MEDIEVAL INDIA

(CE 800-1800)

OVERVIEW
A. Early Medieval India (800-1200 AD)
• Shankaracharya & Advaita
• Arab conquest of Sind
• Triangular conflict for Kanauj (Palas,Pratiharas & Rashtrakutas)
• Age of Rajputs
• Mahmud of Ghazni & Muhammad Ghori
• Chalukyas of Kalyana
• Imperial Cholas
• Pandyas,Hoysalas & Kakatiyas
B. Later Medieval India (1300-1800 AD)
• Delhi Sultanate
• Mughal Empire
• Rise of the Marathas
• Vijayanagara & other Regional Kingdoms

Ø Sufi & Bhakti Movement

§ Book List:
i. Medieval India-Satish Chandra
ii. Ancient & Medieval India-Poonam Dalal Dahiya (TMH
Pubs)
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 Early Medieval India-1
1. Shankaracharya & Advaita
2. Arab conquest of Sind
3. Triangular conflict for Kanauj (Palas,Pratiharas &
Rashtrakutas; Senas)
 Book Author Information
Kamilut-Tawarikh Ibn ul Asir History of Central Asia & rise of
Shansabani dynasty of Ghur of
the 12th and 13th CE.
Tarikh-i-Jahan Gusha-i- Ata Malik Juwaini History of Central Asia
Juwaini
Tarikh-i-Guzidah Hamdullah Mastaufi Ghaznavids,Shansabanis,Ghurids
Qazwini & Delhi Sultans
Jawamiul-Hikayat Nuruddin Muhammad Eyewitness account of military
Aufi operations of Iltutmish against
Nasiruddin Qabacha in 1227 CE.
Chach Nama Md Ali bin Abu Bakr Kufi Arab conquest of Sind
(Translated from Arabic into
Persian by Abu Bakr during the
time of Nasiruddin Qabacha)
 Book Author Information
Tabaqat-i-Nasiri Minhaj us Md of Ghur’s conquest of India;History of Delhi Sultanate
(1260 CE) Siraj upto 1260;praises Ghori, Iltutmish and Balban
Tarikh-i- Md Bihamad Rise of Islam in Arabia,the Prophet and
Muhammadi Khani Caliphs,Ummayads,Abbasids,Ghaznavids,Seljuqs,Sanjari
(1439 CE) ds,Shansabanis of Ghazni and Ghur,Shamsi sultans of
Hind,Timur Lang,Biographies of saints and struggles of
sultans of Kalpi with their Hindu and Muslim neighbours.
Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi Ziauddin History of Delhi Sultans from Balban’s rule to accession
(1359 CE) Barani of Tughlaqs including their revenue admn;Tughlaq
dynasty (Detailed accounts of the reigns of
Ghiyasuddin,MBT & Firuz).
Fatawah-i- Ziauddin Is a complimentary volume to the Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi;
Jahandari Barani Information about Administrative, political and religious
policies of the state
Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi Shams al-din Reign of Firuz Tughlaq, his generosity, respect for Sufis,
(1398 CE) Siraj Afif his accomplishments as an architect; Reproduces
 Book Author Information
Taj ul Maasir Hasan Nizami Written by Nizami at the behest of the Sadr of Delhi who
wanted to maintain an account of the Ghurid conquerors;
Deals with political events in North India from A.D 1192-
1228;Focuses on reign of Q.Aibak and early rule of
Iltutmish.
Tarikh-i-Sind/ Mir Md Masum Based on the Chach Nama; Deals with History of Sind from
Tarikh-i-Masumi Arab conquest to reign of Akbar.
Tahqiq-i-Hind Alberuni Incisive account of life and times of people of India; their
(11 CE) (973-1048 CE) literature, religion and sciences prior to introduction of
Islam into India.
Tarikh-i-Yamini Utbi Reigns of Subuktagin and Mahmud of Ghazni till 1020 CE.

