Muhammad Iqbal

Sir Muhammad Iqbal (9 November 1877 – 21 April 1938) was a South Asian Islamic
philosopher, poet and politician.[1][2][3][4] His poetry is considered to be among the greatest of the
20th century,[5][6][7][8] and his vision of a cultural and political ideal for the Muslims of British-
ruled India[9] is widely regarded as having animated the impulse for the Pakistan Movement.[1][10]
He is commonly referred to by the honourific Allama (Persian: ‫عالمه‬, transl. "learned").[11][12] and
widely considered one of the most important and influential Muslim thinkers and Western
religious philosophers of the 20th century.[13][14][15][16]

Born and raised in Sialkot, Punjab, Iqbal completed his BA and MA at the Government College in
Lahore. He taught Arabic at the Oriental College in Lahore from 1899 until 1903, during which
time he wrote prolifically. Notable among his Urdu poems from this period are "Parinde ki Faryad"
(translated as "A Bird's Prayer"), an early contemplation on animal rights, and "Tarana-e-Hindi"
(translated as "Anthem of India"), a patriotic poem—both composed for children. In 1905, he
departed from India to pursue further education in Europe, first in England and later in Germany.
In England, he earned a second BA at Trinity College, Cambridge, and subsequently qualified as a
barrister at Lincoln's Inn. In Germany, he obtained a PhD in philosophy at the University of
Munich, with his thesis focusing on "The Development of Metaphysics in Persia" in 1908. Upon
his return to Lahore in 1908, Iqbal established a law practice but primarily focused on producing
scholarly works on politics, economics, history, philosophy, and religion. He is most renowned
for his poetic compositions, including "Asrar-e-Khudi," for which he was honored with a British
knighthood upon its publication,[17] "Rumuz-e-Bekhudi," and "Bang-e-Dara." His literary works in
the Persian language garnered him recognition in Iran, where he is commonly known as Iqbal-e
Lahori, meaning "Iqbal of Lahore."
An ardent proponent of the political and
spiritual revival of the Muslim world,
Sir Allama
particularly of the Muslims in the Indian
subcontinent, Iqbal's series of lectures he Muhammad Iqbal
delivered to this effect were published as The
Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam in
1930. He was elected to the Punjab ‫محمد اقبال‬
Legislative Council in 1927 and held several
positions in the All-India Muslim League. In
his Allahabad Address, delivered at the
League's annual assembly in 1930, he
formulated a political framework for the
Muslim-majority regions spanning
northwestern India, spurring the League's
pursuit of the two-nation theory.[9]

In August 1947, nine years after Iqbal's death,

the partition of India gave way to the
establishment of Pakistan, a newly
independent Islamic state in which Iqbal was
honoured as the national poet. He is also
known in Pakistani society as Hakim ul- Iqbal in 1938
Ummat (lit. 'The Wise Man of the Ummah') and
as Mufakkir-e-Pakistan (lit. 'The Thinker of
Pakistan'). The anniversary of his birth (Yom-e Born 9
Weladat-e Muḥammad Iqbal), 9 November, is
observed as a public holiday in Pakistan. November
1877
Sialkot,
Punjab,
British
 India
Biography (now
Punjab,

Background Pakistan)

Died 21 April
1938
(aged 60)
Lahore,
Punjab,
Iqbal's mother, Imam Bibi who
died on 9 November 1914.
Iqbal expressed his feeling of
British
pathos in a poetic form after
her death.
India
Iqbal was born on 9 November 1877 in a
Punjabi-Kashmiri family[18] from Sialkot in the
(now
Punjab Province of British India (now in
Pakistan).[19] His family traced their ancestry
Punjab,
back to the Sapru clan of Kashmiri Pandits
who were from a south Kashmiri village in
Pakistan)
Kulgam[20] and converted to Islam in the 15th
century.[21] Iqbal's mother-tongue was
[22]
Resting Mazar-e-
Punjabi, and he conversed mostly in
Punjabi and Urdu in his daily life.[23] In the place Iqbal,
19th century, when the Sikh Empire was
conquering Kashmir, his grandfather's family Lahore
migrated to Punjab. Iqbal's grandfather was
an eighth cousin of Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru, an
important lawyer and freedom fighter who Nationality British
would eventually become an admirer of
Iqbal.[24] Iqbal often mentioned and Indian
commemorated his Kashmiri lineage in his
writings.[25] According to scholar Annemarie
Schimmel, Iqbal often wrote about his being "a
Alma mater Scotch
son of Kashmiri-Brahmans but (being)
acquainted with the wisdom of Rumi and
Mission
Tabrizi."[26]
College (
Iqbal's father, Sheikh Noor Muhammad (died
1930), was a tailor, not formally educated, but Governm
[27][28]
a religious man. Iqbal's mother Imam
Bibi, a Kashmiri from Sambrial,[29] was College (
described as a polite and humble woman who
helped the poor and her neighbours with their MA)
problems. She died on 9 November 1914 in
Sialkot.[30][31] Iqbal loved his mother, and on Universit
her death he expressed his feelings of pathos
in an elegy:[27] of

Who would wait for me anxiously

Cambrid
in my native place?
(BA)
Who would display restlessness if
my letter fails to arrive? Universit
I will visit thy grave with this
complaint: of Munic
Who will now think of me in
midnight prayers? (PhD)
All thy life thy love served me with
devotion—
Occupations Philoso
When I became fit to serve thee,
thou hast departed.[27] · author
 politicia
Early education
Notable work Bang-e
Iqbal was four years old when he was sent to
a mosque to receive instruction in reading the Tarana
Qur'an.[32] He learned the Arabic language
from his teacher, Syed Mir Hassan, the head Milli, Th
of the madrasa and professor of Arabic at
Scotch Mission College in Sialkot, where he
Secrets
matriculated in 1893.[33] He received an
Intermediate level with the Faculty of Arts
the Sel
diploma in 1895.[32][34][35] The same year he
enrolled at Government College University,
Secrets
where he obtained his Bachelor of Arts in
philosophy, English literature and Arabic in
Selfless
1897, and won the Khan Bahadurddin F.S.
Jalaluddin medal for his performance in
Messag
Arabic.[34] In 1899, he received his Master of
Arts degree from the same college and won
from th
first place in philosophy in the University of
the Punjab.[32][34][35]
East, P
Psalms
Javid N
Sare Ja
se Acch

Children 6
 Institutions Jamia
Marriages
Millia
Islamia
(co-
founder)

Thesis The
Development
of

Allama Iqbal with his son Javed Iqbal

Metaphysics
in 1930
in
Iqbal married four times under different
circumstances.[36] Persia (1908)
His first marriage Doctoral Fritz
was in 1895 when advisor Hommel
he was 18 years Language Urdu ·
old. His bride, Persian ·
Karim Bibi, was
the daughter of a English ·
Gujrati physician, Punjabi

