Chapter 04 Perceiving Persons

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Chapter 04-Perceiving Persons
1. All of the following could be categorized as sources of “raw data” for a study of social perception except
a. a person’s physical appearance.
b. knowledge of what situation a person is in.
c. a person’s behavior.
d. accounts given by others about a person.
ANSWER: d
2. The study of social perception addresses all of the following except

a. how people explain and analyze the behavior of others.
b. how people form coherent impressions of others.
c. the strategies people use to create a positive self-image.
d. the way that expectations can distort reality.
ANSWER: c
3. Fritz is a social psychologist who specializes in studying the processes of social perception. Given this interest, Fritz
is least likely to specialize in which of the following research questions?
a. How do employers infer traits and abilities about job candidates based on observing their behavior in a job
interview?
b. How do police officers and customs agents make judgments concerning how truthful or deceptive particular
individuals are?
c. How are consumers influenced in their choices by the packaging and positioning of different products?
d. How does the performance of athletes vary as a function of their coach’s expectations about their ability and
potential?
ANSWER: c
4. Following are the stages of the interpersonal perception process except

a. analyzing.
b. selecting.
c. organizing.
d. interpreting.
ANSWER: a
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5. As social perceivers, people’s impressions of others are

a. formed only after knowing the person for a considerable period of time.
b. uninfluenced by superficial attributes of a person.
c. formed at first encounter and completely unchangeable.
d. influenced by the physical appearance of a person.
ANSWER: d
6. Willis and Todorov (2006) showed college students photos of strangers’ faces and found that
a. participants were unable to rate the personality in the photos when they only saw the faces for less than one
second.
b. even when they saw the photos for less than one second, participants’ ratings of the faces were highly
correlated with the ratings of others who looked at the faces without time limits.
c. participants who only saw the faces for less than one second rated the faces as possessing more negative
traits than others who were allowed to look at the faces for as long as they wanted to.
d. the longer it took participants to rate each face, the more accurate their ratings were.
ANSWER: b
7. Based on Sam Gosling’s book (2008), how do social perceivers form impressions?
a. The schools that others go to
b. What they have previously heard
c. Physical attributes
d. People’s “stuff”
ANSWER: d
8. According to Hassin and Trope’s (2000) study of physiognomy, participants assigned traits to others based on their
a. hair style.
b. facial features.
c. perceived age.
d. perceived race.
ANSWER: b

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9. Todd has a “baby face,” and Martin has features that are traditionally considered more mature. They are both being
interviewed for the same position in a bank. What is the most probable outcome?
a. Because of his more mature features, Martin will be recommended for the position.
b. Todd will be recommended for the position because baby-faced individuals are perceived as more honest.
c. Todd will be recommended for the position because baby-faced individuals are judged as more qualified for
employment than mature-faced individuals.
d. Their facial features will not impact the hiring decision, and the more qualified candidate will get the job.
ANSWER: a
10. According to Todorov and others (2008), ____ facial expression will be perceived as most trustworthy.
a. U-shaped mouth with raised eyebrows
b. U-shaped mouth with eyebrows forming a V
c. mouth curled down with raised eyebrows
d. mouth curled down with eyebrows forming a V
ANSWER: a
11. Why is social perception more complex than the simple perception of static objects?
a. People are intentionally deceptive.
b. People seldom pay attention to others.
c. People are accidentally deceptive.
d. Several sensory mechanisms work together.
ANSWER: d
12. According to Pryor and Merluzzi (1985), the script for a first date
a. was more easily recalled by participants with extensive dating experience.
b. varied widely by gender, but only when participants relatively experienced.
c. varied widely by sexual orientation.
d. was similar across cultures.
ANSWER: a
13. When Pryor and Merluzzi (1985) questioned college students, they found that the most familiar first step in this
script was that
a. two or more couples meet at a common place.
b. the female arrives.
c. dating companions meet at a common place.
d. the male arrives.
ANSWER: d

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14. Research on perception of complex action, such as athletic activity, indicates that compared to people who break the
event up into gross units, those who break the event up into fine units tend to
a. remember more details about the event.
b. lose sight of the big-picture outcome of the event.
c. rely more on the expectations of others in evaluating the event.
d. enjoy their observation of the event more.
ANSWER: a
15. Andrew tends to view the behavior of others in gross units, whereas Angela tends to break others’ behavior down
into fine units. Angela is more likely than Andrew to
a. pay more attention to the behavior.
b. detect more meaningful actions.
c. remember more details about the behavior.
d. form a more positive impression of an actor.
ANSWER: b
16. ____ is the process by which people attribute humanlike mental states to various animate and inanimate objects,
including other people.
a. Belief perseverance
b. Social perception
c. Nonverbal cues
d. Mind perception
ANSWER: d
17. Which of the following statements about mind perception is most accurate?
a. It only occurs to perception of humans.
b. It occurs for perception of inanimate objects only.
c. The more humanlike the target object, the more likely we are to attribute to it qualities of mind.
d. The less humanlike the target object, the more likely we are to attribute to it qualities of mind.
ANSWER: c
18. According to Gray and colleagues (2007), what are the two dimensions on which people “perceive minds”?
a. Depth and breadth
b. Morality and rationality
c. Agency and experience
d. Contextual and focal
ANSWER: c

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19. ____ reveals a person’s feelings without using words, but instead using only gestures.
a. Scripted behavior
b. Fine-unit behavior
c. Perceptually salient behavior
d. Nonverbal behavior
ANSWER: d
20. While traveling around the world, Teun shows the pictures of men and women from his hometown who are smiling
and frowning to various people. He asks those people to infer what emotions the individuals in the pictures are
experiencing. According to the research on perceptions of primary emotions, Teun should find that
a. perceptions of the emotions vary widely as a function of the people’s culture.
b. perceptions of the emotions are relatively consistent across most cultures.
c. little can be inferred about the emotions unless the behaviors of the individuals in the pictures are also
described.
d. little is inferred about the emotions unless the situational contexts of the individuals in the pictures are also
described.
ANSWER: b
21. ____ is not considered to be a primary emotion.

a. Sadness
b. Fear
c. Anger
d. Anxiousness
ANSWER: d
22. A meta-analysis conducted by Elfenbein and Ambady (2002) found that the emotion that is most accurately judged
across cultures on facial expressions is
a. sadness.
b. happiness.
c. anger.
d. embarrassment.
ANSWER: b