Zain-ul-Akbar Abu Said Mahmud of Ghazni

Tarikh-i-Masudi Abul Fazl Md History of Mahmud of Ghazni;courtly life and intrigues
bin Hussain al among nobles.
Baihaqi
Khazain ul Amir Khusrau Details about Khiljis and Tughlaqs;Account of Alauddin
 Book Author Information
Nuh Siphr,Tughlaq Nama, Amir Khusrau Are prose chronicles and verse
Mifta ul Futuh & Qiraan us compositions
Sadain
Tarikh-i Mubarak Shahi Yahya ibn Ahmad Sayyid rulers of Delhi
(1428-34 CE) Sihrindi
Sirat-i-Firuz Shahi --------------------- Contemporary account of Firuz Shah
(1370 CE) Tughlaq’s reign
Futuh-al-Salatin Khwaja Abu Malik Delhi Sultanate
Isami
Tarikh-i-Salatin-i-Afghan Ahmad Yadgar Afghan and Lodi rulers
Makhzan-i-Afghani Niamatullah Afghans;Jahangir’s reign
Tarikh-i-Daudi Abdullah Lodis and Surs
Tarikh-i-Shershahi / Tohfa- ------------------- Lodis
i-Akbarshahi
Tarikh-i-Ferishta/Gulshan- Ferishta Medieval India
 Book Author Information
Baburnama/Tuzuk-i-Baburi Babur Babur’s life and times;political culture of
C.Asia and Afghanistan during Babur’s
time; Geography,trade and industry.
Tarikh-I Rashidi Mirza Md Rise of Mughals under Babur, about
Haidar Dughlat Humayun.
Humayun Namah/Qanun-i- Khvandamir Humayun’s reign, court festivities,buildings
Humayuni (1534 CE) erected by the Padshah
Tazkirat-ul-Vaqiat/Humayun Jawhar Aftabchi Humayun’s life and times
Shahi/Tarikh-i-Humayun
(1587) (later revised by
Ilahabad Faizi Sarhindi)
Tazkireh-i-Humayun va Akbar Bayazid Bayat History of Humayun and Akbar from 1542-
(1590-91) 91 CE.
Humayun Nama/Ahval-i- Gulbadan Banu Everyday life of the Mughal royal family
Humayun Badshah Begum
 Book Author Information
Akbarnama (1596 CE) Abul Fazl Allami Household admn, court ceremonials,
coinage, salaries and ranks, literary and
intellectual life; 1st official history of the
Mughal court and commissioned by Akbar
Ain-i Akbari Abul Fazl Allami Appendix to the Akbarnama; Administrative
and statistical record of Akbar’s govt
Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh Abdul Qadir Badauni Muslim rule in India from the Ghaznavids to
Akbar; political and religious climate of the
time; written in secrecy.
Tabaqat-i Akbari Nizamuddin Ahmad Akbar’s reign
Tarikh-i-Akbar Shahi Md Arif Qandahari Muslim rule in India from Mahmud Ghazni
to mid-16th century.
Maasir-i-Jahangiri Khwaja Kamgar Jahangir
Hussaini
Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri Jahangir Autobiography of Emperor Jahangir
 Book Author Information
Padshah Namah Abdul Hamid Lahori Shahjahan’s life and times

Shahjahan Nama Inayat Khan Shahjahan’s life till his 30th year

Alamgir Nama Mirza Md Kazim Aurangzeb’s rule

(court historiographer
of Aurangzeb)
Muntakhab-ul-Lubab Khafi Khan Aurangzeb’s lifetime, results of his political
measures
Maasir-i-Alamgiri Md Saqi Mustaid Khan Aurangzeb’s reign

Maasir-ul-Umara Shahnawaz Khan Aurangzeb’s reign

Fatuhat-i-Alamgiri Ishwardas Nagaur Aurangzeb’s reign

 Travelogues
Traveller Country Book Information
Ibn Batuta Morocco Kitab-ur-Rehlah (1333 CE) Reign of MBT
Marco Polo Venice The Travels of Marco Polo Visited South India in the 13th CE
;information about contemporary
life
Abdur Razzak Persia Matla-us-Sadain wa Visited in late 15th CE; Socio-eco-
Majma-ul-Bahrain pol-admn-cultural accounts of
Vijayanagara
Nicolo de Italy ‘Travels of Nicolo Conte’ Visited South India in early 16th
Conte CE;Describes Vijayanagar
city,Sati,Diwali & Navaratri
festivals
Domingo Paes Portugal Chronica dos reis de Information about KD Raya
Bisnaga
(Chronicle of the
Traveller Country Book Information
Duarte Portugal ‘An Account of the Countries Vijayanagar-Social evils such as
Barbosa bordering on the Indian Ocean Sati,Polygamy,Devadasi,taboo
and their Inhabitants’ on widow remarriages.