Khan Bahadur Ata Main Urdu

interests
Muhammad literature

Khan. Her sister · Persian

poetry ·
was the mother of
Islamic
director and
history ·
music composer
Islamic
Khwaja Khurshid revival
Anwar.[37][38] Their
Notable Allahabad
families arranged ideas
Address
the marriage, and (1930)
the couple had
Signature
two children; a
daughter, Miraj
Begum (1895–
 1915), and a son, Aftab Iqbal (1899–
1979), who became a barrister.[36][39]
Another son is said to have died after
birth in 1901.
Iqbal and Karim Bibi separated somewhere between 1910 and 1913. Despite this, he continued
to financially support her till his death.[40]

Iqbal's second marriage took place on

26 August 1910 with the niece of Hakim
Noor-ud-Din.[41]
Iqbal's third marriage was with Mukhtar
Begum, and it was held in December
1914, shortly after the death of Iqbal's
mother the previous November.[42][34]
They had a son, but both the mother and
son died shortly after birth in 1924.[36]
 Later, Iqbal married Sardar Begum, and
they became the parents of a son, Javed
Iqbal (1924–2015), who became Senior
Justice of the Supreme Court of
Pakistan, and a daughter, Muneera Bano
(born 1930).[36][40] One of Muneera's
sons is the philanthropist-cum-socialite
Yousuf Salahuddin.[40]

Higher education in Europe

Iqbal was influenced by the teachings of Sir Thomas Arnold, his philosophy teacher at
Government College Lahore, to pursue higher education in the West. In 1905, he travelled to
England for that purpose. While already acquainted with Friedrich Nietzsche and Henri Bergson,
Iqbal would discover Rumi slightly before his departure to England, and he would teach the
Masnavi to his friend Swami Rama Tirtha, who in return would teach him Sanskrit.[43] Iqbal
qualified for a scholarship from Trinity College, University of Cambridge, and obtained a Bachelor
of Arts in 1906. This B.A. degree in London, made him eligible, to practice as an advocate, as it
was being practised those days. In the same year he was called to the bar as a barrister at
Lincoln's Inn. In 1907, Iqbal moved to Germany to pursue his doctoral studies, and earned a
Doctor of Philosophy degree from the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich in 4 November
1907 (Published in 1908 in London). Working under the guidance of Friedrich Hommel, Iqbal's
doctoral thesis was entitled The Development of Metaphysics in Persia.[32][44][45][46] Among his
fellow students in Munich was Hans-Hasso von Veltheim who later happened to visit Iqbal the
day before Iqbal died.[47]

Plaque at Portugal Place, Cambridge,

commemorating Allama Iqbal's
residence there during his time at
Trinity College

In 1907, he had a close friendship with the writer Atiya Fyzee in both Britain and Germany. Atiya
would later publish their correspondence.[48] While Iqbal was in Heidelberg in 1907, his German
professor Emma Wegenast taught him about Goethe's Faust, Heine and Nietzsche.[49] He
mastered German in three months.[50] A street in Heidelberg has been named in his memory,
"Iqbal Ufer". During his study in Europe, Iqbal began to write poetry in Persian. He preferred to
write in this language because doing so made it easier to express his thoughts. He would write
continuously in Persian throughout his life.[32]
Academic career

Photograph taken during

Allama Iqbal's youth in 1899

Iqbal began his career as a reader of Arabic after completing his Master of Arts degree in 1899,
at Oriental College and shortly afterward was selected as a junior professor of philosophy at
Government College Lahore, where he had also been a student in the past. He worked there until
he left for England in 1905. In 1907 he went to Germany for PhD In 1908, he returned from
Germany and joined the same college again as a professor of philosophy and English
literature.[51] In the same period Iqbal began practising law at the Chief Court of Lahore, but he
soon quit law practice and devoted himself to literary works, becoming an active member of
Anjuman-e-Himayat-e-Islam.[34] In 1919, he became the general secretary of the same
organization. Iqbal's thoughts in his work primarily focus on the spiritual direction and
development of human society, centered around experiences from his travels and stays in
Western Europe and the Middle East. He was profoundly influenced by Western philosophers
such as Nietzsche, Bergson, and Goethe. He also closely worked with Ibrahim Hisham during his
stay at the Aligarh Muslim University.[27][49]

The poetry and philosophy of Rumi strongly influenced Iqbal. Deeply grounded in religion since
childhood, Iqbal began concentrating intensely on the study of Islam, the culture and history of
Islamic civilization and its political future, while embracing Rumi as "his guide".[27] Iqbal's works
focus on reminding his readers of the past glories of Islamic civilization and delivering the
message of a pure, spiritual focus on Islam as a source for socio-political liberation and
greatness. Iqbal denounced political divisions within and amongst Muslim nations, and
frequently alluded to and spoke in terms of the global Muslim community or the Ummah.[52][27]

Iqbal's poetry was translated into many European languages in the early part of the 20th
century.[53] Iqbal's Asrar-i-Khudi and Javed Nama were translated into English by R. A. Nicholson
and A. J. Arberry, respectively.[53][54]

Legal career

Iqbal as a barrister-at-law

Iqbal was not only a prolific writer but also a known advocate. He appeared before the Lahore
High Court in both civil and criminal matters. There are more than 100 reported judgments to his
name.[55][56][57][58][59][60]
Final years and death

The tomb of Muhammad Iqbal at the

entrance of the Badshahi Mosque in
Lahore

In 1933, after returning from a trip to Spain and Afghanistan, Iqbal suffered from a mysterious
throat illness.[61] He spent his final years helping Chaudhry Niaz Ali Khan to establish the Dar ul
Islam Trust Institute at a Jamalpur estate near Pathankot,[62][63] where there were plans to
subsidize studies in classical Islam and contemporary social science. He also advocated for an
independent Muslim state. Iqbal ceased practising law in 1934 and was granted a pension by
the Nawab of Bhopal. In his final years, he frequently visited the Dargah of famous Sufi Ali
Hujwiri in Lahore for spiritual guidance. After suffering for months from his illness, Iqbal died in
Lahore on 21 April 1938.[52][32] It is maintained that he breathed his last listening to a kafi of
Bulleh Shah.[64][65] His tomb is located in Hazuri Bagh, the enclosed garden between the
entrance of the Badshahi Mosque and the Lahore Fort, and official guards are provided by the
Government of Pakistan.
Efforts and influences

Political

Iqbal with Muslim politicians.

(L to R): M. Iqbal (third), Syed Zafarul
Hasan (sixth) at Aligarh Muslim University.

