ELEC563 Lecture6

ELEC 463/563 – Lecture 6 & 7
Internet of Everything (IoE)

From Molecules to the Universe
• Internet of Bio-Nano Things (IoBNT)

• Molecular Communications (MC)
Özgür B. Akan, PhD, IEEE Fellow

Professor, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge
Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Koç University
[oba21@cam.ac.uk | akan@ku.edu.tr]
Lecture Outline
• Internet of Bio-Nano Things (IoBNT)

• Introduction to IoBNT
• Bio-Nano Things (BNTs)
• IoBNT applications
• Communication Technologies for the IoBNT
• Challenges and Future Research in IoBNT
• Molecular Communications (MC)

• MC-based Natural IoBNT
• Artificial MC
• Communication methods for MC
2/99
Internet of Bio-Nano Things (IoBNT)
“There’s plenty of room at the bottom” R. Feynman

-- Is the room down there sufficient for a communication network ??
Nanoparticle communication networks Bacterial nanotube networks
Nanonetwork
a set of communicating nanomachines to collaboratively perform a common task
Nanoscale Molecular Communications

• G. Maltzahn et al., "Nanoparticles that Communicate In Vivo to Amplify Tumour Targeting," Nature Materials, 2011.
• G. P. Dubey, S. Ben-Yehuda, "Intercellular nanotubes mediate bacterial communication,” Cell, 2011.
• O. B. Akan, H. Ramezani, T. Khan, N. A. Abbasi, M. Kuscu, “Fundamentals of Molecular Information and Communication Science,” Proceedings of the IEEE, 2017. 3/99
IoBNT Architecture
Services Layer
Context
Management layer Micro-
gateway
Nano-sensors Query routing EM – bio/nano

on clothings communication
nano-
nano-
sensors
sensors
Phone
surface
sensors – nano-
sensors
Nano-sensors
Sweat Micro- For environmental
gateway monitoring
Blood
Chemicals
Molecular Pathogens
Allergens
bio-nanonetworks
4/99
IoBNT Context Models
Raw Nano Micro

Data Sensors Sensors
Molecular Communication
Application Temperature BAN BAN2
Data Collection Nano-sensor
Services Pressure
Services Bacteria Nanonets
Accelerometer
Micro- Micro- Calcium Signaling
Context Context
Contains Contains
Activity User Profile Medical

Condition
Context Context LocatedAT
Context PerformingAt Contains
Processing Inference and
Broker
Deduction
Context Model
Nano Location Device Mobile
EM
Sensors Contains Phone
nano X-value
Shopping Env. Contains
Bio medical Smart Home Y-value
Service
Z-value Nano
Gene Smart Office Directory
Ontology Ontology Sensors
Bio nano-sensor
Cross domain
ontologies
Ontologies and Knowledge base
(a) (b)
Cross domains of heterogeneous knowledge bases
5/99
IoBNT Service Models
Application
Services A
Micro-
Context ServiceComposition
”Molecular Nets”
ServiceComposition
”EM Nanonets”
Data
ContextInteraction Collection
Services
ContextInteraction A2
Data Molecular
Collection Communications
Services A1
EM Nanonetworks • Multitude of nanodevices and micro-gateways

• Big data from nanoscale sensors and networks
• New distributed service models (lightweight services)
6/99
Bio-Nano Things
Passive Molecular/Nano Agents

• Primitive, single/few-molecule agents
• Fluorescent proteins, quantum dots, nanoparticles
• Communication through FRET, coagulation cascade
• May require external stimuli or biochemical trigger
• Minimum control over network topology
• Optimization of information flow in passive networks
through initial conditions and external stimuli
Abiotic Devices
• Potentially host more complex functionalities
• Requires energy harvesting
• Molecular, electromagnetic (THz), acoustic, optical comm.
• THz and optical comm. problematic inside human body
• Nano-macro interfacing through EM communication
• Bio-cyber interfacing and biocompatibility issues
Biosynthetic Devices
• Inherently biocompatible
• Synthetic biology tools to modify/add new functionalities
• Nano-macro interfacing is a challenge
• Optogenetics, fluorescent proteins, biosensors
• Many fundamental open questions on biophysics
• Functionality limited by energy and molecule constraints
7/99
Bio-Nano Things
• Bio-Nano Thing: An alignment of the constituents found in a standard IoT embedded

computing device with the elements present in a biological cell
• Zafar, Sidra, et al. "A systematic review of bio-cyber interface technologies and security issues for internet of bio-nano things." IEEE Access 9
(2021): 93529-93566. 8/99
IoBNT Applications
9/99
IoBNT Applications
Biomedical
• Bio-hybrid implants
• Monitoring glucose levels
• Heart Monitoring
• Brain pathologies, Alzheimer's, epilepsy and depression
• Medication carrying smart nanoshells that detect and destroy tumors

Military
• Nuclear, biological, chemical defence
Industrial
• Food and water quality control
• Functionalized materials and fabric

Environmental
• Biodegradation
• Animals and biodiversity control
• Air pollution control
10/99
IoBNT Applications
Smart Drug Delivery Continuous Health Monitoring Organs-on-Chips

(ICT-based Theranostics) (ICT-based Testbeds for New Medicine)
Project MEDDS #EP/P009824/1, #EP/P010105/1 Human Organ-on-chip

Project
Artificial Synapse
All-optical Molecular Computers (ICT-based Treatment Techniques) Wireless Inbody Sensor-Actuator Networks
Project MINERVA: ERC-2013-CoG #616922 Project MINERVA: ERC-2013-CoG #616922 Project WINNOW - #270957/O70
Bacteria-based Molecular Nanonetworks Underground/Underwater Monitoring with Nanosensors Artificial Vision and Hearing
Project MONACO: NSF - #1110947 #ACC102665 #EP/P022723/1
11/99
IoBNT Applications
Smart(er) Home applications Chemical Attack Prevention

Nanosensors
Consumer Electronic Devices
Nanorobot Networks for Oil Reservoir Discovery & Monitoring
• Akyildiz, I. F., & Jornet, J. M. (2010). The internet of nano-things. IEEE Wireless Communications, 17(6), 58-63. 12/99
IoBNT Applications
Smart Cities
Smart Transport Smart Water
• Pollution control • Contamination control
• Infrastructure monitoring
Smart Energy
Smart Agriculture • Monitoring of renewable energy
• Contamination control infrastructure
• Urban agriculture (hydroponics) • Monitoring of biofuel production
Plant Pathogen Detection
Plant pathogen detection at cellular level using biosensors Plant pathogen detection using drones
• Akyildiz, I. F., & Jornet, J. M. (2010). The internet of nano-things. IEEE Wireless Communications, 17(6), 58-63. 13/99
IoBNT Applications
On-Site Monitoring of Water Loss from Plants
Leaf wearable electrodes for on-site sensing of the water loss in soy leaves
• Barbosa, J. A., Freitas, V. M., Vidotto, L. H., Schleder, G. R., de Oliveira, R. A., da Rocha, J. F., ... & Lima, R. S. (2022).
Biocompatible wearable electrodes on leaves toward the on-site monitoring of water loss from plants. ACS Applied Materials &
Interfaces, 14(20), 22989-23001. 14/99
IoBNT Applications
High–resolution Theranostics
Advanced drug delivery
Bacteria-based Sensor Network in

Gastrointestinal Tract
• Chahibi, Y. et al. (2013). A molecular communication system model for particulate drug delivery systems. IEEE Transactions on
biomedical engineering, 60(12), 3468-3483. 15/99
IoBNT Applications
Early Detection and Mitigation of Infectious Diseases
IoBNT system for detection of infectious disease
Bio-sensor with direct electro-chemical,

bacterial sensor and optical measurement
• I. F. Akyildiz, M. Ghovanloo, U. Guler, T. Ozkaya-Ahmadov, A. F. Sarioglu and B. D. Unluturk, "PANACEA: An Internet of Bio-
NanoThings Application for Early Detection and Mitigation of Infectious Diseases," in IEEE Access, vol. 8, pp. 140512-140523, 2020 16/99
IoBNT Applications
Organs-on-Chips (ICT-based testbeds for new medicine)
Multi-organ-on-a-chip
Disease-on-a-chip
• Picollet-D’hahan et al. (2021). Multiorgan-on-a-chip: a systemic approach to model and decipher inter-organ communication. Trends in
biotechnology, 39(8), 788-810.
• Amirifar, L. et al. (2022). Brain-on-a-chip: Recent advances in design and techniques for microfluidic models of the brain in health and
disease. Biomaterials, 285, 121531. 17/99
IoBNT Applications
Artificial Organs | Project MINERVA
Communication Theoretical Foundations of Nervous System Towards

Project BIO-Inspired Nanonetworks and ICT-Inspired Neuro-Treatment
MINERVA Duration: 03/2014 – 08/2019 | Budget: ~€1.800.000 Consolidator Grant
CONTRIBUTIONS
• Channel models for nanoscale neuro-spike communications
• Design of nervous nanonetwork simulator (N4SIM)
• Molecular-to-electrical and electrical-to-molecular transceiver designs
• Design and optimisation of artificial synapse
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
• Validation of synaptic channel and nervous nanonetwork models