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23. According to cross-cultural research on perception of emotion conducted by Elfenbein and Ambady (2002),
a. people are uniformly good at perceiving the emotional states of others based on nonverbal cues, regardless of
whether perceivers and targets are from the same culture.
b. people are fairly successful at perceiving the emotional states of individuals from other cultures, but we are
better at judging emotions of individuals from our own culture.
c. people are actually better at perceiving the emotional states of individuals from other cultures because they
are not distracted by language use and other verbal cues.
d. language comprehension plays a central role in the evaluation of emotion.
ANSWER: b
24. Which of the following research findings is most consistent with Darwin’s hypothesis that the ability to interpret
emotion from facial expressions has survival value?
a. People recognize angry faces better than happy faces.
b. People are better able to interpret emotions from video than still pictures.
c. People are able to identify six primary emotions.
d. People sometimes infer emotions from situations rather than facial expressions.
ANSWER: a
25. The “anger superiority effect” states that angry faces are detected more efficiently than friendly faces by people
who
a. look away from an angry face in a crowd than a neutral face.
b. look away from an angry face in a crowd than a happy face.
c. spot an angry face in a crowd than a neutral or happy face.
d. identify anger in the faces of people from other cultures.
ANSWER: c
26. ____ gets activated when we sniff a disgusting odor as well as when we watch others sniffing the disgusting odor.
a. Amygdala
b. Insula
c. Hippocampus
d. Hypothalamus
ANSWER: b

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27. What is the adaptive significance of being able to identify the emotion of disgust in others’ faces?
a. It motivates us to draw near to the target and promotes affiliation.
b. It helps us to avoid food poisoning.
c. It keeps us from experiencing rejection, which is damaging to the immune system.
d. It helps us to locate food sources.
ANSWER: b
28. What is the purpose of an emoticon?

a. To convey nonlinguistic communication.
b. To promote humor in e-mail exchanges.
c. To make reading e-mail more interesting.
d. To enhance the emotional reaction of the recipient of the e-mail.
ANSWER: a
29. What do psychologists mean by the term “thin slices?”

a. The judgment was thoroughly researched.
b. The judgment was based on a minimal amount of information received.
c. The judgment is probably inaccurate.
d. The judgment was based on a very rich behavior sample.
ANSWER: b
30. The importance of nonverbal behavior to social perception can be seen by the fact that e-mail messages
a. are often misinterpreted, especially when the writer is trying to be funny or sarcastic.
b. have a stronger emotional impact on those who read them than do voicemail messages.
c. are typically substantially longer and more richly detailed than text messages.
d. are the preferred means of communication among younger but not older Americans.
ANSWER: a
31. Jerry makes frequent eye contact with the person to whom he is talking. This is most likely to elicit a(n)
a. impression that Jerry is domineering and likes power.
b. impression that Jerry is insecure and needy.
c. positive or negative emotion depending on the kind of eye contact that Jerry uses.
d. positive or negative emotion depending on whether Jerry is talking to a male or female.
ANSWER: c

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32. The term “gaze disengagement” tends to lead perceivers to

a. believe that a target is overly confident.
b. rate a target as more physically attractive.
c. have difficulty forming an accurate impression of a target.
d. form a social cue to signal exclusion or affiliation.
ANSWER: d
33. Cross-cultural differences in the perception of nonverbal behavior are least prevalent in which of the following types
of judgments?
a. Evaluations of emotions and facial features
b. Interpretations of head-nodding and hand signals
c. Preference for personal space
d. Inferences drawn regarding eye contact
ANSWER: a
34. Why are we not very successful at detecting deception?

a. We pay too much attention on nonverbal cues and not enough on verbal cues.
b. We fail to attend to the nonverbal cues that actually signal deception.
c. We are motivated to believe that others are telling the truth.
d. We need to be able to detect deception in order to gain evolutionary advantage.
ANSWER: b
35. According to Ekman and O’Sullivan's (1991) research, who would be able to detect a liar accurately?
a. A local police investigator
b. A trial judge
c. A psychiatrist
d. A U.S. Secret Service agent
ANSWER: d
36. Deception is most likely to be detected by attending to which channel of communication?

a. Spoken words
b. Body posture
c. Voice pitch
d. Facial expression
ANSWER: c

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37. Which of the following assertions is supported by research on deception?

a. People are more accurate at detecting deception if they focus on facial expressions rather than voice cues.
b. Police officers and FBI agents are better at detecting deception than most other people.
c. People tend to have an accurate sense of their lie-detecting abilities.
d. People are more accurate at detecting deception if they focus on body movements rather than facial
expressions.
ANSWER: d
38. Bella is a teacher who suspects that a student is trying to deceive her. Under which of the following conditions does
Bella have the best chance of being accurate in her attempts to detect whether or not the student is lying?
a. Bella reads a written transcript of the student’s story.
b. Bella sees a silent video of the student’s face as the student tells the story.
c. Bella reads a written transcript of the student’s story and sees a silent video of the student’s face as the
student tells the story.
d. Bella asks the student to recount her story in reverse chronological order.
ANSWER: d
39. A group of theories that describe how people explain the causes of behavior is known as
a. attribution theory.
b. correspondent inference theory.
c. information integration theory.
d. the just-world model.
ANSWER: a
40. In 1965, Jones and Davis suggested that people prefer to make internal attributions because
a. internal attributions are perceived to be better for predicting behavior.
b. internal attributions are faster.
c. people don’t like thinking about situational factors.
d. internal attributions make the perceiver happy.
ANSWER: a