Francois France ‘Travels in the Mogul Empire
Bernier (1656-68);
Reached Surat in 1658 Became
personal physician of Dara
Shikoh.Later accompanied
Aurangzeb to Kashmir.
Pierre Du France Akbar and the Jesuits: An account
Jarric of the Jesuit missions to the court
of Akbar.
• Was a French Catholic missionary writer.
Du Jarric himself was not a traveler or
missionary. The work is compiled from
other sources, including books, letters,
and reports in Portuguese, Spanish, Latin,
Mentions the war of succession
among the 4 sons of Shah
Jahan, Political intrigues, the
strategies and methods of
warfare, social-cultural and
economic aspects of the empire,
its geographical and strategic
extent.
Du Jarric recounts numerous
conversations b/w Akbar and
the Jesuit fathers, and their
hopes, which in the end were
disappointed that he would
become a Christian.
Niccolao Italy Storio do Mogor Gives detailed account of the Mughal court, later reign
of Shah Jahan and of the reign of Aurangzeb. He also
Manucci documented folk beliefs including witchcraft.

Tavernier Franc Travels in India Was a gem merchant and traveller.Made 6 voyages to Persia
and India between the years 1630 and 1668.He visited the
e court of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan and the Golconda
diamond mines.He also visited Masulipatam,
Gandikota, Surat & Ahmedabad
C.H Payne Jahangir and
the Jesuits
Jean de Franc Travels in India Reached Surat in 1666 and spent 13 months in Mughal
India during Aurangzeb’s rule. Visited Golconda &
Thévenot e Masulipatam.
Giovanni Italy Giro Del Mondo Visited India during the reign of Aurangzeb. Refers to
Natural productions, the beasts and the birds,
Francesco (A faithful manners, Hindu theology, state maxims, the causes of
Gemelli Careri description of Portuguese supremacy and degradation, anecdotes of the
the countries camp, the convent and the Harem, accidents by water and
visited) land, complaints of personal inconvenience, and remarks on
the tendency of Eastern despotism. He was among the 1st
Europeans to travel the world using public transportation; his
travels undertaken for pleasure rather than profit, may have
Francisco Pelsaert Belgium Jahangir's India. The
Remonstrantie of
Francisco Pelsaert
• Written in Dutch and was
translated into English by
W.H Moreland and P.Geyl
Was an officer of the Dutch
East India Co. In 1620 he
was posted to India as
junior merchant. After
travelling overland from
Masulipatam to Surat, he
was sent to Agra where he
stayed for 7 years,
meanwhile becoming
senior merchant. In 1626
he wrote an account of the
Mughal Empire,
 § Indigenous Literature
Book Author Information
Rajatarangini Kalhana Describes the history of Kashmir from the earliest
(1149-50 CE) times to 1149 CE.
Prithviraj Raso Chand Bardoi Heroic exploits of Prithviraj Chauhan, struggles b/w
Rajputs and Md of Ghur; Political, military and
socio-economic structure of Rajputs.
Prithviraj Vijaya Jayanaka History of the Rajput Chauhans
(1193-1200 CE)
Surjana Charita Chandrashekha
Kavya r
§ Archaeological Sources
• Coins, seals, monuments and inscriptions
• Great living Chola temples such as the Brihadeshwara temple,
Hoysala temples, Nayakas temples, Qutb Minar, Alai Darwaza,
Mughal architecture etc
Adi Shankaracharya
(A.D 788-820)
• Born at Kaladi in Malabar and died at Kedarnath
(Uttarakhand) at the age of 32 years.
• He was the follower of Uttaramimamsa or Vedanta,
one of the shaddarshanas.
• He renewed and systematized Vedanta philosophy by
stressing its main principle of monism-Kevala Advaita
or absolute non-dualism.
• According to Shankara,god and his created world was
one.
 The way to salvation was devotion to god, strengthened by
the knowledge that god and the created beings were the
same. This philosophy of monism is called ‘Vedanta’.
• He held that individual soul as embodied in a living being
(Jiva) is tied to the cycle of rebirth (samsara) because it
believes that this world is real although it is only an illusion
(maya)-This belief is due to ignorance (Ajnana or Avidya)
which prevents the soul from realizing its identity with the
divine spirit. Only right knowledge (Jnana) leads to the
realization of this identity and to salvation (Moksha) from
the cycle of rebirth.
• He upheld the Vedas as the fountainhead of true
knowledge.
• He wrote commentaries on the Upanishads,Bhagavadgita
and Brahmasutras of Badarayana and propagated them.
• Recommended Jnana marga (path of knowledge) to attain
moksha or salvation.
• He extensively toured across India and strengthened
Hinduism by merging various religious sects into it.
• He founded a new sect called ‘Smartha’ within Hindu
religion.
 Smarthas worship Harihara (Vishnu and Shiva) which
was an attempt to unite Shaivites and Vaishnavites.
• He established 4 mutts in the 4 corners of India to
propagate Hinduism.
1. North:Jyothir Mutt:Badrinath (Uttarakhand)
2. South:Sharada Mutt :Shringeri (Karnataka)
3. East:Govardhana Mutt:Puri (Orissa)
4. West:Kalika Mutt:Dwaraka (Gujarat)
 Badrinath-Jyothir peetha

