an animal's life span.
Konrad Lorenz demonstrated that baby geese imprint on their mother shortly after birth. During this
critical period, the gosling learns to recognize its mother. Imprinting generally involves learning a
new releaser for an established FAP.
Social Behavior
Some animal species demonstrate social behavior, which involves behavior patterns that take into
account other individuals. Animals may establish home ranges and territories, where they spend most
of their time and defend as their own.
Sexual and mating behaviors often rely on complex interactions of the endocrine, nervous, and
musculoskeletal systems. Competition for mates and complex rituals are common in many species.
Sexual and parenting behaviors vary greatly between species.
In some species, social interactions are highly complex, with entire populations functioning as
hierarchies or societies. Insects such as ants and bees, some species of birds, and many primates form
societies where individuals have specified roles and status.
Social behavior is highly dependent on communication within the population and the ability of
individuals to adapt their behavior according to the needs of the society as a whole. Social animals
may exhibit altruistic traits, serving the needs of the society alongside their individual needs.
Social Biology
Human Population Growth
Human population growth is influenced by birth and death rates, which are subject to social and
environmental factors. Advances in medicine and technology have increased life expectancy and
decreased infant mortality rates, contributing to population growth.
Thomas Malthus recognized the exponential properties of population growth in the 18th century, but
his predictions did not account for technological advancements in food production. The theory of
demographic transition suggests progressive stages of population growth, influenced by social and
technological changes.
Genetic engineering has led to advancements in agriculture and medicine, but ethical concerns remain
regarding its applications in human reproduction and cloning.
Human population growth has led to environmental pollution and ecosystem disruption. Efforts in
resource management are crucial for maintaining a balance within the biosphere.
In conclusion, understanding population biology and behavior is essential for addressing the
challenges posed by human population growth and its impact on the environment. Through careful
management and ethical considerations, we can strive to ensure a sustainable future for all life on
Earth.