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41. Colin and Erin are waiting to meet with their caterer so that they can discuss the menu for their wedding. The
caterer is 30 minutes late and still hasn’t arrived. Colin suggests that the caterer is probably stuck in the traffic. Erin
suggests that the caterer is probably disorganized and unreliable. Colin is making a(n) ____ attribution, whereas Erin
is making a(n) ____ attribution.
a. dispositional; situational
b. situational; personal
c. expected; unexpected
d. correspondent; dispositional
ANSWER: b
42. Kelley’s covariation model suggests that three types of information are crucial for arriving at external or internal
attributions except
a. dissonance.
b. consensus.
c. consistency.
d. distinctiveness.
ANSWER: a
43. What has been shown to improve social perceiver’s ability to evaluate covariation?
a. Happy mood
b. Sad mood
c. Confirmatory evidence
d. Inductive reasoning
ANSWER: b
44. According to correspondent inference theory, in which of the following situations would a personal attribution be
most appropriate?
a. Serena, a professor, helps students during her office hours.
b. Sally, a naval officer, salutes when her commanding officer enters the room.
c. Sam, a wealthy athlete, is ordered by the court to attend a drug rehabilitation program.
d. Steve, a Casanova, joins a monastery and takes a vow of celibacy.
ANSWER: d

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45. According to Jones and Davis’s (1965) correspondent inference theory, observers trying to infer what an actor is
trying to achieve by a particular action would ask all of the following questions except which question?
a. Did the behavior violate any social norms?
b. What were the consequences of the behavior?
c. What is the actor’s perception of the behavior?
d. Did the actor freely choose to perform the behavior?
ANSWER: c
46. Which of the following reflects the primary question underlying the correspondent inference theory?
a. Do attributions correspond with preexisting beliefs?
b. Does an individual’s belief correspond with that individual’s behavior?
c. Does the actor’s behavior correspond to the actor’s stable personality?
d. Does an observer infer that an actor’s behavior is consistent with that of the observer?
ANSWER: c
47. When do we make an attribution about a person?

a. When they are heavily criticized.
b. When they are strongly praised.
c. When a cause is imputed for their actions.
d. When they are being judged by the others.
ANSWER: d
48. Kelley’s theory of attribution suggests that, in trying to discern personal characteristics from behavioral evidence,
people
a. behave in ways that have distinctiveness, consistency, and consensus.
b. use cognitive heuristics improperly.
c. usually attribute behavior to both personal and situational factors.
d. fail to adequately consider consensus information.
ANSWER: a

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49. Everyone you know seems to love the TV show The Bachelor. But every time you watch The Bachelor, you have
the same reaction: you hate it with a passion. According to Kelley’s (1967) covariation theory of attribution, your
dislike of this show would be
a. high in consensus, low in distinctiveness, and high in consistency.
b. low in consensus, high in distinctiveness, and high in consistency.
c. high in consensus, high in distinctiveness, and low in consistency.
d. low in consensus, low in distinctiveness, and low in consistency.
ANSWER: b
50. According to which of the following principles, a personal attribution is most likely to result when consistency is high,
consensus is low, and distinctiveness is low?
a. Situational attribution
b. Correspondent inference theory
c. Covariation
d. Personal attribution
ANSWER: c
51. What should be the criterion for making an external or internal attribution about a person’s behavior?
a. Behavioral consensus
b. Behavioral distinctiveness
c. Behavioral consistency
d. All of the above
ANSWER: d
52. When ____ is low, it is difficult for the perceiver to attribute behavior to either the person or the stimulus; as a result
the behavior was caused by transient circumstances.
a. Consensus
b. Distinctiveness
c. Openness
d. Stability
ANSWER: d

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53. The concept of the availability heuristic is illustrated when you

a. choose one movie over another because you prefer the design of its poster at the cinema.
b. never make a decision about where to eat because you are seldom hungry.
c. vow to never drive again because of the horrible accident you witnessed in front of your office.
d. refuse to buy a drink that you think is overpriced, even if you are wrong.
ANSWER: c
54. Which of the following statements describes one of the ways in which your text describes social perceivers as
differing?
a. Individuals vary in the degree to which they believe behavior is caused by fixed versus malleable
characteristics.
b. People differ in the extent to which they have positive or negative personality characteristics.
c. There are differences in whether people are or are not motivated to make accurate perceptions of others.
d. People may not consider cultural variations that impact the way others should be assessed.
ANSWER: a
55. According to Kahneman’s (2011) work on judgment and decision making, System 1 is to ____ as System 2 is to
____.
a. easy;controlled
b. controlled; easy
c. accurate; inaccurate
d. inaccurate; accurate
ANSWER: a
56. In making a judgment regarding a specific instance, people often fail to think about how frequent something is in
general. This explains
a. base-rate fallacy.
b. confirmation bias.
c. false consensus effect.
d. regression fallacy.
ANSWER: a

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57. Which of the following features best explains how availability affects judgments?
a. Difficulty to recall
b. Counterfactual thinking
c. Ease of recall
d. Stereotyping
ANSWER: c
58. What factor explains the influence of anchoring on judgments?

a. Sufficient adjustment
b. Plausibility
c. Knowledge of anchor and target
d. Biasness
ANSWER: c
59. Sophia voted for Barack Obama in the 2008 U.S. presidential election. She believes that approximately 90% of
college students also voted for Obama, when in reality that number is much lower. Sophia’s overestimation is
consistent with the
a. false-consensus effect.
b. confirmation bias.
c. self-fulfilling prophecy.
d. representativeness heuristic.
ANSWER: a
60. What does fallacy reflect?

a. A failure to use consensus information
b. A failure to use consistency information
c. The actor–observer effect
d. An excessive reliance on situational attributions
ANSWER: a
61. According to Kahneman and Tversky’s work on decision framing, even when the options were objectively the same,
people were likely to take risks when those risks were framed as
a. potential losses.
b. potential gains.
c. small possibilities.
d. big possibilities.
ANSWER: b

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62. Which of the following types of error in social cognition can be seen by the fact that people might feel bad eating
mousse shaped like cat-poop?
a. Magical thinking
b. Counterfactual thinking
c. Intuitive thinking
d. The false-consensus effect
ANSWER: a
63. _______ involves the tendency to mentally undo events or to ask “What if…?”
a. The base-rate fallacy
b. Attribution
c. Counterfactual thinking
d. The fundamental attribution error
ANSWER: c
64. Based on research on counterfactual thinking, in which of the following scenarios is Jamal most likely to wonder
what life might have been like had he been richer?
a. Financially, Jamal is in the upper-middle class. His parents were slightly wealthier.
b. Financially, Jamal is in the upper-middle class. His parents were lower-middle class.
c. Financially, Jamal is in the working class. His parents were also working class.
d. Financially, Jamal is in the middle class. His parents were extremely rich.
ANSWER: a
65. Britney wonders if she would have been happier had she married Justin instead of Kevin. This illustrates
a. counterfactual thinking.
b. the fundamental attribution error.
c. the availability heuristic.
d. false-consensus bias.
ANSWER: a