• Implementation and test of nanoscale artificial synapse
• Applications of artificial synapses as bio-cyber interfaces in IoBNT
• N. A. Abbasi, D. Lafci, O. B. Akan, “Controlled Information Transfer Through An In Vivo Nervous System,” Nature Scientific Reports, 2018.
• O. B. Akan, H. Ramezani, T. Khan, N. A. Abbasi, M. Kuscu, “Fundamentals of Molecular Information and Communication Science,” Proceedings of the IEEE, 2017.
• B. A. Bilgin, O. B. Akan, "A Fast Algorithm for Analysis of Molecular Communication in an Artificial Synapse," IEEE Transactions on Nanobioscience, 2017.
• H. Ramezani, O. B. Akan, “A Communication Theoretical Modeling of Axonal Propagation in Hippocampal Pyramidal Neurons,” IEEE Transactions on Nanobioscience, 2017.
• T. Khan, B. A. Bilgin, O. B. Akan, "Diffusion-based Model for Synaptic Molecular Communication Channel," IEEE Transactions on Nanobioscience, 2017.
• M. Kuscu, O. B. Akan, "Modeling and Analysis of SiNW FET-Based Molecular Communication Receiver," IEEE Transactions on Communications, 2016.
• D. Malak, O. B. Akan, "Communication Theoretical Understanding of Intra-body Nervous Nanonetworks," IEEE Communications Magazine, 2014. 18/99
IoBNT Applications
High-resolution Neural Interfaces
• Further miniaturization of BMI units in cerebral cortex

• External TxRx controls network of ‘synaptically interactive’ nanodevices
• Synaptically interactive nanonetwork report the states of targeted synapses to the external TxRx
• At the synaptic level, the nanonetwork performs excitation, inhibition, modification of neurons
• Veletić, M., & Balasingham, I. (2019). Synaptic communication engineering for future cognitive brain–machine
interfaces. Proceedings of the IEEE, 107(7), 1425-1441. 19/99
IoBNT Applications
Nanoscale Neuro-spike Communications
Anatomy of communication among neurons MISO neuro-spike communication channel Capacity of MISO channel under metabolic cost
• Realistic communication theoretical model IoE Challenges

Addressed
• Memory in axonal transmission Miniaturisation
• Impact of spike shape variation on vesicle release process

Interoperability
• Considering geometry of synapse, diffusion and re-uptake of neurotransmitters
• Revealed the impact of short-term and long-term plasticity on the performance
• Derived the information capacity of MISO neuro spike communication
• Analysed the required metabolic energy for this communication
• Extracted key parameters for design of a bio-inspired nanoscale communication paradigm
• M. Civas, O. B. Akan, "Rate of Information Flow Across Layered Neuro-spike Network in the Spinal Cord," in IEEE Transactions on Nanobioscience, 2020.
• H. Ramezani, O. B. Akan, "Information Capacity of Vesicle Release in Neuro-spike Communication," IEEE Communications Letters, 2018.
• H. Ramezani, T. Khan, O. B. Akan, "Information Theoretical Analysis of Synaptic Communication for Nanonetworks," Proc. IEEE INFOCOM 2018.
• H. Ramezani, O. B. Akan, "A Communication Theoretical Modeling of Axonal Propagation in Hippocampal Pyramidal Neurons," IEEE Transactions on Nanobioscience, 2017.
• T. Khan, B. A. Bilgin, O. B. Akan, "Diffusion-based Model for Synaptic Molecular Communication Channel," IEEE Transactions on Nanobioscience, 2017.
• H. Ramezani, O. B. Akan, "Importance of Vesicle Release Stochasticity in Neuro-spike Communication," in Proc. IEEE EMBC 2017.
• H. Ramezani, C. Koca, O. B. Akan, "Rate Region Analysis of Multi-terminal Neuronal Nanoscale Molecular Communication Channel," in Proc. IEEE Nano 2017.
• E. Balevi, O. B. Akan, "A Physical Channel Model for Nanoscale Neuro-Spike Communication," IEEE Transactions on Communications, 2013. 20/99
IoBNT Applications
𝑵𝟒 𝑺𝒊𝒎: MC-based Neural NaNoNetwork Simulator

Nervous Net
Probe
Generator
Generator +total_neuron: int
-filter_type: string
+frequency -delay_map:double
+frequency double
double +time_interval: double
+pulse_width: -connection_map: int
+pulse_width: double
double +savedata ()
+duration:
+duration: double
double +Randomize ()
+select_output ()
+fire
+fire ():
():
1 Neuron
1
+cordinate: vector
+communicate ()
1
1..
*
Axon Dendrite
Soma
-length: double -length: double 1..
1 -width: double -width: double -width: double *
-threshold: double
-myelination: bool in: captu_mol: double
in: Current: double
Inout: Signal: vector Out: current: double
Out: Signal: vector
+transmit (): void +generat_curr ():
+spike_gen(): vector
double
Synapse
-neurotransmit: double
-num_receptors:
1..
double
*
in: Signal: vector
Out: captu_mol:double
+react (): void
Class diagram of 𝑵𝟒 𝑺𝒊𝒎 Event based algorithm flow chart Receptor state evolutions:
of 𝑵𝟒 𝑺𝒊𝒎 Monte Carlo averages vs analytic model
• 𝑁 4 𝑆𝑖𝑚 is the first neural network simulator (NNS) that incorporates MC at synapses!
IoE Challenges
• 𝑁 4 𝑆𝑖𝑚 has an event-based algorithm with two types of events: Addressed
1. Action Potential Events (APEs) Miniaturisation
2. Synaptic Transmission Events (STEs)

Interoperability
Novelties:
• Realistic approximation of MC dynamics at synapses COST Problems in
• Tracking evolution of molecular reservoirs as models of plasticity
⇒ speed and scalability!
Solution for speed and scalability:

• Develop fast analytical emulation schemes approximating expected MC dynamics ⇒ Still too slow!
• Create LUTs using fast emulations, and determine channel output by interpolation on LUT data
• N. A. Turgut, B. A. Bilgin, O. B. Akan, “N4Sim: A molecular communications based Neural NaNoNetwork Simulator”, IEEE Transactions on NanoBioscience, 2022.
• T. Khan, B. A. Bilgin, O. B. Akan, "Diffusion-based Model for Synaptic Molecular Communication Channel", IEEE Transactions on Nanobioscience, 2017.
• B. A. Bilgin, O. B. Akan, “A Fast Algorithm for Analysis of Molecular Communication in Artificial Synapse”, IEEE Transactions on Nanobioscience, 2017.
21/99
IoBNT Applications
Project MINERGRACE
Graphene neural interfaces for complete Spinal Cord Injury (SCI) treatment Insulated graphene cells for high resolution detection/stimulation
Graphene-based High Resolution Neural Interfaces for ICT-inspired

Neuro-treatment
Project
Duration: 2018-2019 | Budget: ~€150.000
MINERGRACE Proof-of-Concept Grant
PI: Prof Ozgur B. Akan Collaborator: Prof Andrea Ferrari (CGC)
• Transceivers/neural interfaces with high spatial resolution based on graphene
• Differentiating/generating highly localised fluctuations in ion concentrations

IoE Challenges
• New generation bio-cyber interfaces and nanotransceivers towards IoE Addressed
Miniaturisation
GRAPHENE CDT SHORT PROJECT
”Nanopatterned Graphene Sheets for Neural Interfacing” Interoperability
Student: Fredrik Ljungkvist
Advisors: Prof Ozgur B. Akan & Prof Andrea C. Ferrari
22/99
IoBNT Applications
Bio-Cyber Interfaces and Electromagnetic (EM) Nanotransceivers
z
y
SPP
Wave
EM
Wave
Zettle Group, UC Berkeley
SiNW FET-based CNT Radio Graphene Plasmonic

Graphene Optical Receiver
molecular/electrical interface THz nanotransceiver
• Bio-cyber interfaces connecting bio-nanonetworks to the Internet

• Molecular/electrical interfaces with SiNW, CNT, graphene, MoS2 FET biosensors
• Optical interfaces with fluorescent biomarkers
IoE Challenges
Addressed
ICT-inspired diagnosis, test, and treatment techniques Miniaturisation
• Artificial synapses, Organs-on-Chips

Interoperability
• Graphene/CNT-based nanoscale optical transceivers

• Ultra high-rate THz-band Internet of Nano Things with graphene antennas
”BioFET-based Molecular Communication Receiver”
Student: Muhammad Zulqurnain
Advisors: Prof Ozgur B. Akan & Dr Antonio Lombardo
• M. Kuscu, O. B. Akan, "Modeling Convection-Diffusion-Reaction Systems for Microfluidic Molecular Communications with Surface-based Receivers in Internet of Bio-Nano
Things," PLoS One, 2018.
• M. Kuscu, O. B. Akan, "Modeling and Analysis of SiNW FET-Based Molecular Communication Receiver," IEEE Transactions on Communications, 2016.
• M. Kocaoglu, B. Gulbahar, O. B. Akan, "Stochastic Resonance in Graphene Bi-layer Optical Nanoreceivers," IEEE Transactions on Nanotechnology, 2014.
• B. Gulbahar, O. B. Akan, "A Communication Theoretical Modeling of Single-layer Graphene Photodetectors and Efficient Multi-receiver Diversity Combining," IEEE Trans.
Nanotechnology, 2012.
• J. M. Jornet and I. F. Akyildiz, “Graphene-based Plasmonic Nano-antennas for Terahertz Band Communication in Nanonetworks,” IEEE JSAC, 2013. 23/99
IoBNT Applications
ICT Foundations of Human Body Nanonetworks, Cell Metabolism, and Human Diseases
Gap junction communication in cardiovascular nanonetworks Molecular communication in Communication pathways of cancer cells
endocrine nanonetworks
• Estimation of the cardinality of cellular "communicome"