Dwaraka-Kalika peetha Puri-

Govardhana peetha

Sringeri-Sharada peetha
• The Kamakoti peetha in Kanchi and Sumerumata Mutt in
Kasi are also believed to have been founded by him.
• He was greatly influenced by Buddhism and hence known
as ‘Cryto Buddha’.
• He composed ‘Bhajagovindam’ at Kasi.
• He did not totally condemn performance of sacrifices. He
said that rituals like homas,yagas and yagnas performed
without any attachment to their fruits would help to purify
the mind and cultivate self-control and mental discipline.
Kedarnath Siva Temple, Uttarakhand. This is one of the holiest Hindu temples dedicated to Siva. It is in the Garhwal
Himalayan range, near the Mandakini river. Owing to extreme weather conditions, the temple is open only from the end of
April (from Akshaya tritriya) to Kartik Purnima (the autumn full moon, usually in November). During the winters, the images of
the deities at the Kedarnath temple are brought to Ukhimath and worshiped there for 6 months.
• PM Modi inaugurated the
reconstructed Shri Adi Shankaracharya
Samadhi (final resting place) at the
premises of the Kedarnath Temple in
Rudraprayag district of Uttarakhand and
unveiled the statue of Shri Adi
Shankaracharya at the Samadhi in
November 2021. The Samadhi was
damaged in the 2013 Kedarnath flood.
q About the Statue:
• The 12-feet long statue weighing
around 35 tonnes (35,000kg) has been
constructed by Mysore-based sculptor
Arjun Yogiraj.
• The unveiling programmes of the statute
was organized at the 12 Jyotirlingas and
Jyotishpeeth across the country including
Char Dhams (Badrinath, Dwarka, Puri
and Rameshwaram).
 Statue of Oneness (Ekatmata Ki Pratima)

The 108 feet tall statue of Hindu saint Adi Shankaracharya, named 'Ekatmata Ki Pratima' (Statue of Oneness), after it was
unveiled at Omkareshwar, in Khandwa district, Madhya Pradesh.
• Madhya Pradesh Chief Minister Shivraj Singh Chouhan unveiled the 108-foot-tall
‘Statue of Oneness’ of Adi Shankaracharya at Omkareshwar in the poll-bound state on
September 21,2023.
• The statue depicts Shankaracharya as a 12-year-old child when he is said to have
visited Omkareshwar. The government has invested Rs 2,200 crore to develop the
temple town located on the Mandhata island of Khandwa district, which will form an
important tourism circuit, along with Ujjain, Maheshwar and Mandu religious towns.