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66. Vito finished first in the school spelling bee, Fabrizio finished second, and Luigi finished third. The first-place winner
gets a cash prize and the opportunity to compete at the regional spelling bee, but the others get nothing. Which of the
following is most likely to occur?
a. Fabrizio will engage in more counterfactual thinking than Luigi.
b. Luigi will engage in more counterfactual thinking than Fabrizio.
c. Fabrizio and Luigi will engage in counterfactual thinking to about the same extent, but more so than Vito.
d. Fabrizio and Luigi will engage in counterfactual thinking to about the same extent, but less so than Vito.
ANSWER: a
67. Which of the following statement is true based on counterfactual thinking among Olympic medalists?
a. Bronze and silver medalists are equally likely to think “What if I had won the gold?”
b. Silver medalists are happier with their standing than bronze medalists, because silver medalists think about
how they could have done worse and received the bronze.
c. Silver medalists are less happy with their standing than bronze medalists, because they think if they could
have done better and won the gold.
d. Bronze medalists are more envious of silver medalists than of gold medalists.
ANSWER: c
68. The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to attribute

a. one’s own behavior to personal factors rather than to the situation.
b. one’s own behavior to the situation rather than to personal factors.
c. another person’s behavior to personal factors rather than to the situation.
d. another person’s behavior to situational factors rather than to personal factors.
ANSWER: c
69. In the Jones and Harris (1967) study, participants read essays presumably written by another student that had either
been assigned or chose to write in support of a particular position. Which of the following statements is consistent
with the findings of this study?
a. Participants were more likely to infer the student’s attitude from the essay if they believed it was written
under conditions of free choice and not assigned by the instructor.
b. Participants were more likely to infer the student’s attitude from the essay if they believed it was an assigned
topic rather than chosen.
c. Participants were more likely to infer the student’s attitude from the essay if it agreed with their own.
d. Participants did not infer the student’s attitude from the essay at all if it was an assigned topic.
ANSWER: a

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70. You hear Tiger Woods doing a radio commercial for Buick. Even though you know that Woods did not write the
commercial himself, was paid to provide the voice-over for the commercial, and probably does not drive a Buick in
real life, you still think that at some level, Woods must think highly of Buicks. This is an example of the
a. actor–observer effect.
b. false-consensus bias.
c. availability heuristic.
d. fundamental attribution error.
ANSWER: d
71. LeBron is eating at a restaurant on a first date when his date spills spaghetti all over his lap. Which of the following
conclusions would LeBron be most likely to draw if he commits the fundamental attribution error?
a. His date gets nervous on first dates.
b. His date is a slob.
c. His date is even more attractive than he originally thought.
d. His date is even less attractive than he originally thought.
ANSWER: b
72. According to Samuel Sommers (2011) people seem to commit the fundamental attribution error
a. only if they use the availability heuristic to make attributions.
b. only if they are unaware of the actor’s feelings about the particular behavior.
c. even when they attempt to explain their own behavior.
d. even when they are aware of the situational constraints of the behavior.
ANSWER: d
73. According to the two-step model of the attribution process, people make an
a. automatic first step of weighing situational and personal attributions equally, and then an effortful second step
of considering the initial inference.
b. automatic first step of assuming person’s behavior, and then an effortful second step of considering
situational steps.
c. effortful first step of weighing situational and personal attributions equally, and then an automatic second step
of making a dispositional inference.
d. automatic first step of making a situational attribution, and then an effortful second step of considering
personal factors.
ANSWER: b

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74. The “Quiz Show” study by Ross and colleagues (1977) found that in judging the general knowledge of the
contestant and questioner,
a. observers fell victim to the fundamental attribution error, but the questioner and contestant did not.
b. participants did not fall victim to the fundamental attribution error because they knew that the quiz show roles
were assigned at random.
c. observers and even contestants fell victim to the fundamental attribution error.
d. men were more likely to commit the fundamental attribution error than women.
ANSWER: c
75. According to Gilbert’s two-step model of social perception, distraction leads to the fundamental attribution error as it
a. discourages personal attributions, but has little effect on situational attributions.
b. inhibits perceivers from using distinctiveness information, but allows them to take consistency information into
account.
c. does not interfere with the automatic process of making personal attributions, but does interfere with the
more difficult process of making situational adjustments.
d. changes the interrelationship between the figure and the background in social perception.
ANSWER: c
76. Suppose an experiment was conducted where people were asked to watch a political debate between two
candidates who have been tied. Half of the participants saw a videotape of the debate where the camera focused
on candidate A. The other half of the participants saw a videotape of the debate where the camera focused on
candidate B. It is likely that
a. the majority of the participants declared the debate a tie.
b. both groups saw candidate A as victorious.
c. the group that viewed candidate A thought she was victorious, whereas the group that viewed candidate B
thought he was victorious.
d. the group that viewed candidate A thought candidate B was victorious, whereas the group that viewed
candidate B thought candidate A was victorious.
ANSWER: c
77. Research examining the role of culture in the attribution process has found that
a. children reared in Western cultures are more likely to make the fundamental attribution error than those
reared in Eastern cultures.
b. children reared in Western cultures are less likely to make the fundamental attribution error than those reared
in Eastern cultures.
c. adults in Finland are more likely to make the fundamental attribution error than those in Korea.
d. adults in Western cultures are less likely to make the fundamental attribution error than those in Eastern
cultures.
ANSWER: c