• Derivation of exact information transmission capacity of cellular communicome
• Extraction of source and network coding techniques in intrabody networks IoE Challenges
Addressed
• Revealing the correlation between ICT metrics and human diseases App-driven
Networking
• Early and precise diagnosis and treatment techniques with IoBNT Miniaturisation
RESEARCH PROJECT
H2020-FET-OPEN Project CIRCLE: Interoperability
Coordinating European Research on Molecular Communications
Duration: 2015 – 2017 | Budget: ~535.000 Euro | Funded by
BIG Data
Partners: Analytics
• G. Muzio, M. Kuscu, O. B. Akan, "Selective Signal Detection with Ligand Receptors under Interference in Molecular Communications," IEEE SPAWC 2018.
• M. Kuscu, O. B. Akan, "Maximum Likelihood Detection with Ligand Receptors for Diffusion-Based Molecular Communications in Internet of Bio-Nano Things," IEEE
Transactions on Nanobioscience, 2018.
• O. B. Akan, H. Ramezani, T. Khan, N. A. Abbasi, M. Kuscu, “Fundamentals of Molecular Information and Communication Science,” Proceedings of the IEEE, 2017.
• N. A. Abbasi, O. B. Akan, "An Information Theoretical Analysis of Molecular Communications in Human Insulin-Glucose System for Internet of Bio-Nano Things," IEEE
Transactions on Nanobioscience, 2017.
• D. Kilinc, O. B. Akan, "An Information Theoretical Analysis of Nanoscale Molecular Gap Junction Communication Channel Between Cardiomyocytes," IEEE Transactions on
Nanotechnology, 2013.
• D. Malak, O. B. Akan, "Molecular Communication Nanonetworks inside Human Body," Nano Communication Networks Journal (Elsevier), 2012. 24/99
IoBNT Applications
Blood Brain Barrier
Blood brain barrier Nanoporous graphene-based Nanoporous graphene-based

blood brain barrier molecular transceiver
• Blood brain barrier (BBB): Highly selective semipermeable membrane barrier separating the blood
from the brain and extracellular fluid in the central nervous system (CNS)
• Takes longer to get a CNS drug to market (12−16 years) compared with non-CNS drug (10−12 years)
• Utilisation of graphene membranes can provide

• Size selectivity based on pore size
• Voltage controlled transport IoE Challenges
Addressed
• Biocompatible membrane Miniaturisation
• Molecule selectivity with functionalisation Interoperability

”A Selective Porous Graphene Membrane-based Molecular Communication Channel”
Student: Jeremy Smith
Advisors: Prof Ozgur B. Akan & Prof Clemens Kaminski
25/99
IoBNT Applications
Wireless Molecular Information Communications with Nanoscale Transceivers
(d)
(c)
(a) DNA nanopore molecular receiver, (b) Electrical transmitter for molecular communications, (c) High data rate DNA Mi-Fi link (d) Indoor Mi-Fi application
• MI-FI: Indoor wireless Molecular Information communication
• Nanoscale integrated molecular information transceiver based on graphene + DNA nanopores
• Capable of Molecular Division Multiple Access (MDMA) IoE Challenges

Addressed
App-driven
• Applications: Intrusion/movement detection, bacteria detection Networking
Miniaturisation
• First step towards intra-body IoBNT for ICT-based disease diagnosis/treatment

Interoperability
• Investigating feasibility of different information carriers, e.g., DNA

RESEARCH PROJECT Cavendish
• Project MI-FI: Wireless Molecular Information Communications Towards Internet of Nano-Bio Things (IoNBT) Laboratory
PI: Prof Ozgur B. Akan, Co-PIs: Prof Stephan Hofmann (UCAM ENG) and Prof Ulrich F. Keyser (UCAM PHY)
26/99
From IoBNT to the Internet of Everything...
AXA Chair in Internet of Everything
• The very first artificial liquid-borne and airborne

molecular communication TxRxs
• An artificial gut-brain axis testbed for the
treatment of physiological and intestinal diseases
• MC channel modelling and first practical
demonstration of MC!
• Realistic MC channel models, feasible MC
techniques, and practical MC applications
Micro/Nanoscale Transceivers for Wireless Molecular

AXA Chair in Information Communications
Internet of
Duration: 2019-2024 | Budget: €1.000.000
Everything PI: Prof. Ozgur B. Akan
Universal Transceivers (TxRxs): • Graphene-based micro/nanoscale device architecture

IoE devices capable of • Adaptive in dynamic channel conditions and varying
• Multi-modal communications: energy budget
○ (1) Molecular; (2) THz-EM; (3) Optical; (4) Acoustic • Interoperable within heterogeneous networks connecting
• Hybrid energy harvesting: different kingdoms, e.g., plants, animals, bacteria,
○ (1) Solar; (2) Mechanical/Vibrational; (3) THz-EM inanimate objects etc.
• M. Civas, M. Kuscu, O. Cetinkaya, B. E. Ortlek, O. B. Akan, "Graphene and Related Materials for the Internet of Bio-Nano Things," APL Materials, vol. 11, no. 8, pp.
080901, August 2023.
• B. E. Ortlek, O. B. Akan, “Communication Theoretical Analysis of P-Cresol Signaling in Gut-Brain Axis with Autism Spectrum Disorder,” in Proc. IEEE ICC 2023,
Rome, Italy, May 2023.
• M. Civas, A. Abdali, M. Kuscu, O. B. Akan, “Frequency-Domain Detection for Molecular Communications,” in Proc. IEEE ICC 2023, Rome, Italy, May 2023.
• M. Civas, O. Cetinkaya, M. Kuscu, O. B. Akan, "Universal Transceivers: Opportunities and Future Directions for the Internet of Everything (IoE)," Frontiers in
Communications and Networks,2021. 27/99
Project MI-FI: Micro/Nanoscale Transceivers for Wireless Molecular Information Communications
“As such, this project will overcome a major bottleneck resulting from the long-standing
discrepancy between theory and practice in MC, which has, so far, severely impeded
the innovation in this field linked with huge societal and economic impact.”
• M. Civas, M. Kuscu, O. Cetinkaya, B. E. Ortlek, O. B. Akan, "Graphene and Related Materials for the Internet of Bio-Nano Things," APL Materials, vol. 11,
no. 8, pp. 080901, August 2023.
• B. E. Ortlek, O. B. Akan, “Communication Theoretical Analysis of P-Cresol Signaling in Gut-Brain Axis with Autism Spectrum Disorder,” in Proc. IEEE ICC
2023, Rome, Italy, May 2023.
• M. Civas, A. Abdali, M. Kuscu, O. B. Akan, “Frequency-Domain Detection for Molecular Communications,” in Proc. IEEE ICC 2023, Rome, Italy, May 2023.
• M. Civas, O. Cetinkaya, M. Kuscu, O. B. Akan, "Universal Transceivers: Opportunities and Future Directions for the Internet of Everything (IoE)," Frontiers in
Communications and Networks,2021. 28/99
Odor Communications: State-of-the-Art, Vision, Challenges, and Frontier Directions
Inspired by natural and machine olfaction Engineering e2e Odor-based Molecular Communication (OMC) systems
Odor communication in Nature

End-to-end OMC System (a) Holistic View (b) System Components
Design and Modelling of OMC Techniques
• Aktas, D., Ortlek, B.E., Civas, M., Baradari, E., Okcu, A.S., Whitfield, M., Cetinkaya, O. and Akan, O.B., 2023. Odor-based molecular communications: State-of-the-
art, vision, challenges, and frontier directions. arXiv preprint arXiv:2311.17727.
• A. Powari, O. B. Akan, "Odor Intensity Shift Keying (OISK) and Channel Capacity of Odor-based Molecular Communications in Internet of Everything", 2023.
• O. B. Akan, E. Dinc, M. Kuscu, O. Cetinkaya, B. A. Bilgin, "Internet of Everything (IoE) - From Molecules to the Universe," to appear in IEEE Communications
Magazine,2023.
• Bilgen, Fatih E., Ahmet B. Kilic, and Ozgur B. Akan. "Odor perceptual shift keying (opsk) for odor-based molecular communication." arXiv preprint
arXiv:2402.11346 (2024). 29/99
Broader Vision on Odor Applications: IoE Enabled OMC Systems
Using connections from the Internet of Things (IoT),

Internet of Things Underwater (IoWT), and
Internet of Things Underground (IoGT) for
systems of climate and earthquake monitoring.
Incorporating OMC-TxRs into the Internet

of Agricultural Things (IoAT) for smart
agriculture and precision farming and linking
to the Internet of Space (IoSp), the
Internet of Vehicles (IoV), and the Internet
of Bio-Nano Things (IoBNT) to enable the
Internet of Agricultural Things (IoAT)
Internet of Everything (IoE) idea.
• Aktas, D., Ortlek, B.E., Civas, M., Baradari, E., Okcu, A.S., Whitfield, M., Cetinkaya, O. and Akan, O.B., 2023. Odor-based molecular communications: State-of-the-
art, vision, challenges, and frontier directions. arXiv preprint arXiv:2311.17727.
• A. Powari, O. B. Akan, "Odor Intensity Shift Keying (OISK) and Channel Capacity of Odor-based Molecular Communications in Internet of Everything", 2023.
• O. B. Akan, E. Dinc, M. Kuscu, O. Cetinkaya, B. A. Bilgin, "Internet of Everything (IoE) - From Molecules to the Universe," to appear in IEEE Communications
Magazine, 2023.
• Bilgen, Fatih E., Ahmet B. Kilic, and Ozgur B. Akan. "Odor perceptual shift keying (opsk) for odor-based molecular communication." arXiv preprint
arXiv:2402.11346 (2024). 30/99
Exploring the Integration of Bacterial Communication and Computing in MC Frameworks
• Bacteria is frequently used in various MC models, given their efficient communication and adaptability
• Focusing on bacterial mechanisms for:
• sensing, key for collective behaviours and decision-making
• communicating, both among themselves and their environment
• responding
with a particular emphasis on the importance of these traits in integrating bacteria into MC models
Comparative illustration of a bacterium and IoT device Utilizing bacteria as messengers between different nodes
• Koca, B. Y., & Akan, O. B. (2024). Bacterial Communications and Computing in Internet of Everything (IoE). arXiv preprint arXiv:2403.11911. 31/99
Exploring the Integration of Bacterial Communication and Computing in MC Frameworks
• Bacterial computing uses bacterial cells for information processing