• Adi Shankara, who is believed to have lived between 788 and 820 AD, was born in
Kerala’s Kaladi, situated on the bank of the Periyar River. He became a sanyasin at an
early age and left his Brahmin household, where he is said to have made his way to
Omkareshwar. Here, he studied under his guru Govinda Bhagavatpada and soon
became a proponent of Advaita Vedanta, challenging prevailing philosophical
traditions – including Buddhism and Jainism.
• In his lifespan of 32 years, he is said to have visited all the important spiritual centres of
the time — from Kanchi (Kancheepuram in Tamil Nadu) to Kamrup (Assam), and
Kashmir and the Kedar and Badri dhams, as well as Sringeri, Ujjain, Kashi, Puri, and
Joshimath.
• He is said to have authored 116 works. The most notable among them are the
commentaries on the 10 Upanishads, the Brahmasutra and the Gita.
Arab Conquest of Sindh (AD 712)
Arab Conquest of Sindh
• Muhammad bin Qasim,an Arab from Baghdad (Iraq)
invaded and conquered Sindh in 712 AD thus, becoming
the first Muslim to conquer and rule a part of India.
• Sindh was ruled by Raja Dahir,a brahmin belonging to the
Chach dynasty.
• Chach Nama written in Persian by Abu Bakr (Md Ali bin Abu
Bakr Kufi),an Arab historian gives a detailed account of the
history of Sindh.
• According to it, the precious gifts sent by a Sri Lankan king
to Caliph Walid were robbed by pirates at Debal port in
Sindh.
• Al-hajjaj (governor of Caliph at Baghdad) made Dahir
responsible for this and ordered him to pay compensation
which was rejected.Thereupon,Arabs led by Muhammad bin
Qasim (SIL of Al-hajjaj) invaded Sindh.
• In the Battle of Brahmanabad,Dahir was killed.
• Qasim married Rani Ladi (Dahir’s widow) and became the
master of lower Sindh.
• He imposed Jizya (tax on non-muslims in a muslim
kingdom) on the people of Sindh (but brahmins were
exempted).
q Why Arabs failed to build a permanent empire in India?
i. Qasim was recalled after the death of his patron Hajjaj by
the new Caliph who imprisoned him.The Caliph also did
not appoint any new governor at Sindh shocking the Sindh
administration which morally broke down.
ii. Sindh was a desert land.The new Caliph did not see any
material gain from it and stopped all military help.
iii. The Arabs tried to advance to other territories but were
blocked by the formidable Rashtrakutas and the
Pratiharas.
q Effects of Arab rule:
i. Sanskrit works on Astronomy and medicine were
translated into Arabic while the Quran was translated
into Sindhi language.
ii. Arab leather workers trained the Sindhi tanners in the
art of tanning soft leather. As a result the shoes of
Sindh fetched a high price in foreign markets.
iii. Arab rulers gave large fiefs (jagirs) to muslim nobles
and preachers. The land so gifted was tilled by Indian
farmers whose condition became miserable.
iv. A special tax called Jiziya was levied on Hindus as a penalty
for not embracing Islam (It was part of the land tax called
Kharaj-e-jiziya)
v. Justice was dispensed according to Quranic laws by the
Qazis.
§ The Arab victories exposed the weakness of Indian rulers
and became an open signal to adventurous invaders.
Ø However, British historian Lane Poole felt that “The Arab
invasion of Sindh was a great triumph without results”.
§ The Arabs were the first invaders of India who removed large numbers of its
native inhabitants as enslaved captives, according to André Wink in “Al Hind The
Making of the Indo-Islamic World”. Referring to the Sind invasion, he also says:

• “…invariably numerous women and children were enslaved. The sources insist
that now, in dutiful conformity to religious law, ‘the one-fifth of the slaves and
spoils’ were set apart for the caliph’s treasury and despatched to Iraq and Syria.
The remainder was scattered among the army of Islam. At Rūr, a random 60,000
captives were reduced to slavery. At Brahamanabad 30,000 slaves were
allegedly taken. At Multan 6,000. Slave raids continued to be made throughout
the late Umayyad period in Sindh, but also much further into Hind, as far as
Ujjain and Malwa. The Abbasid governors raided Punjab, where many prisoners
and slaves were taken.”
 Triangular conflict for Kanauj
q Introduction:
• It refers to the struggle of 3 great empires – Pratiharas,
Palas and Rashtrakutas among themselves for the
domination of North India, particularly the upper
Gangetic valley with its rich resources of food and
trade.
• 3 great powers emerged during the 8th and 9th
centuries.
i. Pratiharas: Ruled parts of Punjab,Rajputana, Agra,
Oudh & Gwalior.
ii. Palas:ruled Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Assam and for
short period upto Benares.
iii. Rashtrakutas:Ruled Gujarat (central & south),MP, Bihar,
Karnataka and Maharashtra.
• These 3 powers engaged in the struggle for supremacy
in North India.
• Of these 3 the Rashtrakutas lasted the longest.
Triangular conflict for Kanauj
q Causes for conflict:
i. Supremacy over kanauj
ii. Rich resources of Gangetic valley
iii. Rich resources of the Area between Banaras and
South Bihar
iv. Control over fertile area of Gujarat and Malwa
v. Lust for Booty
vi. Desire to win laurels
 RASHTRAKUTAS (753-973 A.D)
• The term ‘Rashtrakuta’ refers to official in charge of
territorial divisions called ‘Rashtras’.
• Originally belonged to Lattalura (modern Latur of
Maharashtra).They were of Kannada origin; their
Mother tongue was Kannada. They patronized Jainism.
• Ruled for more than 200 years from their early capital
Ellora and later capital Malkhed (Manyakheta).
• Nagavi Yellamma was their family deity.
• They dug up 34 rock cut caves out of the Sahyadri
mountains at Ellora which belong to Hindu, Buddhist
and Jain religions.
q Important Kings: Dantidurga,Krishna I, Dhruva,Govinda
III,Amoghavarsha, Krishna II, Krishna III & Karka II.
i. Dantidurga: Founder
• Was a Chalukyan (Badami) feudatory in charge of a
‘Rashtra’.
• Overthrew Kirtivarman II, the Badami Chalukyan
emperor and captured the throne.
• Built 2 cave temples namely,Dasavatara (Vaishnava)
and Ravana Ka khai (Shaiva) at Ellora.
• Performed Hiranyagarbha yaga after defeating the
Gurjaras and capture Malwa from them.
Ravana Shaking Mount Kailasa-Ellora
(Ravananugraha-murti)
ii. Krishna I:
• Defeated the Gangas and the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi.
• Built the rock-cut monolithic Kailasanatha (Shiva) temple
(Cave no.16) at Ellora (in imitation of the Kailasanatha
temple at Kanchi)-Greatest rock-cut temple in the world.
(1 mn metric tonnes of rock;100-150 yrs;6-7 generations of
workers)
• UNESCO World Heritage Center.
Kailasa temple-Ellora
iii.Dhruva
• Titles:Dharavarsha,Srivallabha,Kalivallabha,Narendrasena,Uttara
patheshwara.
• The Karda inscription gives information about his achievements.
• He conquered North India (including the Ganga-Yamuna basin) and
the South (upto the river Cauvery) after defeating Vatsaraja
(Gurjaras),Dharmapala (Palas),Nandivarman II (Pallavas) and
Shivamara (W.Gangas).
• When he invaded Vengi, its King Vishnuvardhana IV offered no
fight.Instead, he gave his daughter Sheelabhattarike in marriage
to Dhruva.
• He built a lake called Dhruva Samudra at
Halebidu.Hence,Halebidu also came to be called
‘Dwarasamudra’.
iv. Govinda III (S/o Dhruva)
• Titles: Jagattunga, Prabhutavarsha, Sri Vallabha, Tribhuvanadhavala.
• The Sanjan copper plate inscription issued by his son Amoghavarsha
gives information about him.
• He conquered North India after defeating Nagabhatta II (Pratiharas) and
the Pala rulers Chakrayudha and Dharmapala (According to the Sanjan
plates, Govinda's horses tasted the icy liquid waters of the Himalayan
streams and his elephants bathed in the Holy Ganges)
• He defeated an alliance of the W.Gangas, Pandyas and Kerala rulers
and captured their Royal Emblems.
• He also defeated the Pallavan King Dantivarman and collected tribute
from him.
• The Sinhala king made an idol of Govinda III and offered his submission
to him. The idol was installed in one of the temples of Kanchi.
• He appointed his brother Indra as the head of the Lāta Province.
v. Amoghavarsha I or Sarva (CE.814-878)
• Titles: Nrupatunga, Athishayadhavala, Viranarayana, Sri
Vallabha, Rattamarthanda.
• Greatest ;64 yrs reign; peace-loving monarch
• Since he was a minor, his uncle Karka Suvarna acted as
regent for some time.
• Bagumra inscription-He defeated Gunaga Vijayaditya III
(Vengi Chalukyas) and took the title ‘Viranarayana’.
• Suppressed the rebellion of Alupa King Vimaladitya and
came to control the Alvakheda-6000 province.
• In the Rajamudi battle (near Kolar),he was defeated by the
W.Ganga king Nĩtimārga Ereyanga.
and developed matrimonial alliances with various rulers.
• He gave his daughter’s in marriage to the following rulers-