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78. According to Miller (1984), the attributions of American and Asian Indian participants rely on
a. no cultural differences emerged with young children, but among adults, Americans were more likely to make
personal attributions, and Indians were more likely to make situational attributions.
b. no cultural differences emerged with young children, but among adults, Americans were more likely to make
situational attributions, and Indians were more likely to make personal attributions.
c. among young children, Americans were more likely to make personal attributions, and Indians were more
likely to make situational attributions; no cultural differences emerged with adult participants.
d. among young children, Americans were more likely to make situational attributions, and Indians were more
likely to make personal attributions; no cultural differences emerged with adult participants.
ANSWER: a
79. Research using bicultural participants, such as China-born students attending college in the United States, indicates
that
a. attributional style is dictated by the native culture and does not vary much with cultural influences later in life.
b. at some point such individuals completely abandon the attributional tendencies of their nation of origin and
replace them with the tendencies of their new country of residence.
c. people can simultaneously hold differing cultural worldviews, either of which can influence attributional
tendencies depending on the situation.
d. attributional style is dictated by the culture in which one lives, unless that person is spending time with family
members from their culture of origin.
ANSWER: c
80. According to Balcetis and Dunning (2006), people taking part in a taste-testing experiment
a. tend to perceive things as per visual stimuli.
b. prefer orange juice to greenish drink.
c. have perceptions that are objective analyses of the facts.
d. are unlikely to make self-serving attributions.
ANSWER: a
81. According to research by Balcetis and Dunning (2010), participants who were thirsty
a. estimated that a bottle of water across the table was closer than participants who were quenched estimated.
b. estimated that a bottle of water across the table was farther than participants who were quenched estimated.
c. drank more of a bottle of water than did participants who were quenched.
d. made harsher judgments of a target person than did participants who were quenched.
ANSWER: a

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82. Research on motivational biases suggests that if you are a people person, you will
a. be a better leader than if you are a task-oriented person.
b. be a worse leader than if you are a task-oriented person.
c. value social skills more in leaders than if you are task-oriented.
d. value social skills less in leaders than if you are task oriented.
ANSWER: c
83. Research on the impact of ideological motives on attribution indicates that a liberal is most likely to explain poverty
as due to
a. laziness.
b. existing power authorities.
c. personal characteristics.
d. self-indulgence.
ANSWER: b
84. According to correspondent inference theory, if people’s behavior is low in social desirability, then a social perceiver
will
a. attribute the behavior to the person’s personality or disposition.
b. attribute the behavior to the situation.
c. find the behavior illogical.
d. find the behavior uninfluenced.
ANSWER: a
85. How do we defend our belief in a just world while observing the victim’s suffering?
a. Identify strongly with the victim.
b. Disparage the victim.
c. Disparage the oppressor.
d. Fear our own suffering in the future.
ANSWER: b
86. The tendency to think that most victims of Hurricane Sandy were irresponsible and naive for not evacuating their
homes before the storm hit is most likely to result from which of the following tendencies?
a. Belief in a just world
b. Implicit personality theory
c. False-consensus effect
d. Priming
ANSWER: a

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87. Perceivers judge accident victims as more responsible for their fate if
a. the victim’s situation is very different from that of the perceiver.
b. the accident is mild rather than severe.
c. the perceiver is more concerned about harm to the self.
d. the perceiver can aid the victim in some way.
ANSWER: c
88. Which of the following psychological processes best explains why it is that people sometimes react to news of a
natural disaster or violent crime with something less than full sympathy on behalf of the victims?
a. Counterfactual thinking
b. False-consensus effect
c. Availability heuristic
d. Belief in a just world
ANSWER: d
89. Believing that poor people are happier than others, or that obese people are more sociable, helps to satisfy
a. belief perseverance.
b. belief in a just world.
c. the self-fulfilling prophecy.
d. the false-consensus effect.
ANSWER: b
90. The process of forming an overall impression of people’s character depending upon available information about their
traits and behaviors is called
a. covariation.
b. need for closure.
c. implicit personality formation.
d. impression formation.
ANSWER: d
91. The theory that combines the personal dispositions of the perceiver with a weighted average of the target person’s
characteristics is called
a. fundamental attribution error.
b. information integration.
c. motivational bias.
d. covariation.
ANSWER: b

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92. The finding that moderately positive traits can dilute the impact of extremely positive traits on impressions is most
consistent with the
a. role of central traits in impression formation.
b. influence of priming effects in impression formation.
c. averaging model of impression formation.
d. summation model of impression formation.
ANSWER: c
93. The idea that impressions are based on a perceiver’s disposition to form certain impressions and a weighted average
of the target person’s characteristics is most consistent with
a. correspondent inference theory.
b. cognitive heuristics.
c. the actor–observer effect.
d. information integration theory.
ANSWER: d
94. When forming impressions of others, people

a. see their own skills and abilities as less desirable to have.
b. use the significant others in their lives as a frame of reference.
c. differ in the particular traits they are likely to notice.
d. are typically very inconsistent in what they consider.
ANSWER: c
95. _______ is the phenomenon in which people’s internal state influences their visual perception.
a. Wishful seeing
b. Attribution bias
c. Averaging models of impression formation
d. Belief perseverance
ANSWER: a
96. According to Forgas and Bower (1987), good moods can lead to
a. more negative perceptions of others.
b. more negative perceptions of others, particularly when the mood is induced by an unexpected surprise.
c. more positive perceptions of others, particularly when the mood is induced by an unexpected surprise.
d. more positive perceptions of others.
ANSWER: d

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97. What is priming effect?

a. The tendency to infer unknown personality characteristics on the basis of known dispositions
b. The tendency for recently used concepts to come to mind easily and influence the interpretation of new
information
c. The tendency for people to underutilize target characteristics and rely on their own traits when forming
impressions of others
d. The tendency to continue to believe preexisting impressions even after they are discredited
ANSWER: b
98. During her social psychology course this morning, Leticia learned about the situational obstacles that often prevent
people helping others in need. As she is eating lunch with her friends after class, one of them begins coughing and
Leticia offers help to her. Leticia’s behavior is most likely the result of
a. counterfactual thinking.
b. actor-observer effect.
c. priming.
d. false-consensus effect.
ANSWER: c
99. All of the following have been shown in research on priming except that priming
a. is more likely when people are aware of the exposure.
b. may have effects on our social perceptions of others.
c. may affect our social behavior.
d. demonstrates the effects of recent events on our perceptions.
ANSWER: a
100. While on an airplane, John completes a crossword puzzle in which interrupt, rude, and blunt are all answers. After
landing, John gets in line to speak to someone at the ticket counter, but the ticket agent does not notice him because
he is too busy talking with another employee. Research on priming suggests that John will be likely to
a. leave and get in line at another gate to ask his question.
b. interrupt the ticket agent, whom he judges to be quite rude.
c. wait patiently until the agent finishes his conversation.
d. forget about asking his question and go look for something to eat.
ANSWER: b