• Rapid evolution and adaptability of bacteria allows for dynamic problem-solving capabilities
• Effective in conditions where traditional computing is impractical
• Bio-computing models
• Bacteria used to create logic gates, switches, and oscillators
• Focusing on the integration of bacterial computing with MC models
• Koca, B. Y., & Akan, O. B. (2024). Bacterial Communications and Computing in Internet of Everything (IoE). arXiv preprint arXiv:2403.11911. 32/99
IoBNT Applications
IoBNT is at the center of Internet of Everything!
33/99
IoBNT and Nanonetworks
Recognition and Related Venues
• Internet of Nano Things has been listed as one of the Top 10 Emerging Technologies of 2016 by World Economic Forum!
• "Internet of Nanothings could have a huge impact on the future of medicine, architecture, agriculture and drug manufacture."
• SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN: "The Internet of Things Goes Nano"

• "Internet of Nano Things (IoNT) that could take medicine, energy efficiency and many other sectors to a whole new dimension."
• https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/06/top-10-emerging-technologies-2016/
• https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-internet-of-things-goes-nano/ 34/99
IoBNT and Nanonetworks
Recognition and Related Venues
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Communication Technologies for the IoBNT
• Unique challenges of IoBNT

• Suitability for harsh operating environments (noisy and time-varying
media, including intra-body)
• Limited size
• Low complexity
• Self sufficiency/energy efficiency
• Biocompatibility
• Emerging nanocommunication methods

• Molecular nanocommunication
• THz-band EM, ultrasonic, wireless optical, magneto-inductive, heat
Need for novel nanoscale communication techniques!
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Molecular Communications (MC)
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Terahertz-band Electromagnetic Nanocommunications
▪ Size requirements of nanomachines -> very high radiation frequencies

▪ 2d nanomaterials as enabling technology
▪ Graphene-based nano-antennas based on surface plasmon polariton (SPP) waves
▪ Can support frequencies down to 0.1 THz (much lower than their metallic counterparts)
▪ THz-band (0.1-10 THz): Very limited comm. range

▪ Very high propagation losses (molecular absorption)
▪ Low transmission power of THz sources
SPP
Wave
EM
Wave
Design of graphene-based plasmonic nanoantenna

An integrated nanosensor device for THz-band EM
nanosensor networks
• Jornet, J. M., & Akyildiz, I. F. (2011). Channel modeling and capacity analysis for electromagnetic wireless nanonetworks in the
terahertz band. IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, 10(10), 3211-3221.
• J. M. Jornet and I. F. Akyildiz, “Graphene-based Plasmonic Nano-antennas for Terahertz Band Communication in Nanonetworks,”
IEEE Journal of Selected Areas in Telecommunications, 2013.
• I. F. Akyildiz, J. M. Jornet, Graphene-based Plasmonic Nano-transceiver for Wireless Communication in the THz Band, Patent
Application, April 2013. 38/99
Ultrasonic Nanocommunications
▪ Acoustic waves propagate better than their RF counterpart in water-based media

▪ Human body composed for 65% of water
▪ Frequency band 10 MHz - 300 MHz: Best tradeoff between efficient acoustic
generation and attenuation for communication over distances of about 100 microns
▪ Acoustic pressure fields are unlikely to damage nearby tissue
▪ Short bursts at considerably higher power could even be of therapeutic use
▪ Research needed at the physical, medium access and network layers
• Hogg, T., & Freitas Jr, R. A. (2012). Acoustic communication for medical nanorobots. Nano Communication Networks, 3(2), 83-102.
• Galluccio, L., Melodia, T., Palazzo, S., & Santagati, G. E. (2012, January). Challenges and implications of using ultrasonic
communications in intra-body area networks. In 2012 9th Annual Conference on Wireless On-Demand Network Systems and
Services (WONS) (pp. 182-189). IEEE. 39/99
Magneto-inductive Nanocommunications
▪ Wireless comm. at the nanoscale

using EM waves have disadvantages:
▪ High absorption losses due to
molecular absorption
▪ Frequency-selective channel
characteristics (signal reflection
and scattering from objects)
▪ Magneto-Inductive nanocommunications offer a solution:

▪ Information transmission and reception using planar nanocoils
▪ Current variation in transmitter nanocoil induces current in receiver nanocoil
▪ Advantages of magneto-inductive nanocommunications:
▪ Low absorption losses
▪ Promising for intrabody applications (low attenuation in blood/fluidic tissue)
• D. Kilinc, O. B. Akan, Nanoscale Magneto-Inductive Communication, Asilomar Conference’13, Nov. 2013. 40/99
Heat Nanocommunications
▪ Information is encoded into temperature signals exploiting Magneto-Caloric Effect (MCE)

▪ MCE: Modulation of temperature in magnetic materials with a varying magnetic field
▪ Propagation through thermal diffusion
▪ CNT nanosolenoids at the transmitter
▪ Thermal sensor at the receiver
• D. Kilinc, O. B. Akan, A Theoretical Modeling and Analysis of Communication via Heat Flow at Nanoscale, IEEE Transactions on
Communications, October 2014. 41/99
Challenges and Future Research in IoBNT | Biocompatibility and Co-existence
• Biocompatibility → the capability of coexistence with living tissues or

organisms without causing damage
• Biocompatibility constraints for IoBNT:
1. All communication methods and devices should not disrupt the
homeostasis of the organism it is implemented in
2. Implanted IoBNT application should be able to operate without its
performance being degraded by the co-existing biochemical processes
• Biocompatibility concerns
• materials used in the physical architecture of BNTs, and the networking
• energy harvesting
• power transfer
• interfacing processes of the IoBNT
• Kuscu, M., & Unluturk, B. D. (2021). Internet of bio-nano things: A review of applications, enabling technologies and key
challenges. arXiv preprint arXiv:2112.09249. 42/99
Challenges and Future Research in IoBNT | Energy Harvesting
Hybrid Energy Harvesting Methods

• Using only one harvesting mechanism not always
• be enough for the continuous operation
• randomness of the ambient energy sources
• hybridization of harvesters/resources
Wireless Power Transfer

• Using external sources delivering power to the IoE TxRx remotely
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Challenges and Future Research in IoBNT | Privacy & Security
• Confidentiality → Most important issue in network security.

Confidentiality aims to ensure context of the message exchanged
between sender and receiver should not be accessible to an
unauthorized entity
• Encryption techniques can be used to add confidentiality to the communication
• Integrity → It aims to ensure that the received information is complete

and correct i.e., without being modified by an external entity.
• MAC (Message Authentication Code) hash functions can be used to ensure integrity
• Availability → This aims to assure that information is always available

however, the attacker should not be able to disrupt communication at any
time.
• Setting redundancy to the network can be used to assure availability
• Authenticity → This aims to ensures that the source of message

transmission is reliable & stops the attacker from sending fake messages
• https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/wtf-internet-bio-nano-thingsiobnt-how-secure-hacker-noon-sidra-zafar 44/99
Challenges and Future Research in IoBNT
Design and implementation of practical micro/nanoscale MC transceivers

• Energy-efficient, precise, sensitive, and robust in dynamic & complex biochemical environments
• Seamless integration with diverse nanomachines
• Can benefit from nanomaterials, biosensing, and microfluidic drug delivery technologies!
Micro/nanoscale experimental validation and test platforms
• Replicating dynamic application environments, also integrating biological systems
• Equipped with micro/nanoscale MC transceiver architectures
• Can benefit from microfluidics, and lab- and organ-on-chip technologies!
Experimentally validated channel models
• End-to-end modelling accounting also for practical constraints of MC transceiver architectures
• Accompanied by computationally light-weight simulation frameworks
• Particle-based and finite-element methods improved from MC perspective
Simple yet robust modulation, detection, channel estimation, sync, routing, and multi-access methods
• Validated and refined in experimental platforms
Strategies to maintain adaptivity & co-existence/biocompatibility
• At both single-node and network scale
• Nature is full of inspirations!
Bio-cyber interfaces
• Seamlessly connecting MC networks to EM networks (micro/nano to macro)
• Universal transceivers for interoperability, aiding integration to 6G and beyond
• Can benefit from wearable technologies!
Practical applications of IoBNT
• Not only in healthcare domain, also in agriculture, food industry, security, AR/VR!
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• Information encoded into the distinctive features of

molecules (concentration, type etc.)
• Natural phenomenon: (e.g., synaptic communication,
Ca2+ signaling, quorum sensing): biocompatible
Discrete entities instead of EM waves