Iqbal first became interested in national affairs in his youth. He received considerable
recognition from the Punjabi elite after his return from England in 1908, and he was closely
associated with Mian Muhammad Shafi. When the All-India Muslim League was expanded to the
provincial level, and Shafi received a significant role in the structural organization of the Punjab
Muslim League, Iqbal was made one of the first three joint secretaries along with Shaikh Abdul
Aziz and Maulvi Mahbub Alam.[66] While dividing his time between law practice and poetry, Iqbal
remained active in the Muslim League. He did not support Indian involvement in World War I and
stayed in close touch with Muslim political leaders such as Mohammad Ali Jouhar and
Muhammad Ali Jinnah. He was a critic of the mainstream Indian National Congress, which he
regarded as dominated by Hindus, and was disappointed with the League when, during the
1920s, it was absorbed in factional divides between the pro-British group led by Shafi and the
centrist group led by Jinnah.[67] He was active in the Khilafat Movement, and was among the
founding fathers of Jamia Millia Islamia which was established at Aligarh in October 1920. He
was also given the offer of being the first vice-chancellor of Jamia Millia Islamia by Mahatma
Gandhi, which he refused.[68]
 Muhammad Iqbal, then president of
the Muslim League in 1930 and
address deliverer

In November 1926, with the encouragement of friends and supporters, Iqbal contested the
election for a seat in the Punjab Legislative Assembly from the Muslim district of Lahore, and
defeated his opponent by a margin of 3,177 votes.[52] He supported the constitutional proposals
presented by Jinnah to guarantee Muslim political rights and influence in a coalition with the
Congress and worked with Aga Khan and other Muslim leaders to mend the factional divisions
and achieve unity in the Muslim League.[67] While in Lahore he was a friend of Abdul Sattar
Ranjoor.[69]

Iqbal, Jinnah, and the concept of

"Pakistan"
Ideologically separated from Congress Muslim leaders, Iqbal had also been disillusioned with
the politicians of the Muslim League, owing to the factional conflict that plagued the League in
the 1920s. Discontent with factional leaders like Shafi and Fazl-ur-Rahman, Iqbal came to believe
that only Jinnah was a political leader capable of preserving unity and fulfilling the League's
objectives of Muslim political empowerment. Building a strong, personal correspondence with
Jinnah, Iqbal was influential in convincing Jinnah to end his self-imposed exile in London, return
to India and take charge of the League. Iqbal firmly believed that Jinnah was the only leader
capable of drawing Indian Muslims to the League and maintaining party unity before the British
and the Congress:

I know you are a busy man, but I do hope you won't mind my writing to you often,
as you are the only Muslim in India today to whom the community has the right to
look up for safe guidance through the storm which is coming to North-West India
and, perhaps, to the whole of India.[70]

While Iqbal espoused the idea of Muslim-majority provinces in 1930, Jinnah would continue to
hold talks with the Congress through the decade and only officially embraced the goal of
Pakistan in 1940. Some historians postulate that Jinnah always remained hopeful for an
agreement with the Congress and never fully desired the partition of India.[71] Iqbal's close
correspondence with Jinnah is speculated by some historians as having been responsible for
Jinnah's embrace of the idea of Pakistan. Iqbal elucidated to Jinnah his vision of a separate
Muslim state in a letter sent on 21 June 1937:

A separate federation of Muslim Provinces, reformed on the lines I have suggested

above, is the only course by which we can secure a peaceful India and save
Muslims from the domination of Non-Muslims. Why should not the Muslims of
North-West India and Bengal be considered as nations entitled to self-
determination just as other nations in India and outside India are.[52]

Iqbal, serving as president of the Punjab Muslim League, criticized Jinnah's political actions,
including a political agreement with Punjabi leader Sikandar Hyat Khan, whom Iqbal saw as a
representative of feudal classes and not committed to Islam as the core political philosophy.
Nevertheless, Iqbal worked constantly to encourage Muslim leaders and masses to support
Jinnah and the League. Speaking about the political future of Muslims in India, Iqbal said:

There is only one way out. Muslims should strengthen Jinnah's hands. They should
join the Muslim League. Indian question, as is now being solved, can be countered
by our united front against both the Hindus and the English. Without it, our
 demands are not going to be accepted. People say our demands smack of
communalism. This is sheer propaganda. These demands relate to the defense of
our national existence. The united front can be formed under the leadership of the
Muslim League. And the Muslim League can succeed only on account of Jinnah.
Now, none but Jinnah is capable of leading the Muslims.[70]

Madani–Iqbal debate
A famous debate was held between Iqbal and Hussain Ahmed Madani on the question of
nationalism in the late 1930s. Madani's position throughout was to insist on the Islamic
legitimacy of embracing a culturally plural, secular democracy as the best and the only realistic
future for India's Muslims where Iqbal insisted on a religiously defined, homogeneous Muslim
society. Madani and Iqbal both appreciated this point and they never advocated the creation of
an absolute 'Islamic State'. They differed only in their first step. According to Madani the first
step was the freedom of India for which composite nationalism was necessary. According to
Iqbal the first step was the creation of a community of Muslims in the Muslim majority land, i.e.
a Muslim India within India.[72][73]

Revival of Islamic policy

Iqbal's six English lectures were published in Lahore in 1930, and then by the Oxford University
Press in 1934 in the book The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam. The lectures had
been delivered at Madras, Hyderabad and Aligarh.[52] These lectures dwell on the role of Islam as
a religion and as a political and legal philosophy in the modern age.[52] In these lectures Iqbal
firmly rejects the political attitudes and conduct of Muslim politicians, whom he saw as morally
misguided, attached to power and without any standing with the Muslim masses.

Iqbal expressed fears that not only would secularism weaken the spiritual foundations of Islam
and Muslim society but that India's Hindu-majority population would crowd out Muslim heritage,
culture, and political influence. In his travels to Egypt, Afghanistan, Iran, and Turkey, he promoted
ideas of greater Islamic political co-operation and unity, calling for the shedding of nationalist
differences.[27] He also speculated on different political arrangements to guarantee Muslim
political power; in a dialogue with Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, Iqbal expressed his desire to see Indian
provinces as autonomous units under the direct control of the British government and with no
central Indian government. He envisaged autonomous Muslim regions in India. Under a single
Indian union, he feared for Muslims, who would suffer in many respects, especially concerning
their existentially separate entity as Muslims.[52]

Iqbal was elected president of the Muslim League in 1930 at its session in Allahabad in the
United Provinces, as well as for the session in Lahore in 1932. In his presidential address on 29
December 1930 he outlined a vision of an independent state for Muslim-majority provinces in
north-western India:[52][74]

I would like to see the Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sind and Baluchistan
amalgamated into a single state. Self-government within the British Empire, or
without the British Empire, the formation of a consolidated Northwest Indian
Muslim state appears to me to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of
Northwest India.[52][74]

In his speech, Iqbal emphasised that, unlike Christianity, Islam came with "legal concepts" with
"civic significance", with its "religious ideals" considered as inseparable from social order:
"Therefore, if it means a displacement of the Islamic principle of solidarity, the construction of a
policy on national lines, is simply unthinkable to a Muslim."[75] Iqbal thus stressed not only the
need for the political unity of Muslim communities but the undesirability of blending the Muslim
population into a wider society not based on Islamic principles.

Even as he rejected secularism and nationalism he would not elucidate or specify if his ideal
Islamic state would be a theocracy, and criticized the "intellectual attitudes" of Islamic scholars
(ulema) as having "reduced the Law of Islam practically to the state of immobility".[76]

The latter part of Iqbal's life was concentrated on political activity. He travelled across Europe
and West Asia to garner political and financial support for the League. He reiterated the ideas of
his 1932 address, and, during the third Round Table Conference, he opposed the Congress and
proposals for transfer of power without considerable autonomy for Muslim provinces.