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101. Reena meets Rachael for the first time. Rachael is perceived as smart, funny, sociable, but rude. Although Reena
perceived Rachael to have many positive qualities, her rudeness outweighed them, thus Reena forms a negative
impression of Rachael. This illustrates
a. an implicit personality theory.
b. negativity effect.
c. the summation model of impression formation.
d. the primacy effect.
ANSWER: b
102. Social perceivers are most likely to agree in their judgments of which of the following traits?
a. Openness to experience
b. Extroversion
c. Agreeableness
d. Emotional stability
ANSWER: b
103. What is trait negativity bias?

a. The tendency for people to view others’ traits more negatively than their own
b. The tendency for moderately favorable traits to negatively impact the favorability of overall impressions
c. The tendency for negative impressions to become more positive over time
d. The tendency for negative trait information to have a greater impact on impressions
ANSWER: d
104. Negative information about a target

a. cannot be primed.
b. weighs less heavily on the brain than positive information.
c. is typically ignored by perceivers younger than 10 years old.
d. causes electrical activity in different areas of the brain than positive or neutral information.
ANSWER: d
105. _______ is the trait that would produce the most extreme impression of a target.
a. Honesty
b. Cruelty
c. Maturity
d. Intelligence
ANSWER: b

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106. Ellen is at the mall when she runs into one of her closest friends, Vicki. Vicki is with a friend and introduces that
friend to Ellen. Research on impression formation suggests that
a. Ellen will feel jealous and immediately dislike Vicki’s friend.
b. Ellen’s affection for Vicki will make her tend to like Vicki’s friend.
c. Ellen will be focused on shopping and not form an impression of Vicki’s friend.
d. Ellen will like Vicki’s friend because she is from out of town.
ANSWER: b
107. A network of assumptions that people make when forming impressions based on traits and behaviors is called
a. implicit personality traits.
b. information integration theory.
c. a self-fulfilling prophecy.
d. the confirmation bias.
ANSWER: a
108. Implicit personality theories suggest that if we know Yael is an extrovert, we would
a. be less likely to form an overall positive impression of her.
b. be more likely to form an overall positive impression of her.
c. look for situations in which one ought to be extroverted.
d. assume she also possesses other traits related to extroversion.
ANSWER: d
109. What are the important traits that exert a powerful influence on final impressions?
a. Implicit traits
b. Central traits
c. Priming traits
d. Confirming traits
ANSWER: b
110. What are the two universal dimensions of social cognition?

a. Warmth and competence
b. Happy and sad
c. Warm and cold
d. Athletic and intelligent
ANSWER: a

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111. People most often and easily differentiate each other based on which of the following dimensions?
a. Warm vs. cold
b. Introvert vs. extrovert
c. Kind vs. mean
d. Positive vs. negative
ANSWER: a
112. People most often and easily differentiate each other based on which of the following dimensions?
a. Competent vs. incompetent
b. Introvert vs. extrovert
c. Kind vs. mean
d. Positive vs. negative
ANSWER: a
113. Putting a heavy emphasis on the first-hand information people receive about others is called the ___________.
a. recency effect
b. emphasis effect
c. impression effect
d. primacy effect
ANSWER: d
114. Imagine that you are grading the exams of two students, Michael and Fredo. They both get only half the questions
correct. Michael gets the first half of the questions right, whereas Fredo gets the last half of the questions right.
According to Asch’s work on primacy effects in impression formation, you would be likely to conclude that
a. Michael is smarter than Fredo.
b. Fredo is smarter than Michael.
c. Michael and Fredo are equally unintelligent.
d. Michael became overconfident while taking the exam.
ANSWER: a
115. Research has shown that the strength of first impressions is even greater for individuals who
a. are high in need for closure.
b. have not been primed.
c. are in a bad mood.
d. believe in a just world.
ANSWER: a

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116. The finding that people’s initial impressions of someone affect their interpretation of subsequent information about
that person is most consistent with the
a. change-of-meaning.
b. trait negativity bias.
c. summation model of information integration.
d. self-fulfilling prophecy.
ANSWER: a
117. Kevin is walking down the hall when he sees his friend, Carry. Kevin smiles and waves to her, But Carry keeps
walking without acknowledging him. Which of the following examples best explains the fundamental attribution
error?
a. Deciding to ignore Carry the next time Kevin sees her.
b. Deciding that Carry snubbed Kevin because she is rude.
c. Assuming that Carry did not see Kevin.
d. Concluding that Carry was probably in a rush.
ANSWER: b
118. What reduces cognitive ambiguity and heightens the importance of first impressions?
a. The need for closure
b. Belief perseverance
c. Confirmation bias
d. Counterfactual thinking
ANSWER: b
119. How do we define a confirmation bias?

a. People’s tendency to agree with others whose attitudes differs from theirs
b. People’s tendency to behave according to others’ expectations
c. People’s tendency to seek, interpret, and create information that verifies existing beliefs
d. People’s tendency to reinterpret earlier information to make it more consistent with subsequent information
ANSWER: c

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120. While watching a political debate on television, Martha, who describes herself as very conservative, is watching as
the liberal candidate answers a question. When the candidate makes strong points that are backed up by logic,
Martha rolls her eyes and doesn’t say a word. When the candidate makes one minor error, Martha yells, “See I told
you she doesn’t know what she’s talking about. All of those liberals are idiots!” Martha is demonstrating the
a. need for closure.
b. availability heuristic.
c. self-serving bias.
d. confirmation bias.
ANSWER: d
121. A baseball manager who clings to old and ineffective strategies, a lawyer who selects juries according to false
stereotypes, and a political leader who does not withdraw support for a failing program are all exhibiting
a. confirmation bias.
b. confirmatory hypothesis testing.
c. the fundamental attribution error.
d. need for closure.
ANSWER: a
122. Darley and Gross (1983) conducted a study in which they asked participants to evaluate the intellectual ability of a
nine-year-old named “Hannah.” Some participants were led to believe that she came from a high socioeconomic
(SES) background; others were led to believe she came from a low SES background. Which of the following
statements about this study is accurate?
a. Only for perceivers who actually met the target (i.e., Hannah) in person did expectation influence
perceptions.
b. Perceivers’ expectations determined the way they behaved toward the target, which in turn influenced the
target’s behavior.
c. Perceivers’ expectations led them to fail to notice clear limitations of the target’s actual performance.
d. Perceivers’ expectations affected their perceptions of the target’s performance, even when that performance
was identical across conditions.
ANSWER: d
123. Cosmo is convinced that his accountant is addicted to drugs. To determine whether he is correct, Cosmo asks his
friends if the accountant sniffs a lot, uses slang when he speaks, or frequently excuses himself to use the men’s
room—three behaviors Cosmo believes are characteristic of those with drug addictions. Cosmo’s methods illustrate
a. the false-consensus effect.
b. a self-fulfilling prophecy.
c. confirmatory hypothesis testing.
d. the trait negativity bias.
ANSWER: c