• New noise types: diffusion noise, ligand-receptor noise
• High level of nonlinearity and substantial channel memory
• Physiological conditions: Crowded with interferers, disruptive flows, time-varying properties
• Akyildiz, I. F., Pierobon, M., & Balasubramaniam, S. (2019). Moving forward with molecular communication: From theory to human health
applications [point of view]. Proceedings of the IEEE, 107(5), 858-865.
• Akan, O. B., Ramezani, H., Khan, T., Abbasi, N. A., & Kuscu, M. (2016). Fundamentals of molecular information and communication
science. Proceedings of the IEEE, 105(2), 306-318. 46/99
MC-based Natural IoBNT
Nervous Nanonetwork
• The communication by means of molecules, known as neurotransmitters, as well as through

electrical signaling
• A simple neuronal circuit: pre-synaptic neuron, post-synaptic neuron and the synaptic gap
• Neurotransmitter release from pre-synaptic neuron due to electrical impulses
• Diffusion through the synaptic gap and reception by the post-synaptic neuron
• Propagation through the axon in the form of electrical impulses
47/99
Cardiovascular Nanonetwork
• In the heart, the communication between cardiomyocytes is achieved by diffusion of ions through Gap
Junction (GJ) channels
• Ion diffusion enables Action Potential (AP) propagation
• The AP propagation is used for information transmission showing whether cardiomyocytes contract or relax
• Two hemichannels belonging to adjacent cells interact to form a complete GJ channel

• A GJ channel have two voltage-sensitive gates in series controlling the permeability
• Each gate has two states:
• Open state with a high conductance
• Closed state with a low conductance
• At any instant a GJ channel can be in any one of four states:

• HH state: both gates are open
• HL state: one gate is open and the other gate is closed
• LH state: one gate is open and the other gate is closed
• LL state: both gates are closed
• The conductance of each GJ channel is a random variable
• D. Kilinc, O. B. Akan, An Information Theoretical Analysis of Nanoscale Molecular Gap Junction Communication Channel Between
Cardiomyocytes, IEEE Transactions on Nanotechnology, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 129-136, March 2013. 48/99
Cardiovascular Nanonetwork
Physiological property of Channel

Incidence of cardiac diseases
cardiomyocyte capacity
Number of gap junction Ventricular arrhythmia

channels Ventricular tachycardia
Correlation
Length Ischemic cardiomyopathy
between
Radius Hypertension decrease in the
channel capacity
Resistivity of cell membrane Cardiac arrhythmia and increased
incidence of
Delayed afterdepolarization cardiac diseases
Free Ca2+ concentration
Early afterdepolarization
Investigation, diagnosis, and treatment of cardiac diseases

Utilization of engineering in medicine
• D. Kilinc, O. B. Akan, An Information Theoretical Analysis of Nanoscale Molecular Gap Junction Communication Channel Between Cardiomyocytes, IEEE Transactions on
Nanotechnology, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 129-136, March 2013. 49/99
Hormonal Nanonetwork
• Set of glands secreting different hormones via the circulatory system

• Successful delivery rate of hormones within the human body network depends on
• at what concentration they are transmitted (secreted) to the blood (affected by the
nervous nanonetwork)
• at what concentration they are being circulated within the bloodstream (controlled by
cardiovascular nanonetwork)
• the rate of removal of the hormone from blood plasma, i.e., metabolic clearance rate
50/99
Gut Brain Axis
Microbiome-gut-brain-axis IoBNT communication network infrastructure
• The gut-brain axis – complex network of bidirectional signalling

pathways connecting gut microbiota and the brain
• MC system model for p-cresol signalling in ASD
• Demonstration of the input-output relationship between elevated
p-cresol molecules and ASD-like behaviours by using comm. tools
• Revealing the effects of physical properties of the channel on
system response via numerical analysis
• B. E. Ortlek, O. B. Akan, "Communication Theoretical Analysis of P-Cresol Signaling in Gut-Brain Axis with Autism Spectrum
Disorder," in Proc. IEEE ICC 2023, Rome, Italy, May 2023.
• Ambrosini, Y. M. et al. (2019). The gut-brain-axis in neurodegenerative diseases and relevance of the canine model: a
review. Frontiers in aging neuroscience, 11, 130.
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Artificial MC
Diffusion-based Molecular Communications
Transmission Reception
Chemical
receptor
Propagation through
molecule diffusion
Attenuation and Delay as functions of

[Information encoded in the concentration (or type) of molecules]
frequency & distance
• Exchange of information encoded in the concentration variations of molecules

• Transmitter/receiver models based on RC-circuit analogy
• Propagation modeling with particle diffusion process (Fick’s law)
• Modulated concentration
• M. Pierobon, I. F. Akyildiz, A Physical Channel Model for Molecular Communication in Nanonetworks, IEEE J. Selected Areas
Comm. (JSAC), vol. 28, pp. 602-611, 2010. 52/99
Artificial MC
Microfluidic MC
2-d, deterministic,
time-varying, nonlinear
convection-diffusion-reaction model
Microfluidic MC system Finite-element simulation in COMSOL
• Microfluidic MC: Convection-diffusion-reaction system

• Faster than diffusion-based MC
• Lower ISI: molecules removed from channel through flow
• Representative of propagation in blood vessels
• Important for lab-on-chip and organ-on-chip applications of MC
• Highly nonlinear: Usually requires numerical methods to analyze
53/99
Artificial MC
FRET-based Molecular Communications
FRET between a single pair of donor and acceptor Spectral overlap of donor and acceptor
Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET)
• Non-radiative, short-range (0-10nm) transfer of excited states (excitons) between fluorophores

• Observed among fluorescent proteins, organic dyes, quantum dots (QDs)
• Based on long-range dipole-dipole interaction
between a Donor (D) in excited state and Acceptor (A) in ground state
• Widely used as a bio-imaging tool and spectral ruler
FRET-based Nanocommunications
• Encoding information into excitation states of fluorophores: Excitons as information carriers

• Excited donor as the transmitter, ground-state acceptor as the receiver
• Wireless and very fast information transfer between fluorophores
• Kuscu, M., & Akan, O. B. (2011). A physical channel model and analysis for nanoscale molecular communications with Förster
resonance energy transfer (FRET). IEEE Transactions on nanotechnology, 11(1), 200-207. 54/99
Artificial MC
FRET-based Molecular Communications
FRET-Based Broadcast Electrical & Chemical Information Routing in

Communications FRET-Based Nanonetworks
• 4.5 Mbps with 10 RN through 80 nm
Multi-Step FRET-Based Nanocommunicatons
• 30 Mbps through 80 nm • 80 Mbps through 70 nm
• M. Kuscu, O. B. Akan, FRET-Based Nanoscale Point-to-Point and Broadcast Communications with Multi-Exciton Transmission and Channel
Routing, IEEE Transactions on Nanobioscience, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 315-326, September 2014.
• M. Kuscu, D. Malak, O. B. Akan, An Information Theoretical Analysis of Broadcast Networks and Channel Routing for FRET-Based Nanoscale
Communications, in Proc. IEEE MoNaCom 2012 (in conjunction with IEEE ICC 2012), Ottawa, Canada, June 2012. .
• M. Kuscu, O. B. Akan, Multi-Step FRET-Based Long-Range Nanoscale Comm. Channel, to appear, IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in
Communications (JSAC), 2013 55/99
Artificial MC
FRET-based Molecular Communications | Experiment
• MIMO channel with 3 mM Fluorescein (Donor) &

3 mM Rhodamine B (Acceptor) dye in ethanol
• 219 bits-length pseudorandom binary sequence
is transferred
• Transmission rates: 50 – 150 – 250 kbps
Experimental setup for MIMO FRET:
• M. Kuscu, A. Kiraz, O. B. Akan, Fluorescent Molecules as Transceiver Nanoantennas: The First Practical and High-Rate Information
Transfer over a Nanoscale Communication Channel based on FRET, Nature Scientific Reports, vol. 5, pp. 7831, January 2015. 56/99
Artificial MC
FRET-based Molecular Communications | Experiment
Audio transmission through MIMO FRET channel at 176.4 kbps:

• 5M bits are transmitted, 863 bits are erroneously demodulated
• First practical realization of wireless high-rate data transfer with FRET
• First Molecular Radio!
• ["Bob Dylan/House of the rising sun", transferred at 176.4kbps]
Spikes at the received fluorescence

due to channel noise
Eye diagrams for MIMO
FRET channel
57/99
Artificial MC
DNA-based Molecular Communications
• The DNA molecule is a double-helix staircase of billions of molecular blocks

• Data storage with DNA
• In the life sciences, DNA sequencing alone generates millions of gigabytes of data per year.
Researchers predict that within a decade we will be swamped with 40 billion GB of genomic
data. All of that data will have to be stored for decades due to government regulations in the
United States, Europe, and elsewhere
• Currently not viable and main challenges needs to be tackled

• Random access and efficient reading mechanisms
• Cost of writing
• Coding schemes that guard against both synthesis and sequencing errors
58/99
Artificial MC
Human-body as MC Network Infrastructure
Molecular Communication with Ca2+ Signaling
Gap Junctions: Gates that allow different molecules and ions to pass freely between cells (membranes)
Direct Access – Ca2+signal travel through gates Indirect Access – TX nanomachine release information molecules to the
medium. Generate a Ca2+ at the RX nanomachine
• I. F. Akyildiz, F. Brunetti, C. Blazquez, Nanonetworks: A New Communication Paradigm, Computer Networks (Elsevier), vol. 52, pp.
2260-2279, 2008. 59/99
Artificial MC
Human-body as MC Network Infrastructure
• I. F. Akyildiz, F. Brunetti, C. Blazquez, Nanonetworks: A New Communication Paradigm, Computer Networks (Elsevier), vol. 52, pp.
2260-2279, 2008. 60/99
Artificial MC
Bacteria-mediated Molecular Communication
• Bacteria as a carrier of molecular information between transmitter and receiver