He would serve as president of the Punjab Muslim League, and would deliver speeches and
publish articles in an attempt to rally Muslims across India as a single political entity. Iqbal
consistently criticized feudal classes in Punjab as well as Muslim politicians opposed to the
League. Many accounts of Iqbal's frustration toward Congress leadership were also pivotal in
providing a vision for the two-nation theory.[77][78]

Patron of Tolu-e-Islam

Copy of the first issue of Tolu-e-Islam

Iqbal was the first patron of Tolu-e-Islam, a historical, political, religious and cultural journal of
the Muslims of British India. For a long time, Iqbal wanted a journal to propagate his ideas and
the aims and objectives of the All India Muslim League. In 1935, according to his instructions,
Syed Nazeer Niazi initiated and edited the journal,[79] named after Iqbal's poem "Tulu'i Islam".
Niazi dedicated the first issue of the journal to Iqbal. The journal would play an important role in
the Pakistan movement.[67] Later, the journal was continued[80] by Ghulam Ahmed Pervez, who
had contributed many articles in its early editions.
Literary work

Persian
Iqbal's poetic works are written primarily in Persian rather than Urdu. Among his 12,000 verses
of poetry, about 7,000 verses are in Persian.[52] In 1915, he published his first collection of poetry,
the Asrar-i-Khudi ‫( اسراِر خودی‬Secrets of the Self) in Persian. The poems emphasise the spirit and
self from a religious perspective. Many critics have called this Iqbal's finest poetic work.[81] In
Asrar-i-Khudi, Iqbal explains his philosophy of "Khudi", or "Self".[52][27] Iqbal's use of the term
"Khudi" is synonymous with the word "Rooh" used in the Quran for a divine spark which is
present in every human being, and was said by Iqbal to be present in Adam, for which God
ordered all of the angels to prostrate in front of Adam.[52] Iqbal condemns self-destruction. For
him, the aim of life is self-realization and self-knowledge. He charts the stages through which
the "Self" has to pass before finally arriving at its point of perfection, enabling the knower of the
"Self" to become a vice-regent of God.[52]

In his Rumuz-i-Bekhudi ‫( رموِز بیخودی‬Hints of Selflessness), Iqbal seeks to prove the Islamic way
of life is the best code of conduct for a nation's viability. A person must keep his characteristics
intact, he asserts, but once this is achieved, he should sacrifice his ambitions for the needs of
the nation. Man cannot realize the "Self" outside of society. Published in 1917, this group of
poems has as its main themes the ideal community,[52] Islamic ethical and social principles, and
the relationship between the individual and society. Although he supports Islam, Iqbal also
recognises the positive aspects of other religions. Rumuz-i-Bekhudi complements the emphasis
on the self in Asrar-e-Khudi and the two collections are often put in the same volume under the
title Asrar-i-Rumuz (Hinting Secrets). It is addressed to the world's Muslims.[52]

Iqbal's 1924 publication, the Payam-e-Mashriq ‫( پیاِم مشرق‬The Message of the East), is closely
connected to the West-östlicher Diwan by the German poet Goethe. Goethe bemoans the West
having become too materialistic in outlook, and expects the East will provide a message of hope
to resuscitate spiritual values. Iqbal styles his work as a reminder to the West of the importance
of morality, religion, and civilization by underlining the need for cultivating feeling, ardor, and
dynamism. He asserts that an individual can never aspire to higher dimensions unless he learns
of the nature of spirituality.[52] In his first visit to Afghanistan, he presented Payam-e Mashreq to
King Amanullah Khan. In it, he admired the uprising of Afghanistan against the British Empire. In
1933, he was officially invited to Afghanistan to join the meetings regarding the establishment of
Kabul University.[49]

The Zabur-e-Ajam ‫( زبوِر عجم‬Persian Psalms), published in 1927, includes the poems "Gulshan-e-
Raz-e-Jadeed" ("Garden of New Secrets") and "Bandagi Nama" ("Book of Slavery"). In "Gulshan-e-
Raz-e-Jadeed", Iqbal first poses questions, then answers them with the help of ancient and
modern insight. "Bandagi Nama" denounces slavery and attempts to explain the spirit behind the
fine arts of enslaved societies. Here, as in other books, Iqbal insists on remembering the past,
doing well in the present and preparing for the future, while emphasising love, enthusiasm and
energy to fulfill the ideal life.[52]

Iqbal's 1932 work, the Javed Nama ‫( جاوید نامہ‬Book of Javed), is named after and in a manner
addressed to his son, who is featured in the poems. It follows the examples of the works of Ibn
Arabi and Dante's The Divine Comedy, through mystical and exaggerated depictions across time.
Iqbal depicts himself as Zinda Rud ("A stream full of life") guided by Rumi, "the master", through
various heavens and spheres and has the honour of approaching divinity and coming in contact
with divine illuminations. In a passage reliving a historical period, Iqbal condemns the Muslims
who were instrumental in the defeat and death of Nawab Siraj-ud-Daula of Bengal and Tipu
Sultan of Mysore by betraying them for the benefit of the British colonists, and thus delivering
their country to the shackles of slavery. In the end, by addressing his son Javed, he speaks to the
young people at large, and guides the "new generation".[82]

Pas Chih Bayed Kard Ay Aqwam-e-Sharq ‫شرق‬ ‫ پس چہ باید کرد اے اقواِم‬includes the poem "Musafir"
‫"( مسافر‬The Traveller"). Again, Iqbal depicts Rumi as a character and gives an exposition of the
mysteries of Islamic laws and Sufi perceptions. Iqbal laments the dissension and disunity
among the Indian Muslims as well as Muslim nations. "Musafir" is an account of one of Iqbal's
journeys to Afghanistan, in which the Pashtun people are counselled to learn the "secret of
Islam" and to "build up the self" within themselves.[52]

His love of the Persian language is evident in his works and poetry. He says in one of his
poems:[83]

‫[گرچہ ہندی در عذوبت شکر است‬84]

 garchi Hindi dar uzūbat shakkar ast

‫طرز گفتار دري شيرين تر است‬

tarz-i guftar-i Dari shirin tar ast

Translation: Even though in sweetness Hindi* [archaic name for Urdu, lit. "language of India"] is
sugar – (but) speech method in Dari [the variety of Persian in Afghanistan] is sweeter *

Throughout his life, Iqbal would prefer writing in Persian as he believed it allowed him to fully
express philosophical concepts, and it gave him a wider audience.[85]