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124. Denrell’s (2005) explanation for the persistence of negative first impressions is that when we meet someone and we
do not like them, we tend to avoid them, which allows the first impression to remain consistent. This notion is called
a. biased experience sampling.
b. the fundamental attribution error.
c. the availability heuristic.
d. mind perception.
ANSWER: a
125. ____ is the process by which one’s expectations about a person eventually lead that person to behave in ways that
confirm those expectations.
a. Representativeness heuristic
b. Confirmation bias
c. Self-fulfilling prophecy
d. Base rate fallacy
ANSWER: c
126. Which of the following statements provides the best example of a self-fulfilling prophecy?
a. When poor school children are expected to perform less well than wealthy school children
b. When an athlete visualizes a superior performance and then goes out and actually wins
c. When minority candidates perform more poorly in interviews because interviewers act on their expectations
that these candidates are unprepared
d. When people focus on the first information they have about another individual when making an impression
ANSWER: c
127. What is the second step of the self-fulfilling prophecy?

a. Target unwittingly adjusts behaviors to match the expectations of a perceiver.
b. Perceiver’s expectations affect their behavior toward the others.
c. Objective source of information renders the perceiver's expectations to be valid or invalid.
d. Perceiver has expectations of a target person.
ANSWER: b

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128. Vernell is being interviewed for a job. The interviewer suspects that Vernell is incompetent. The interviewer doesn’t
expect much from Vernell and sits far away from her during the interview. He interrupts her frequently, and seems
distracted when she speaks. As a result, Vernell becomes nervous, starts to stutter, and loses her train of thought
several times. The interviewer’s final impression is that Vernell is, as he suspected, incompetent. This impression is
most likely the result of
a. the trait negativity bias.
b. a self-fulfilling prophecy.
c. primacy effects.
d. the fundamental attribution error.
ANSWER: b
129. Rosenthal and Jacobson’s (1968) study, Pygmalion in the Classroom, found that
a. teacher expectancy was uncorrelated with student performance.
b. positive teacher expectations influenced student performance.
c. teacher’s expectancy influenced student performance in the negative manner.
d. the self-fulfilling prophecy is common outside of educational settings.
ANSWER: b
130. The research of Lee Jussim (2012) suggests that teachers’ impressions of their students are
a. accurate and predict student performance without influencing it.
b. inaccurate and predict student performance by influencing it.
c. accurate and do not influence student performance.
d. inaccurate and do not influence student performance.
ANSWER: a
131. Which of the following statements best describes our current state of knowledge regarding social perception?
a. People frequently make errors judging others and are rarely accurate in impression formation.
b. People’s perception and biases do not always result in inaccurate impression formation.
c. People frequently exhibit bias in their perceptions of others. Such bias results in inaccurate impression
formation.
d. People infrequently exhibit bias and, as a result, rarely make errors in impression formation.
ANSWER: b

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132. Which of the following best describes the process of individuation while forming an impression?
a. Actively attending to and gathering information about a person, free of bias and stereotypes
b. Automatically perceiving others as mentor, boss, or teacher
c. Treating an individual as a special entity within a social category
d. Focusing more on a person’s negative qualities than positive
ANSWER: c
133. How are adults with baby-faced facial features perceived and treated differently than adults with mature facial
features? What are two explanations for these effects?
ANSWER: Research has shown that adults with baby-faced features (i.e., large round eyes, high eyebrows, round
cheeks, a large forehead, smooth skin, and a rounded chin) tend to be seen as relatively warm, kind,
naive, weak, honest, and submissive, whereas adults with mature features (i.e., small eyes, low
eyebrows, a small forehead, wrinkled skin, and an angular chin) tend to be seen as stronger, more
dominant, and less naive. Furthermore, baby-faced individuals are considered more favorably by judges
in cases of intentional wrongdoing and by employers interviewing candidates for a daycare teaching
position. There are three explanations for these effects. First, human beings may be genetically
predisposed to respond gently to infantile features in order to ensure that real babies are treated
carefully. Second, we may learn to associate infantile features with helplessness and expect this to be
true of both infants and adults. Finally, there is the possibility of an actual link between baby-facedness
and behavior, meaning that these differences in perception are driven by real differences in behavioral
tendencies.