• Information encoded into DNA (huge amount of data)
• Propagation mechanism: Bacteria chemotaxis
• Conversion of chemical energy into motion
• Follows chemical attractants (nutrients like sugars, amino acids)
• Self-production ability → redundancy of the message → reduction of packet loss probability
• Errors due to mutations
Bacterial Molecular Computing
• Martins, D. P. et al. (2022). Microfluidic-based Bacterial Molecular Computing on a Chip. IEEE Sensors
Journal, 22(17), 16772-16784.
• Martins, D. P. et al.. (2019). Quality and capacity analysis of molecular communications in bacterial synthetic logic
circuits. IEEE transactions on nanobioscience, 18(4), 628-639. 61/99
Artificial MC
Bacteria-mediated Molecular Communication
Internal components of the nanomachines for the bacterial nanonetworks: a) sensor

nanomachine; b) relay nanomachine; c) gateway
• The bacteria have the ability to swim and migrate between locations, carry DNA contents (i.e.
plasmids) that could be used for information storage, interact and transfer plasmids to other bacteria
• plasmids have pre-encoded information
• The sensor nanomachine will be used to sense harmful conditions within the human body
• S. Balasubramaniam, N. Lyamin, D. Kleyko, M. Skurnik, A. Vinel and Y. Koucheryavy, "Exploiting bacterial properties for multi-hop
nanonetworks," in IEEE Communications Magazine, vol. 52, no. 7, pp. 184-191, July 2014, doi: 10.1109/MCOM.2014.6852101. 62/99
Artificial MC
Yeast-mediated Molecular Communication
• Development of the first testbed

incorporating engineered yeast cells for
• Use of eukaryotic yeast cells as both the
sender and receiver, with α-factor
molecules facilitating information transfer
• Biological mechanism of yeast
mating, together with their genetic
Fundamental point-to-point yeast communication system
amenability
• N. Ntetsikas et al., "Engineering Yeast Cells to Facilitate Information Exchange," in IEEE Transactions on Molecular, Biological and
Multi-Scale Communications, doi: 10.1109/TMBMC.2024.3360051. 63/99
Artificial MC
Mobile MC Nanonetworks
Mobile bionanomachine model
Molecular Motor-based Nanoscale Communications
• Molecular Motors – protein or a protein complex that

transforms chemical energy into mechanical work at a
molecular scale
• Travel or move along molecular rails called microtubules
while carrying vesicles
• Information can be encapsulated in vesicles
• Protect information molecules from environmental noise
Movement created by molecular motors can be used
to transport information-carrying vesicles!
• T. Nakano, Y. Okaie, S. Kobayashi, T. Hara, Y. Hiraoka and T. Haraguchi, "Methods and Applications of Mobile Molecular
Communication," in Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 107, no. 7, pp. 1442-1456, July 2019, doi: 10.1109/JPROC.2019.2917625. 64/99
Artificial MC
Mobile Ad Hoc Molecular Nanonetworks (MAMNET)

• Inspired by immune system
• Composed of two kind of nodes: (i) Nanomachines (NM), (ii) Infostations (IS)
• Three independent phases : collision, adhesion, and transmission phases
Collision phase Transmission phase
Adhesion phase
• Message delivery rate derived from independent rates Rc, Ra, Rt
• A. Guney, B. Atakan, O. B. Akan, Mobile Ad Hoc Nanonetworks with Collision-based Molecular Communication, IEEE Transactions
on Mobile Computing, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 353-266, March 2012. 65/99
Artificial MC
• Network of single-fluorophore-based mobile molecular machines communicating through FRET

• Assuming that the nanomachines are rapidly diffusing
• Two network scenarios:
• FRET-based mobile molecular sensor/actor nanonetwork (FRET-MSAN)
• FRET-based mobile ad hoc molecular nanonetwork (FRET-MAMNET)
FRET-MSAN FRET-MAMNET
• A. Guney, B. Atakan, O. B. Akan, Mobile Ad Hoc Nanonetworks with Collision-based Molecular Communication, IEEE Transactions
on Mobile Computing, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 353-266, March 2012. 66/99
Communication Methods for MC
Channel
• MC channel is typically a fluidic channel (aqueous or gaseous)

Information
molecules
• If there is no other force field, molecules propagate in the channel via DIFFUSION
• Diffusion: asymptotic representation of random movements of molecules due to thermal
vibrations and collisions with smaller molecules in the channel
𝜕𝑐 𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
= ∇ ⋅ 𝐷 ∇𝑐 + 𝑅 Source/sink
∇= + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑡
• In case of force fields (hydrodynamic, electrical), propagation is governed by
DIRECTIONAL DRIFT + DIFFUSION
𝜕𝑐
= ∇ ⋅ 𝐷 ∇𝑐 − 𝛁 ⋅ 𝒗𝒄 + 𝑅
𝜕𝑡
Drift
• Kuscu, M. et al. (2019). Transmitter and receiver architectures for molecular communications: A survey on physical design with
modulation, coding, and detection techniques. Proceedings of the IEEE, 107(7), 1302-1341. 67/99
Channel
MC channel can be UNBOUNDED or BOUNDED
UNBOUNDED
e.g., 3D unbounded (free) diffusion channel:

−
3 𝑥2
𝑐 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑁 4𝜋𝐷𝑡 2 exp −
4𝐷𝑡
BOUNDED
e.g., 2D microfluidic channel:
𝜕𝑐 𝜕𝑐
= 𝐷 ∇2 𝑐 − 𝑢𝑥 𝑦
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
Information Molecules
Ca2+ ion Proteins Magnetic nanoparticles Nucleic acids Isomers
• Information Molecules (IMs):

• Nucleic acids (DNA, RNA): high data storage,
• Elemental ions (Na+, K+, Ca2+): Widespread in natural cell signaling networks, fast diffusion
• Neurotransmitters (Glutamate, GABA, aspartate): Natural pathway to interface with nervous
system (largest system in human body)
• Proteins: Widespread use in regulation of nearly all vital processes
• Isomers: Diversity in molecule arrangement, suitable for type-based & ratio-based modulation
• Nanoparticles: External magnetic control
• Each molecule type implies

• Different transmitter/receiver architectures
• Different modulation/detection techniques
• Different data transmission rates
• Different biocompatibility and co-existence challenges
MC Modulation Techniques & Schemes
Main challenges:
• Discrete carriers (molecules), carrier-wave modulation is not feasible
• Channel memory and ISI
• Low data rate problem
• Co-existence and biocompatibility issues
• Device constraints
• Low-complexity and molecule-efficient
Encoding Mechanism ISI Reduction

On-off keying (OOK) Concentration No
Concentration shift keying (CSK) Concentration No
Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) Concentration No
Molecule shift keying (MoSK) Molecule Type Moderate
Depleted MoSK (D-MoSK) Molecule Type No
Isomer-based ratio shift keying (IRSK) Molecule Ratio Moderate
Release time shift keying (RTSK) Release Time No
Molecular array-based communication (MARCO) Molecule Order High
Modulation Schemes | Basic Modulation Schemes
• Low-complexity modulation
• Most widely studied in literature
• Typically low data transmission rates
modulation, coding, and detection techniques. Proceedings of the IEEE, 107(7), 1302-1341.
• Kuran, M. S., Yilmaz, H. B., Tugcu, T., & Akyildiz, I. F. (2011, June). Modulation techniques for communication via diffusion in
nanonetworks. IEEE ICC 2011.
• Kabir, M. H., Islam, S. R., & Kwak, K. S. (2015). D-MoSK modulation in molecular communications. IEEE Transactions on
Nanobioscience, 14(6), 680-683 71/99
Modulation Schemes | Timing Modulation
• Information encoded into the time of release of molecules within a transmission window
• Additive noise at the molecule arrival times at receiver due to random propagation
• Similar methods exist in biological systems, e.g., synaptic communication
• Synchronization is crucial!
• Farsad, N. et al. (2018). Capacity limits of diffusion-based molecular timing channels with finite particle lifetime. IEEE Transactions
on Molecular, Biological and Multi-Scale Communications, 4(2), 88-106. 72/99
Modulation Schemes | Molecular Array-based Modulation (MARCO)
a-b → logic 0
b-a → logic 1
Order of different molecules to encode Successful transmission of

information Triplet 000 → a-b,a-b,a-b
te : Inter-emission time, T : Inter-symbol time

ta : Random delay of molecule a, tb : Random delay of molecule b
MARCO eliminates the need for synchronization among nanomachines
• Atakan, B., Galmes, S., & Akan, O. B. (2012). Nanoscale communication with molecular arrays in nanonetworks. IEEE Transactions
on NanoBioscience, 11(2), 149-160. 73/99
Modulation Schemes | DNA Length Modulation
• Information encoded into the length of DNA base sequences

• Alternative to encoding information into DNA sequences (which theoretically provides
extremely high data transmission rate but very complex for nanomachines)
• Detection performed using nanopores
• Very large cardinality
• Bilgin, B. A., Dinc, E., & Akan, O. B. (2018). DNA-based molecular communications. IEEE Access, 6, 73119-73129. 74/99
Modulation Schemes | Weight-Shift-Keying Modulation
• Information is encoded into the molecular weight of molecules Electromechanical

MC receiver
• Very robust against intersymbol interference (ISI)
• Higher capacity
• Increased operating range
• Mechanical transduction-based MC receiver that can distinguish different weights

• Flexure-FET-based MC receiver
• D. Aktas, O. B. Akan, “Weight Shift Keying (WSK) with Practical Mechanical Receivers for Molecular Communications in Internet of
Everything”, IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, 2022.
• D. Aktas, O. B. Akan, "A Mechanical Transduction-Based Molecular Communication Receiver for Internet of Nano Things (IoNT)",
Proceedings of the Eight Annual ACM International Conference on Nanoscale Computing and Communication, 2021. 75/99
Modulation Schemes | Isomer-based Modulation
D-form isomers of aldohexoes
• Isomers: Same chemical formula, different arrangements