Urdu

Sir Muhammad Iqbal in 1935, by Lady

Ottoline Morrell

Muhammad Iqbal's The Call of the Marching Bell (‫بانِگ درا‬, bang-e-dara), his first collection of Urdu
poetry, was published in 1924. It was written in three distinct phases of his life.[52] The poems he
wrote up to 1905—the year he left for England—reflect patriotism and the imagery of nature,
including the Urdu language patriotic "Saare Jahan se Accha".[49] The second set of poems date
from 1905 to 1908, when Iqbal studied in Europe, and dwell upon the nature of European society,
which he emphasised had lost spiritual and religious values. This inspired Iqbal to write poems
on the historical and cultural heritage of Islam and the Muslim community, with a global
perspective. Iqbal urges the entire Muslim community, addressed as the Ummah, to define
personal, social and political existence by the values and teachings of Islam.[86]
Iqbal's works were in Persian for most of his career, but after 1930 his works were mainly in
Urdu. His works in this period were often specifically directed at the Muslim masses of India,
with an even stronger emphasis on Islam and Muslim spiritual and political reawakening.
Published in 1935, Bal-e-Jibril ‫( باِل جبریل‬Wings of Gabriel) is considered by many critics as his
finest Urdu poetry and was inspired by his visit to Spain, where he visited the monuments and
legacy of the kingdom of the Moors. It consists of ghazals, poems, quatrains and epigrams and
carries a strong sense of religious passion.[87]

Zarb-i-Kalim ‫کلیم‬ ‫( ضرِب‬or The Rod of Moses) is another philosophical poetry book of Allama
Iqbal in Urdu, it was published in 1936, two years before his death. In which he described as his
political manifesto. It was published with the subtitle "A Declaration of War Against the Present
Times. Muhammad Iqbal argues that modern problems are due to the godlessness, materialism,
and injustice of modern civilization, which feeds on the subjugation and exploitation of weak
nations, especially the Indian Muslims.[88]

Iqbal's final work was Armughan-e-Hijaz ‫( ارمغاِن حجاز‬The Gift of Hijaz), published posthumously
in 1938. The first part contains quatrains in Persian, and the second part contains some poems
and epigrams in Urdu. The Persian quatrains convey the impression that the poet is travelling
through the Hijaz in his imagination. The profundity of ideas and intensity of passion are the
salient features of these short poems.[89]

Iqbal's vision of mystical experience is clear in one of his Urdu ghazals, which was written in
London during his student days. Some verses of that ghazal are:[52]

At last, the silent tongue of Hijaz has

announced to the ardent ear the tiding

That the covenant which had been given to the
desert-[dwellers] is going to be renewed
vigorously:
The lion who had emerged from the desert and
had toppled the Roman Empire is
As I am told by the angels, about to get up
again (from his slumbers.)
You the [dwellers] of the West, should know that
the world of God is not a shop (of yours).
 Your imagined pure gold is about to lose its
standard value (as fixed by you).
Your civilization will commit suicide with its own daggers.

For a house built on a fragile bark of wood is not longlasting[52]

English
Iqbal wrote two books, The Development of Metaphysics in Persia (1908) and The Reconstruction
of Religious Thought in Islam (1930), and many letters in the English language. He also wrote a
book on Economics that is now rare. In these, he revealed his thoughts regarding Persian
ideology and Islamic Sufism – in particular, his beliefs that Islamic Sufism activates the
searching soul to a superior perception of life. He also discussed philosophy, God and the
meaning of prayer, human spirit and Muslim culture, as well as other political, social and
religious problems.[52]

Iqbal was invited to Cambridge to participate in a conference in 1931, where he expressed his
views, including those on the separation of church and state, to students and other
participants:[52]

I would like to offer a few pieces of advice to the young men who are at present
studying at Cambridge. ... I advise you to guard against atheism and materialism.
The biggest blunder made by Europe was the separation of Church and State. This
deprived their culture of moral soul and diverted it to atheistic materialism. I had
twenty-five years ago seen through the drawbacks of this civilization and,
therefore, had made some prophecies. They had been delivered by my tongue,
although I did not quite understand them. This happened in 1907. ... After six or
seven years, my prophecies came true, word by word. The European war of 1914
was an outcome of the mistakes mentioned above made by the European nations in
the separation of the Church and the State.[52]
Punjabi
Iqbal also wrote some poems in Punjabi, such as "Piyaara Jedi" and "Baba Bakri Wala", which he
penned in 1929 on the occasion of his son Javed's birthday. A collection of his Punjabi poetry
was put on display at the Iqbal Manzil in Sialkot.[90]

Iqbal was deeply influenced by Punjabi Sufis. Once a comrade recited a poem by Bulleh Shah
and he was "so much touched and overwhelmed...that tears rolled down his cheeks."[91]

Modern reputation

"Poet of the East"

Allama Iqbal after the

conferment of a Doctorate
of Literature by the
University of the Punjab in
1933

Iqbal has been referred to as the "Poet of the East" by academics, institutions and the
media.[54][92][93][94][95][96][97]
The Vice-Chancellor of Quaid-e-Azam University, Dr. Masoom Yasinzai, stated in a seminar
addressing a distinguished gathering of educators and intellectuals that Iqbal is not only a poet
of the East but is a universal poet. Moreover, Iqbal is not restricted to any specific segment of
the world community, but he is for all humanity.[98]

Yet it should also be born in mind that while dedicating his Eastern Divan to
Goethe, the cultural icon par excellence, Iqbal's Payam-i-Mashriq constituted both
a reply as well as a corrective to the Western Divan of Goethe. For by stylizing
himself as the representative of the East, Iqbal endeavored to talk on equal terms
to Goethe as the representative of West.[99]

Iqbal's revolutionary works through his poetry affected the Muslims of the subcontinent. Iqbal
thought that Muslims had long been suppressed by the colonial enlargement and growth of the
West. For this concept, Iqbal is recognised as the "Poet of the East".[93][100][101]

So to conclude, let me cite Annemarie Schimmel in Gabriel's Wing who lauds

Iqbal's "unique way of weaving a grand tapestry of thought from eastern and
western yarns" (p. xv), a creative activity which, to cite my own volume
Revisioning Iqbal, endows Muhammad Iqbal with the stature of a "universalist
poet" and thinker whose principal aim was to explore mitigating alternative
discourses to construct a bridge between the "East" and the "West."[99]

The Urdu world is very familiar with Iqbal as the "Poet of the East".[101] Iqbal is also called
Muffakir-e-Pakistan ("The Thinker of Pakistan") and Hakeem-ul-Ummat ("The Sage of the
Ummah"). The Pakistan government officially named him Pakistan's "national poet".[53]
Iran
In Iran, Iqbal is known as Iqbāl-e Lāhorī (Persian: ‫( )اقبال الهوری‬Iqbal of Lahore). Iqbal's Asrare-i-
Khudi and Bal-i-Jibreel are particularly popular in Iran. At the same time, many scholars in Iran
have recognised the importance of Iqbal's poetry in inspiring and sustaining the Iranian
Revolution of 1979.[102][103] During the early phases of the revolutionary movement, it was
common to see people gathering in a park or corner to listen to someone reciting Iqbal's Persian
poetry, which is why people of all ages in Iran today are familiar with at least some of his poetry,
notably Zabur-i-Ajam.[104][103]