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134. What are the “primary emotions” and how are they perceived in different cultures around the planet?
ANSWER: What kinds of nonverbal cues do people use in judging how someone else is feeling? In The Expression
of the Emotions in Man and Animals, naturalist Charles Darwin (1872)—whose theory of evolution
transformed our understanding of human history—proposed that the face expresses emotion in ways
that are both innate and understood by people all over the world. Contemporary research supports this
notion. Many studies have shown that when presented with photographs similar to those on page 114,
people can reliably identify at least six “primary” emotions: happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and
disgust.
In one study, participants from 10 different countries—Estonia, Germany, Greece, Hong Kong, Italy,
Japan, Scotland, Sumatra, Turkey, and the United States—exhibited high levels of agreement in their
recognition of these emotions (Ekman et al., 1987). From one end of the world to the other, it’s clear that
a smile is a smile and a frown is a frown and that just about everyone knows what they mean, even when
the expressions are “put on” by actors and are not genuinely felt. But do the results fully support the
claim that basic emotions are “universally” recognized from the face, or is the link culturally specific? To
answer this question, Hillary Elfenbein and Nalini Ambady (2002) meta-analyzed 97 studies involving a
total of 22,148 social perceivers from 42 different countries. As shown in Figure 4.3, they found support
for both points of view. On the one hand, people all over the world are able to recognize the primary
emotions from photographs of facial expressions. On the other hand, people are 9% more accurate at
judging faces from their own national, ethnic, or regional groups than from members of less familiar
groups-indicating that we enjoy an “in-group advantage” when it comes to knowing how those who are
closest to us are feeling.
In a study that illustrates the point, Elfenbein and Ambady (2003) showed pictures of American faces to
groups with varying degrees of exposure to Americans. As predicted, more life exposure was associated
with greater accuracy, from a low of 60% among Chinese participants living in China up to 83% among
Chinese living in the United States and 93% among non–Chinese Americans. When it comes to
recognizing emotions in the face, it appears that familiarity breeds accuracy.
135. On what cues should social perceivers focus in order to try to detect if someone is trying to deceive others?
Conversely, on what cues do social perceivers typically focus, and why are these cues less revealing?
ANSWER: According to research, there are four channels of communication (i.e., spoken words, the face, the
body, and the voice) depending upon which a person tries to deceive others. The voice is the least
controllable by the deceiver, and thus is the most revealing cue. People who are trying to deceive the
others usually raise their voice pitch which leads to speech hesitations. They often repeat their own
words or phrases in order to convince the other person.
The next important cue is the body. Restless shifts in posture like rubbing hands and shaking legs tend
to be evident that the particular person is lying. Perceivers, however, typically focus on the less
revealing cues. Perceivers tend to focus on the words that people say, as well as on the face. This
strategy is likely to fail because people can manipulate these channels of communication, even when
they are lying.

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136. Explain Gilbert and Malone’s two-step process of making attributions, and identify when in this process the
fundamental attribution error occurs.
ANSWER: According to Gilbert and Malone, we first identify a behavior and then make the initial assumption that
it is caused by the actor’s disposition. We then seek more information about the situational influences on
the actor’s behavior and adjust our attribution accordingly. Naturally, the latter step is the more difficult
and effortful one. The fundamental attribution error (the tendency to overattribute another person’s
behavior to disposition) occurs when we do not adjust adequately. This may occur because we do not
have the adequate amount of cognitive resources to complete the second step properly. When people
have the time and motivation to make accurate judgments, they are more likely to take account of
situational constraints, and thus less likely to make the fundamental attribution error.
137. Describe Kelley’s covariation principle as it relates to the manner in which attributions are made. Support your
answer with examples.
ANSWER: According to Kelley, people make attributions by using the covariation principle: In order for something
to be the cause of a behavior, it must be present when the behavior occurs and absent when it does not.
Three kinds of covariation information in particular are useful: consensus, distinctiveness, and
consistency.
Thinking like a scientist, you might seek out consensus information to see how different persons behave
similarly in a similar situation. In other words, what do other moviegoers think about this film? If others
also rave about it, then this stranger’s behavior is high in consensus and is attributed to the stimulus. If
others are critical of this film, however, then the behavior is low in consensus and is attributed to the
person.
Still thinking like a scientist, you might also want distinctiveness information to see how the same
person reacts to different stimuli. In other words, what does this moviegoer think of other films? If the
stranger is generally critical of other films, then the target behavior is high in distinctiveness and is
attributed to the stimulus. If the stranger raves about everything he or she sees, however, then the
behavior is low in distinctiveness and is attributed to the person.
Finally, you might want to seek consistency information to see what happens to the behavior at another
time when the person and the stimulus both remain the same. How does this moviegoer feel about this
film on other occasions? If the stranger raves about the film on video as well as in the theater, regardless
of surroundings, then the behavior is high in consistency. If the stranger does not always enjoy the film,
the behavior is low in consistency. According to Kelley, behavior that is consistent is attributed to the
stimulus when consensus and distinctiveness are also high and to the person when they are low. In
contrast, behavior that is low in consistency is attributed to transient circumstances, such as the
temperature of the movie theater.

Name: Class: Date:
138. Explain the information integration theory of impression formation, and describe at least two potential ways in which
humans deviate from its proposed arithmetic.
ANSWER: Information integration theory suggests that impressions of others are formed by a combination of the
personal disposition and current state of the perceiver and by a weighted average of the target person’s
characteristics. It is the integration of these two sets of factors that produces a unified impression.
Because humans are not as consistent as machines, this “algebra” may have deviations from the simple
weighted average proposed. For example, one perceiver may value intelligence and thus weight
intelligence more heavily in the averaging process than another perceiver. Alternately, the same
perceiver in a good versus bad mood may form a very different impression of the same target. Even
the order in which a perceiver acquires information can influence how that information is weighted,
with first information generally carrying more weight regardless of the evaluative content of that
information. Furthermore, characteristics of the target may influence the way an impression is formed,
as well. For example, an extraverted target is more likely to be perceived similarly by many than
another sort of trait that is less directly observable. Negative traits tend to influence the impression
formed more than positive traits.
139. Explain self-fulfilling prophecy. What are the ways to break the cycle of negative self-fulfilling prophecies?
ANSWER: The self-fulfilling prophecy is when a person predicts an outcome and then unintentionally acts in a way
that brings the end result predicted.
Here are three effective ways to break the cycle of negative self-fulfilling prophecies:
· Corrective thinking helps in uncovering incoherent beliefs, replacing negative and distressing mental
pictures with rational thoughts and expectations.
· Corrective responses help people to conquer challenges by facing problems rather than avoiding or
ignoring them.
· Learning coping strategies help people shape their personality more effectively.

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Chapter 04-Perceiving Persons

2. The study of social perception addresses all of the following except

4. Following are the stages of the interpersonal perception process except

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5. As social perceivers, people’s impressions of others are

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21. ____ is not considered to be a primary emotion.

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28. What is the purpose of an emoticon?

29. What do psychologists mean by the term “thin slices?”

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32. The term “gaze disengagement” tends to lead perceivers to

34. Why are we not very successful at detecting deception?

36. Deception is most likely to be detected by attending to which channel of communication?

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37. Which of the following assertions is supported by research on deception?

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47. When do we make an attribution about a person?

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53. The concept of the availability heuristic is illustrated when you

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58. What factor explains the influence of anchoring on judgments?

60. What does fallacy reflect?

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68. The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to attribute

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