• Isomer-based modulation: A form of MoSK
• More molecule-efficient and higher data transmission rates
• Ratio-shift keying can be applied
• Kim, Na-Rae, and Chan-Byoung Chae. "Novel modulation techniques using isomers as messenger molecules for nano
communication networks via diffusion." IEEE JSAC 31.12 (2013): 847-856.
76/99
Modulation Schemes | Olfaction-Inspired MC: Molecule Mixture Shift Keying
• Mimics complexity of animal olfaction

• Information encoded in molecular mixtures
Cross-Reactive Receptor Arrays:
• Bio-inspired receivers detect diverse
molecular signals
• Simulates the high specificity of
biological olfaction
Illustration of the signal flow in the mammalian olfactory system
• Increased efficiency and capacity

• Bio-inspired robustness
• Expands the effective range of molecular
communication
• Facilitates multi-user communication without
increasing molecular noise
Proposed multi-user MC system consisting of several Txs that
employ MMSK modulation to convey their messages to an Rx
equipped with a cross-reactive receptor array.
• V. Jamali, H. M. Loos, A. Buettner, R. Schober and H. Vincent Poor, "Olfaction-Inspired MCs: Molecule Mixture Shift Keying and Cross-Reactive
Receptor Arrays," in IEEE Transactions on Communications, vol. 71, no. 4, pp. 1894-1911 77/99
Modulation Schemes | Odor Intensity Shift Keying (OISK)
• Odor Intensity Shift Keying (OISK) → novel modulation scheme for odor-based MC
• Utilize the intensity level of an odor to convey information
• Different intensity levels of an odor are selected to represent different symbol bits
• Maximum achievable information transmission rate
• A. Powari, O. B. Akan, "Odor Intensity Shift Keying (OISK) and Channel Capacity of Odor-based Molecular Communications in
Internet of Everything", 2023 78/99
Modulation Schemes | Absorption Shift Keying (AbSK)
• A novel modulation scheme to harvest unused

molecules, boosting system performance
• third switch-controllable molecule
harvesting node in addition to both
transmitter and receiver in a conventional
point-to-point MC scenario
• Coexistence strategy for both active and
passive MC links A DMC system with a transmitter, harvesting node, and
absorbing node in a 3-D unbound environment.
• the active link Tx → Rx1 transmits signals
modulated by PPM
• the passive link Rx2 → Rx1 conveys
AbSK exhibits three key advantages:
additional bits mapped to the working i) mitigating the interference,
state of the harvesting node ii) enhancing the data rate, and
iii) harvesting molecules for future
transmissions
• M. Wen, F. Liang, W. Ye and X. Chen, "Absorption Shift Keying for Molecular Communication via Diffusion," in IEEE
Transactions on Molecular, Biological and Multi-Scale Communications, doi: 10.1109/TMBMC.2024.3364019. 79/99
Coding
• Encoding of information before transmission:

• Statistically efficient representation of data → Source Coding
• Channel noise causes control errors → Channel Coding
• MC channels are diffusive with slow and omnidirectional propagation, resulting in
• Extremely noisy and susceptible to intersymbol interference (ISI) on the MC channel.
• High computation required at each TxRx end requires energy efficiency of the used channel codes.
• Instead of high complexity codes with significant computational overhead, like the Turbo codes,
simpler block codes with lower complexity, such basic parity codes or cyclic codes, like the
Hamming codes can be preferred
MC Channel Codes
Coding
• The ISI-free code is a fixed code,

which is invariant with respect to
the change in channel parameters
• Two-state encoder architecture is

used in the (4,2,1) code which is
based on finding a codebook with
codewords, whose level-1
permutation sets are disjoint
• The receiver adds the number of

1s modulo n = 4 and converts the
result to binary to decode the (a) Used level-1 permutations of codewords for two
information bits from the codeword states, such as those beginning with 0 or 1.
received. Diagram of state transition in (b). (c) An example of
ISI-free (4,2,1) encoding. The same bits can be
• Simple and efficient for MC!
seen separating adjacent words.
• P.-J. Shih, C.-H. Lee, and P.-C. Yeh, “Channel codes for mitigating intersymbol interference in diffusion-based molecular
communications,” in Proc. IEEE Global Commun. Conf. (GLOBECOM), Dec. 2012, pp. 4228–4232.
81/99
Synchronization
Challenges with Synchronization in MC:

• The majority of detecting methods assume
perfect synchronisation.
• However; for the suggested remedies to
work properly, it is crucial.
• There are clock synchronisation methods based
on ML estimates of the channel delay, blind
synchronisation, and quorum sensing-based
synchronisation.
• However; too complex or unreliable!
• There is need for asynchronous detection Quorum sensing for low and high cell
techniques! densities to globally synchronise the
• Some promising solutions exist, such as operations of nanomachines in a
peak detection and threshold-based nanonetwork.
detection.
• However, because they make fewer
assumptions about the receiver and
channel qualities, they might not hold in
practical implementations.
• S. Abadal and I. F. Akyildiz, "Bio-Inspired Synchronization for Nanocommunication Networks," 2011 IEEE Global
Telecommunications Conference - GLOBECOM 2011, Houston, TX, USA, 2011, pp. 1-5, doi: 10.1109/GLOCOM.2011.6133931.
• H. ShahMohammadian, G. G. Messier, and S. Magierowski, “Blind synchronization in diffusion-based molecular communication
channels,” IEEE Commun. Lett., vol. 17, no. 11, pp. 2156–2159, Nov. 2013.
• L. Lin, C. Yang, M. Ma, S. Ma, and H. Yan, “A clock synchronization method for molecular nanomachines in bionanosensor
networks,” IEEE Sensors J., vol. 16, no. 19, pp. 7194–7203, Oct. 2016. 82/99
Detection
MC detection challenges: Passive Receiver

• Simplest model
• Channel memory – Intersymbol
• Most widely used in MC literature
Interference (ISI)
• Ignores any interaction
• Channel nonlinearity and time- • Little physical correspondence (optical/magnetic
variance of channel receivers)
• Molecular interference and noise

Absorbing Receiver
• Environmental fluctuations
• Slightly more complex model
• Moderately used in MC literature
• Little physical correspondence (alcohol/pH sensors)
Reactive Receiver
• Most complex model
(nonlinearity + time-varying statistics)
• Selective against target ligands
• Just started to be used in MC literature
• High physical correspondence (utilized by most living cell
types + employed in biosensors)
MC Detection
83/99
Detection
A General Look
84/99
Detection
• Symbol-by-symbol detection
• very low-rate communication scenarios 🡪 where the ISI
can be neglected
• Sequence detection and ISI mitigation
• Optimal sequence detection methods based on
• maximum a posteriori (MAP)
• maximum likelihood (ML) criteria
• Noncoherent detection
• threshold-based detection by comparing the number of
absorbed molecules in the current interval to that of the
previous symbol interval.
• Asynchronous detection
• measuring the largest observation within a sampling interval
• adaptive and equipped with decision feedback to remove the ISI contribution
• Detection for mobile MC
• concentration-based adaptive threshold-detection
• peak-time-based adaptive detection
• Other detection techniques
• an optimal ML sequence detector employing Viterbi algorithm
• optimal ML detector
• detection based on the last arrival time
85/99
Detection
Detection based on instantaneous receptor states

• sampling the instantaneous number of bound receptors at a predetermined time and
comparing it to a threshold.
Detection based on a continuous history of receptor states
• using the continuous history of binding & unbinding events occurring at receptors
• using the independent samples of time intervals that receptors stay bound & unbound
Detection for biosensor-based MC receivers
• the concentration of bound charge-carrying ligands is converted into electrical signals
86/99
Detection
Passive Receiver Absorbing Receiver
• # of molecules in the reception space: • Pdf for a molecule (emitted at t=0) to be absorbed at t:
• Time-varying mean: • Cumulative distribution function:
• Prob. a molecule is absorbed in kth signaling interval:

• Channel response (prob. a molecule in rec. space):
• Total number of molecules absorbed in ith interval:
• Effective distance:
87/99
Detection | Symbol-by-Symbol Detection
Receiver design for symbol-by-symbol detection1 One-shot detector for MC1
• Low-complexity detection
• ISI is usually neglected, asymptotically included with a stationary mean and variance, or
approximated with a weighted sum of ISI contributions of a few previously decoded symbols
• Perform well only for very low-rate communication scenarios
• One-shot detectors and matched filters (in the form of weighted sum detector) proposed
• Meng, L. S. et al. (2014). On receiver design for diffusion-based molecular communication. IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing, 62(22),
6032-6044.
• Noel, A. et al. (2014). A unifying model for external noise sources and ISI in diffusive molecular communication. IEEE JSAC, 32(12), 2330-2343.
• Noel, A. et al.(2014). Optimal receiver design for diffusive molecular communication with flow and additive noise. IEEE Transactions on
Nanobioscience, 13(3), 350-362.
• Jamali, V., Ahmadzadeh, A., & Schober, R. (2017). On the design of matched filters for molecule counting receivers. IEEE Communications
Letters, 21(8), 1711-1714 88/99
Detection | Symbol-by-Symbol Detection – Adaptive Threshold
Structure of an adaptive threshold detector for MC with one-symbol feedback
• ISI estimation based on previously decoded symbols stored in receiver memory