Ayatollah Ali Khamenei has stated, "We have a large number of non-Persian-speaking poets in
the history of our literature, but I cannot point out any of them whose poetry possesses the
qualities of Iqbal's Persian poetry. Iqbal was not acquainted with Persian idiom, as he spoke
Urdu at home and talked to his friends in Urdu or English. He did not know the rules of Persian
prose writing. [...] In spite of not having tasted the Persian way of life, never living in the cradle of
Persian culture, and never having any direct association with it, he cast with great mastery the
most delicate, the most subtle and radically new philosophical themes into the mould of Persian
poetry, some of which are unsurpassable yet."[105]

By the early 1950s, Iqbal became known among the intelligentsia of Iran. Iranian poet laureate
Muhammad Taqi Bahar universalized Iqbal in Iran. He highly praised the work of Iqbal in
Persian.[106]

In 1952, Iranian Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadeq, a national hero because of his oil
nationalization policy, broadcast a special radio message on Iqbal Day and praised his role in the
struggle of the Indian Muslims against British imperialism. At the end of the 1950s, Iranians
published the complete Persian works. In the 1960s, Iqbal's thesis on Persian philosophy was
translated from English to Persian. Ali Shariati, a Sorbonne-educated sociologist, supported
Iqbal as his role model as Iqbal had Rumi. An example of the admiration and appreciation of Iran
for Iqbal is that he received the place of honour in the pantheon of the Persian elegy writers.

Iqbal became even more popular in Iran in the 1970s. His verses appeared on banners, and his
poetry was recited at meetings of intellectuals. Iqbal inspired many intellectuals, including Ali
Shariati, Mehdi Bazargan and Abdulkarim Soroush. His book The Reconstruction of Religious
Thought in Islam was translated by Mohammad Masud Noruzi.[103]
Key Iranian thinkers and leaders who were influenced by Iqbal's poetry during the rise of the
Iranian revolution include Khamenei, Shariati and Soroush, although much of the revolutionary
guard was familiar with Iqbal's poetry.[107] At the inauguration of the First Iqbal Summit in Tehran
(1986), Khamenei stated that in its "conviction that the Quran and Islam are to be made the basis
of all revolutions and movements", Iran was "exactly following the path that was shown to us by
Iqbal".[107] Shariati, who has been described as a core ideologue for the Iranian Revolution,
described Iqbal as a figure who brought a message of "rejuvenation", "awakening" and "power" to
the Muslim world.[108]

Arab countries
Iqbal has an audience in the Arab world, and in Egypt one of his poems has been sung by Umm
Kulthum, the most famous modern Egyptian artist, while among his modern admirers there are
influential literary figures such as Farouk Shousha.[109] In Saudi Arabia, among the important
personalities who were influenced by Iqbal there was Abdullah bin Faisal Al Saud, a member of
the Saudi royal family and himself a poet.[110]

Turkey
Mehmet Akif Ersoy, considered the national poet of Turkey for having composed its national
anthem, was directly influenced by Iqbal.[111]

In 2016, Turkey's Minister for Culture and Tourism Nabi Avcı presented the Dost Award to Walid
Iqbal, the grandson of Iqbal, in order to honour Iqbal's "services to Islam", the ceremony being
held in Konya, the resting place of Rumi.[112]
Western countries

Sign for the street Iqbal-Ufer in

Heidelberg, Germany, honouring
Iqbal[113]

Iqbal's views on the Western world have been applauded by Westerners, including United States
Supreme Court Associate Justice William O. Douglas, who said that Iqbal's beliefs had "universal
appeal".[114] Soviet biographer N. P. Anikoy wrote:

[Iqbal is] great for his passionate condemnation of weak will and passiveness, his
angry protest against inequality, discrimination and oppression in all forms, i.e.,
economic, social, political, national, racial, religious, etc., his preaching of
optimism, an active attitude towards life and man's high purpose in the world, in a
word, he is great for his assertion of the noble ideals and principles of humanism,
democracy, peace and friendship among peoples.[114]

Others, including Wilfred Cantwell Smith, stated that with Iqbal's anti-capitalist holdings, he was
"anti-intellect", because "capitalism fosters intellect".[114] Freeland Abbott objected to Iqbal's
views of the West, saying that they were based on the role of imperialism and that Iqbal was not
immersed enough in Western culture to learn about the various benefits of the modern
democracies, economic practices and science.[114] Critics of Abbot's viewpoint note that Iqbal
was raised and educated in the European way of life, and spent enough time there to grasp the
general concepts of Western civilization.[114]
Legacy

ؒ
" ‫"صد سالہ تقریب پیدائش عالمہ محمد اقبال‬

(P, sad, one hundred) (P. sāla/sālha,

years) (A taqrīb, anniversary) (P.
paidāʼish, birth) of Allamah
Muhammad Iqbal (R.A) on the
obverse and
"‫ روپیہ‬1 ‫"حکومِت پاکستان‬
"Government of Pakistan, 1 Rūpiyah"
on the reverse, among
commemorative coins issued by the
State Bank of Pakistan in 1977

Iqbal is widely commemorated in Pakistan, where he is regarded as the ideological founder of

the state. Iqbal is the namesake of many public institutions, including the Allama Iqbal Campus
Punjab University in Lahore, the Allama Iqbal Medical College in Lahore, Iqbal Stadium in
Faisalabad, Allama Iqbal Open University in Pakistan, Iqbal Memorial Institute in Srinagar, Allama
Iqbal Library in the University of Kashmir, the Allama Iqbal International Airport in Lahore, Iqbal
Hostel in Government College University, Lahore, the Allama Iqbal Hall at Nishtar Medical
College in Multan, Gulshan-e-Iqbal Town in Karachi, Allama Iqbal Town in Lahore, Allama Iqbal
Hall at Aligarh Muslim University, Allama Iqbal Hostel at Jamia Millia Islamia in New Delhi and
Iqbal Hall at the University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore.[115] Iqbal Academy Lahore
has published magazines on Iqbal in Persian, English and Urdu.

In India, his song "Tarana-e-Hind" is frequently played as a patriotic song speaking of communal
harmony.[116] Dr. Mohammad Iqbal, an Indian documentary film directed by K.A. Abbas and
written by Ali Sardar Jafri was released in 1978. It was produced by Government of India's Films
Division.[117][118]

The Government of Madhya Pradesh in India awards the Iqbal Samman, named in honour of the
poet, every year at the Bharat Bhavan to Indian writers for their contributions to Urdu literature
and poetry.[119]

The Pakistani government and public organizations have sponsored the establishment of
educational institutions, colleges, and schools dedicated to Iqbal and have established the Iqbal
Academy Pakistan to research, teach and preserve his works, literature and philosophy. The
Allama Iqbal Stamps Society was established for the promotion of Iqbal in philately and in other
hobbies. His son Javed Iqbal served as a justice of the Supreme Court of Pakistan. Javaid
Manzil was Iqbal's last residence.[120]
Gallery
Father of At a party A view of Iqbal
Iqbal during the reception
(Shaikh the 2nd conferen given by
Noor Round ce in the
Muhamm Table West National
ad) Conferen Jerusale League,
ce in m. Iqbal London,
London is seen in 1932
in 1931 sitting on
the
extreme
right in
 the first
row
(1931).

Iqbal in Iqbal in a Iqbal at Iqbal in

1934 reception Shimla in Afghanist
given by 1930s an with
citizens Sulmain
of Lahore Nadavi
in 1933 and Ross
Masood
Iqbal Iqbal
suppose
dly in
1933

Bibliography

Prose book in Urdu

Ilm ul Iqtisad (1903)[52]

Prose books in English

The Development of Metaphysics in
Persia (1908)[53][52]

The Reconstruction of Religious Thought

in Islam (1930)[53][52]

Poetic books in Persian

Asrar-i-Khudi (1915)[52]

Rumuz-i-Bekhudi (1917)[52]

Payam-i-Mashriq (1923)[52]

Zabur-i-Ajam (1927)[52]

Javid Nama (1932)[52]

Pas Cheh Bayed Kard ai Aqwam-e-Sharq

(1936)[52]
Armughan-e-Hijaz (1938)[53][52][67] (in
Persian and Urdu)
 Poetic books in Urdu

Bang-i-Dara (1924)[52]

Bal-i-Jibril (1935)[52]

Zarb-i Kalim (1936)[52]

See also

Index of Muhammad Iqbal–related

articles

References

1. Lelyveld, David (2004), "Muhammad Iqbal"

(https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/en
cyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-map
s/iqbal-muhammad-c-1877-1938) , in
Martin, Richard C. (ed.), Encyclopedia of
 Islam and the Muslim World: A-L,
Macmillan, p. 356, ISBN 978-0-02-865604-5,
"Muhammad Iqbal, South Asian poet and
ideological innovator, wrote poetry in Urdu
and Persian and discursive prose, primarily
in English, of particular significance in the
formulation of a national ethos for
Pakistan."

2. Iqbal, Sir Muhammad; Zakaria, Rafiq (1981),

Shikwa and Jawab-i-shikwa (https://books.
google.com/books?id=SeiAAAAAIAAJ) (in
English and Urdu), translated by Singh,
Khushwant, Oxford University Press,
ISBN 978-0-19-561324-7, " "Iqbal it is true, is
essentially a poet of Islam" (from the
foreword by Rafiq Zakaria, p. 9)"
3. Kiernan, V.G. (2013). Poems from Iqbal:
Renderings in English Verse with
Comparative Urdu Text (https://books.goog
le.com/books?id=qpRsMQEACAAJ) .
Oxford University Press and Iqbal Academy
Pakistan. pp. xi–xiii. ISBN 978-0-19-
906616-2. Quote: "In Persian, ... he
published six volumes of mainly long
poems between 1915 and 1936, ... more or
less complete works on philosophical
themes" (p. xiii)"
4. Sevea, Iqbal Singh (2012), The Political
Philosophy of Muhammad Iqbal: Islam and
Nationalism in Late Colonial India (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=VrItm_F6wncC
&pg=PA14) , Cambridge University Press,
pp. 14–, ISBN 978-1-107-00886-1, "Iqbal
was elected to the Punjab Legislative
Council in 1927 and held various posts both
in the All-India Muslim League and the
Punjab Provincial Muslim League."
5. Kiernan, V.G. (2013). Poems from Iqbal:
Renderings in English Verse with
Comparative Urdu Text (https://books.goog
le.com/books?id=qpRsMQEACAAJ) .
Oxford University Press and Iqbal Academy
Pakistan. pp. xi–xiii. ISBN 978-0-19-
906616-2. Quote: "In Urdu, Iqbal is allowed
to have been far the greatest poet of this
century, and by most critics to be the only
equal of Ghalib (1797–1869). ... the Urdu
poems, addressed to a real and familiar
audience close at hand, have the merit of
being direct, spontaneous utterances on
tangible subjects. (p. xiii)"
6. McDonough, Sheila D (5 November 2020),
Muhammad Iqbal (https://www.britannica.c
om/biography/Muhammad-Iqbal) ,
Encyclopedia Britannica, retrieved
7 February 2021, "He is considered the
greatest poet in Urdu of the 20th century"
7. Anjum, Zafar (13 October 2014), Iqbal: The
Life of a Poet, Philosopher and Politician (ht
tps://books.google.com/books?id=infNBAA
AQBAJ&pg=PT16) , Random House,
pp. 16–, ISBN 978-81-8400-656-8,
"Responding to this call, he published a
collection of Urdu poems, Bal-e-Jibril (The
Wings of Gabriel) in 1935 and Zarb-e Kalim
(The Stroke of the Rod of Moses) in 1936.
Through this, Iqbal achieved the status of
the greatest Urdu poet in the twentieth
century."
8. Robinson, Francis (1996), The Cambridge
Illustrated History of the Islamic World (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=Fz5kgjMD
nOIC&pg=PA283) , Cambridge University
Press, pp. 283–, ISBN 978-0-521-66993-1,
"In India, the ghazal and mathnawi forms
were adapted in Urdu to express new social
and ideological concerns, beginning in the
work of the poet Altaf Husayn Hali (1837–
1914) and continuing in the poetry of
Muhammad Iqbal (1877–1938). In the
poetry of Iqbal, which he wrote in Persian,
to speak to a wider Muslim audience, as
well as Urdu, a memory of the past
achievements of Islam is combined with a
plea for reform. He is considered the
 greatest Urdu poet of the twentieth
century."

9. Sevea, Iqbal Singh (2012), The Political

Philosophy of Muhammad Iqbal: Islam and
Nationalism in Late Colonial India (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=VrItm_F6wncC
&pg=PA14) , Cambridge University Press,
pp. 14–, ISBN 978-1-107-00886-1, "In 1930,
he presided over the meeting of the All-
India Muslim League in Allahabad. It was
here that he delivered his famous address
in which he outlined his vision of a cultural
and political framework that would ensure
the fullest development of the Muslims of
India."
10. Embree, Ainslie Thomas; Hay, Stephen N.;
Bary, William Theodore De (1988), Sources
of Indian Tradition: Modern India and
Pakistan (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=XoMRuiSpBp4C) , Columbia University
Press, ISBN 978-0-231-06414-9, "Sir Syed
Ahmed had brought rationalism and the
desire for knowledge and progress to the
Indian Muslims; Muhammad Iqbal brought
them inspiration and philosophy. Next to
the Quran, there is no single influence upon
the consciousness of the Pakistani
intelligentsia so powerful as Iqbal's poetry.
In his own time, it kindled the enthusiasm
of Muslim intellectuals for the values of
Islam and rallied the Muslim community
once again to the banner of their faith. For
 this reason, Iqbal is looked upon today as
the spiritual founder of Pakistan."

11. Platts, John T. (John Thompson) (1884), A

dictionary of Urdu, classical Hindi, and
English (https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/
app/platts_query.py?qs=allama&matchtype
=default) , London: W. H. Allen & Co.,
retrieved 6 February 2021

12. "Allama Iqbal: Pakistan's national poet & the

man who gave India 'Saare Jahan se
Achha' " (https://theprint.in/features/allama
-iqbal-pakistans-national-poet-the-man-who
-gave-india-saare-jahan-se-achha/14715
5/) . ThePrint. 9 October 2018. Retrieved
20 June 2021.