• Adaptive update of the decision threshold for each symbol interval
• Different schemes varying in receiver memory length and update algorithm proposed
• Damrath, M., & Hoeher, P. A. (2016). Low-complexity adaptive threshold detection for molecular communication. IEEE Transactions on
• He, P. et al. (2016). Improving reliability performance of diffusion‐based molecular communication with adaptive threshold variation
algorithm. International Journal of Communication Systems, 29(18), 2669-2680.
• Shahbazi, A., & Jamshidi, A. (2018). Adaptive weighted signal detection for nanoscale molecular communications. In International Zurich Seminar
on Information and Communication (IZS 2018). Proceedings (pp. 149-152). ETH Zurich 89/99
Detection | Sequence Detection
Discrete-time equivalent model of MC channel Trellis diagram (memory length I = 2) for Viterbi decoding
MMSE equalizer for MC Decision-feedback equalizer for MC
• More complex schemes to deal with ISI

• Viterbi algorithm to reduce complexity, still complexity growing exponentially with channel memory length
• For lower complexity, suboptimal linear equalizer based on minimum mean-square error (MMSE) criterion
• Suboptimal nonlinear equalizers (e.g., decision feedback equalizer) to improve performance
• Kilinc, D., & Akan, O. B. (2013). Receiver design for molecular communication. IEEE JSAC, 31(12), 705-714.
• Meng, L. S. et al. (2014). On receiver design for diffusion-based molecular communication. IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing,
62(22), 6032-6044.
• Noel, A. et al.(2014). Optimal receiver design for diffusive molecular communication with flow and additive noise. IEEE Transactions
on Nanobioscience, 13(3), 350-362. 90/99
Detection | Noncoherent Detection
MC channel response and example received signal BER performance of noncoherent scheme
compared to coherent ones
• MC channel is highly time-varying

• Instantaneous CSI (e.g., CIR) is difficult to obtain or computationally expensive
• Need for low-complexity noncoherent detection schemes
• A simple scheme: compare the number of absorbed molecules between two consecutive symbol intervals:
• Damrath, M., & Hoeher, P. A. (2016). Low-complexity adaptive threshold detection for molecular communication. IEEE Transactions on
• Li, B. et al. (2015). Low-complexity noncoherent signal detection for nanoscale molecular communications. IEEE Transactions on
Nanobioscience, 15(1), 3-10. 91/99
Detection | Noncoherent Detection
Geometrical noncoherent metrics: Top: Obtained noncoherent metrics and adaptive

(a) Local convexity metric (b) Transient metric threshold, Bottom: Received signal and decision result
• New noncoherent metrics based on the geometrical characteristics of the received signals
• Local geometry shape: local convexity around signal peak (ck,1)
• Transient shape among symbols (ck,2)
• Differential metric based on energy difference (ck,3)
• Compound noncoherent metric:
• Decision rule:
• Li, B. et al. (2020). CSI-Independent Non-Linear Signal Detection in Molecular Communications. IEEE Transactions on Signal
Processing, 68, 97-112. 92/99
Detection | Asynchronous Detection
Average probability of error
• Slow nature of MC channel -> synchronization hard to achieve

• One solution: Asynchronous detection schemes
• Simple asynchronous detector: • Asynchronous detector with decision feedback:

Compare max observation with a constant threshold Adaptive threshold update based on ISI estimate
• Prone to error when offset is large
• Noel, A., & Eckford, A. W. (2017, May). Asynchronous peak detection for demodulation in molecular communication. IEEE ICC 2017. 93/99
Reactive Receivers | Fundamentals of Ligand-Receptor Binding
• Ligand-receptor binding reaction: • Likelihood of observing a series of bound and unbound

time intervals:
• Reaction-rate equation for # of bound receptors:
• # of bound receptors at equilibrium is Binomial r.v.:
94/99
Reactive Receivers | Reaction-Diffusion Models with Time-Varying Input
• Receptors and information molecules uniformly distributed within a reception space

• Partial equilibrium assumption for noise analysis
• In some models, deterministic MC channel + equilibrium reaction assumption
• Due to low-pass filter characteristics of MC channel
• Captures the effect of finite number of receptors
• Pierobon, M., & Akyildiz, I. F. (2011). Noise analysis in ligand-binding reception for molecular communication in nanonetworks. IEEE Transactions
on Signal Processing, 59(9), 4168-4182. 95/99
Reactive Receivers | Discrete Model based on Reaction-Diffusion Master Equation (RDME)
• Channel divided into equal-size cubic voxels

• In each voxel, molecules are uniformly distributed
• Molecules can move only to neighboring voxels
• Diffusion and reactions in entire system modeled as Markov process
• System state vector is updated at each time step based on state transition rate vector
• In continuum limit, the model provides closed-form expressions for mean & variance of # of bound receptors
• Not efficient for larger systems requiring high number of voxels
• Chou, C. T. (2015). A Markovian approach to the optimal demodulation of diffusion-based molecular communication networks. IEEE Transactions
on Communications, 63(10), 3728-3743.
• Chou, C. T. (2013). Extended master equation models for molecular communication networks. IEEE transactions on nanobioscience, 12(2), 79-92. 96/99
Reactive Receivers | Microfluidic Convection–Diffusion–Reaction System Model
2-d, deterministic,
time-varying, nonlinear
convection-diffusion-reaction model
Microfluidic MC system Finite-element simulation in COMSOL
• Analytical approximation for time-varying number of bound receptors based on two-compartment model
• 1st compartment: Microfluidic propagation channel, 2nd compartment: Depletion layer above reactive surface of the receiver
• Two-phase model: Association phase + Dissociation phase
• Analytical expressions for received pulse amplitude, pulse width, and delay
Analytical vs COMSOL Simulation Analytical vs COMSOL Simulation

for time course of the ratio of number of bound receptors for normalized received pulse amplitude
• Kuscu, M., & Akan, O. B. (2018). Modeling convection-diffusion-reaction systems for microfluidic molecular communications with surface-based receivers in
Internet of Bio-Nano Things. PloS one, 13(2), e0192202. 97/99
Detection based on Instantaneous Receptor States
• Instantaneous number of bound receptors: Binomial r.v. (if equilibrium assumed)

• More realistic received signal model, however, nothing special in terms of detection methods
• Symbol-by-symbol, sequence, noncoherent, asynchronous method can be applicable
98/99
Channel Estimation
• Pilot-based CIR estimation

• ML estimation
• Least sum of squared errors (LSSE) CIR
estimation
• CRLB
• Semi-blind CIR estimation
• Pilot-based estimation versus semi-blind
estimation
• Channel estimation scheme at the Rx design
The MSE of several CIR estimate methods in relation to

pilot sequence length
• Huang, X., Fang, Y., & Yang, N. (2022). A survey on estimation schemes in molecular communications. Digital Signal Processing, 124, 103163.
• S. Abdallah and A. M. Darya, "Semi-Blind Channel Estimation for Diffusive Molecular Communication," in IEEE Communications Letters, vol. 24,
no. 11, pp. 2503-2507, Nov. 2020, doi: 10.1109/LCOMM.2020.3011108. 99/99

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ELEC 463/563 – Lecture 6 & 7

Internet of Everything (IoE)

• Internet of Bio-Nano Things (IoBNT)

Özgür B. Akan, PhD, IEEE Fellow

• Internet of Bio-Nano Things (IoBNT)

• Molecular Communications (MC)

“There’s plenty of room at the bottom” R. Feynman

Nanoparticle communication networks Bacterial nanotube networks

Nanoscale Molecular Communications

Nano-sensors Query routing EM – bio/nano

Raw Nano Micro

Activity User Profile Medical

Cross domains of heterogeneous knowledge bases

EM Nanonetworks • Multitude of nanodevices and micro-gateways

Passive Molecular/Nano Agents

• Bio-Nano Thing: An alignment of the constituents found in a standard IoT embedded

• Monitoring glucose levels

• Brain pathologies, Alzheimer's, epilepsy and depression

• Medication carrying smart nanoshells that detect and destroy tumors

• Food and water quality control

• Functionalized materials and fabric

• Animals and biodiversity control

• Air pollution control

Smart Drug Delivery Continuous Health Monitoring Organs-on-Chips

Project MEDDS #EP/P009824/1, #EP/P010105/1 Human Organ-on-chip

Project MONACO: NSF - #1110947 #ACC102665 #EP/P022723/1

Smart(er) Home applications Chemical Attack Prevention

Consumer Electronic Devices

Nanorobot Networks for Oil Reservoir Discovery & Monitoring

Plant Pathogen Detection

On-Site Monitoring of Water Loss from Plants

Advanced drug delivery

Bacteria-based Sensor Network in

Early Detection and Mitigation of Infectious Diseases

IoBNT system for detection of infectious disease

Bio-sensor with direct electro-chemical,

Organs-on-Chips (ICT-based testbeds for new medicine)

Artificial Organs | Project MINERVA

Communication Theoretical Foundations of Nervous System Towards

• Validation of synaptic channel and nervous nanonetwork models

High-resolution Neural Interfaces

• Further miniaturization of BMI units in cerebral cortex

Nanoscale Neuro-spike Communications

• Realistic communication theoretical model IoE Challenges

• Impact of spike shape variation on vesicle release process

𝑵𝟒 𝑺𝒊𝒎: MC-based Neural NaNoNetwork Simulator

1. Action Potential Events (APEs) Miniaturisation

2. Synaptic Transmission Events (STEs)

Solution for speed and scalability:

Graphene-based High Resolution Neural Interfaces for ICT-inspired

• Transceivers/neural interfaces with high spatial resolution based on graphene

• Differentiating/generating highly localised fluctuations in ion concentrations

Bio-Cyber Interfaces and Electromagnetic (EM) Nanotransceivers

Zettle Group, UC Berkeley

SiNW FET-based CNT Radio Graphene Plasmonic

• Bio-cyber interfaces connecting bio-nanonetworks to the Internet

• Artificial synapses, Organs-on-Chips

• Graphene/CNT-based nanoscale optical transceivers