13. Craig, Edward. Concise Routledge

Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2000. p. 404.
14. Ahmad Ali, Dr. Saeed (2023). "Realms of
spiritual thought: Iqbal's concept of
selfhood 'Khudi' encompassing youth's
ideology" (https://www.app.com.pk/nationa
l/realms-of-spiritual-thought-iqbals-concept
-of-selfhood-khudi-encompassing-youths-id
eology-dr-saeed-ahmad-ali/) .

15. Ahmad Parray, Tauseef (2023). Islam and

Democracy in the 21st Century. Oxford
University Press.
16. Azad, Hasan (2014). "Reconstructing the
Muslim Self: Muhammad Iqbal, Khudi, and
the Modern Self" (https://www.jstor.org/sta
ble/10.13169/islastudj.2.2.0014) .
Islamophobia Studies Journal. 2 (2): 14–
28. doi:10.13169/islastudj.2.2.0014 (http
s://doi.org/10.13169%2Fislastudj.2.2.001
4) . JSTOR 10.13169/islastudj.2.2.0014 (htt
ps://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13169/islastu
dj.2.2.0014) .

17. "No. 32782" (https://www.thegazette.co.uk/

London/issue/32782/supplement/2) . The
London Gazette (Supplement). 29
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18. Jalal, Ayesha (4 January 2002). Self and
Sovereignty: Individual and Community in
South Asian Islam Since 1850 (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=Sa6CAgAAQBAJ&
pg=PA166) . Routledge. p. 166. ISBN 978-1-
134-59937-0. "A Muslim, an Indian and a
Punjabi of Kashmiri ancestry, all at the
same time, Iqbal's own individuality and
sense of community was shaped in equal
measure by these multiple affiliations."

19. Mushtaq, Faraz. "Life of Allama Iqbal" (htt

p://www.iqbal.com.pk/iqbal/life-of-iqbal) .
International Iqbal Society (Formerly
DISNA). Retrieved 28 March 2018.

20. Khalid Bashir Ahmad, Kashmir: Exposing

the Myth behind the Narrative, SAGE
Publishing India, 2017, p. 162
21. Justice Dr. Nasim Hasan Shah, "Role of
Iqbal in the creation of Pakistan" in The All-
Pakistan Legal Decisions, Volume 35, Part
1, 1983, p. 208

22. Schimmel 1963, p. 37: Iqbal's mother-

tongue was Panjabi, and even in his later
poetry now and then a Panjabi-inspired
expression occurs.
23. Gandhi, Rajmohan (1 January 1986). Eight
Lives: A Study of the Hindu-Muslim
Encounter (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=CorzOY37E0wC&pg=PA72) . State
University of New York Press. p. 72.
ISBN 978-0-88706-196-7. "Leg-pulling,
innocent naughtiness and hearty laughter
were the marks, and religion almost always
the subject, of Iqbal's conversation, which
was mostly in Punjabi or in an Urdu with a
natural Punjabi accent."

24. TNN (30 May 2015), "'Happy that Iqbal is

revered here'" (https://timesofindia.indiatim
es.com/city/kolkata/Happy-that-Iqbal-is-rev
ered-here/articleshow/47477315.cms) ,
The Times of India. Retrieved 3 April 2020.
25. Sevea, Iqbal Singh (2012). The Political
Philosophy of Muhammad Iqbal: Islam and
Nationalism in Late Colonial India (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=Fk8hAwAAQB
AJ&pg=PA16) . Cambridge University
Press. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-139-53639-4.

26. Schimmel 1963, p. 35

27. Schimmel, Annemarie (1962). Gabriel's
Wing: a study of the religious ideas of Sir
Muhammad Iqbal (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=goE3AAAAIAAJ) . Brill
Archive. pp. 34–45.

28. Mir, Mustansir (2006). Iqbal. I.B. Tauris.

ISBN 1-84511-094-3.
29. Riffat Hassan, "Iqbal's Ancestry and Date of
Birth" (http://riffathassan.info/writing/Iqbal
_Studies/Iqbal's_Ancestry_and_Date.pdf)
in The Pakistan Review, Volume 17 (1969),
p. 5

30. Sharma, Jai Narain (2008). Encyclopædia

of eminent thinkers, volume 17 (https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=sKMK9WY9OOs
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31. The Pakistan Review, (1969) Volume 17 , p.

5
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with reverence" (http://www.pakistantoday.
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33. Mushtaq, Faraz. "Time line" (http://www.iqb

al.com.pk/iqbal/time-line) . International
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34. "Iqbal in years" (https://web.archive.org/we

b/20120611231356/http://www.allamaiqba
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Further reading

Shafique, Khurram Ali (2014). Iqbal: His

Life and Our Times. ECO Cultural
Institute & Iqbal Academy Pakistan.
ISBN 978-0-9571416-6-7.
Ram Nath, Kak (1995). Autumn Leaves:
Kashmiri Reminiscences (http://www.ko
ausa.org/Books/AutumnLeaves) . India:
Vitasta. ISBN 81-86588-00-0.
Mustansir, Mir (2006), Iqbal, I.B. Tauris,
ISBN 1-84511-094-3
Muhammad, Munawwar (2003). Iqbal-
Poet Philosopher of Islam. Iqbal
Academy Pakistan. ISBN 969-416-061-8.
Sailen, Debnath (January 2010).
Secularism: Western and Indian. New
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Online

Muhammad Iqbal: poet and philosopher

(https://www.britannica.com/biography/
Muhammad-Iqbal) , in Encyclopædia
Britannica Online, by Sheila D.
McDonough, The Editors of
Encyclopædia Britannica, Aakanksha
 Gaur, Gloria Lotha, J.E. Luebering,
Kenneth Pletcher and Grace Young

External links

The collection of Urdu Wikime

dia
poems: Columbia
Commo
University (http://www. ns has
media
columbia.edu/itc/meal
related
ac/pritchett/00urdu/iq to
Muham
bal)
mad
Works by Muhammad Iqbal.

Iqbal (https://www.gute Wikiquo

te has
nberg.org/ebooks/auth
quotati
or/41313) at Project ons
related
Gutenberg to
Works by or about Muham
mad
Allama Iqbal (https://ar Iqbal.
chive.org/search.php?q
uery=%28%28subject%3A%22Iqbal%2
C%20Allama%22%20OR%20subject%3
A%22Allama%20Iqbal%22%20OR%20cre
ator%3A%22Iqbal%2C%20Allama%22%2
0OR%20creator%3A%22Allama%20Iqba
l%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Allama%20I
qbal%22%20OR%20description%3A%22I
qbal%2C%20Allama%22%20OR%20desc
ription%3A%22Allama%20Iqbal%22%2
9%20OR%20%28%221877-1938%22%20
AND%20Iqbal%29%29%20AND%20%28-
mediatype:software%29) at Internet
Archive
 E-Books of Allama Iqbal (https://www.re
khta.org/Poets/allama-iqbal/ebooks)
on Rekhta

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