Daughter King Dynasty

Chandralabbe Bhutuga W.Gangas
Sheela Vishnuvardhan Vengi Chalukyas
Mahadevi a
Sankha Nandivarman
• Earlier a Vaishnavite, he later Pallavas
became a follower of Jainism.
III
• He is called ‘Ashoka of Karnataka’.
• Built Manyakheta (or Malkhed on the banks of the Kagina river in
Kalaburugi dt, Karnataka) and shifted the capital from Ellora to
Manyakheta.
• Scholar in Sanskrit and Kannada literature.
• He is called the ‘Father of Kannada literature’.
• Kavirajamarga, the earliest extant work in Kannada was
written during his reign (earlier the authorship was attributed to
him. But his court poet Srivijaya is now considered the real author)
• During his last days he had to face the rebellion of his
son Prince Krishna. Amoghavarsha’s commander
Bankesha suppressed the revolt and made him repent.
Thereupon, Amoghavarsha built the town of Bankapura
in the name of Bankesha and appointed him Governor of
Banavasi.
• He wrote ‘Prasnottara Ratnavali/Ratnamaala’in Sanskrit.
• Amoghavarsha offered his Left
Thumb as a sacrifice to the
Goddess Mahalakshmi of
Kolhapur to protect his citizens
from famine. {Sanjan(Thane)
copper plate inscription}
• Arab traveler Sulaiman visited
his kingdom in 851 C.E and
names him as one of the 4
great emperors of the world.(the
other 3 being rulers of
Baghdad, China and
Constantinople)
• He died by drowning in the river
Tungabhadra.
• Amoghavarsha patronized the following Sanskrit Jain
poets.
Author Work
Jinasena (chief Adipurana, Parsvabhudaya (a biography of Parsva
preceptor of king in verses) & Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana (co-
Amoghavarsha)
authored with Gunabhadra)
Shaktayana Amogavritti (on grammar)
Mahaviracharya Ganitasara-sangraha (maths)

Harisena Harivamsa
iv. Krishna II:
• 916 A.D: In the Battle of Vallala, he was defeated by Parantaka I
(Chola).
v. Indra III:
• He re-conquered Kanauj for the Rashtrakutas and enhanced
their prestige.
v. Krishna III:
• Titles: Akalavarsha,Sri Vallabha,Sakala Dakshina Dig Adipathi
• Assisted by the W.Ganga king Bhutuga II,he captured Kanchi
and Tanjore from the Cholas and assumed the title ‘Kanchiyum
Tanjaiyum Konda’.
• 949 A.D: In the Battle of Takkolam,he defeated Parantaka I
(Chola) and erected a victory pillar at Rameswaram.He also
constructed the Krishneswara & Gandamaarthandaditya temples
at Rameswaram.
• He patronized the following scholars.
Scholar Work
Pampa Adipurana,Vikramarjuniya and Pampa Bharata
Ponna Shantipurana
Chavundaray Chavundarayapurana (earliest Kannada prose work)
a
Ø However, Pampa,Ponna and Ranna are considered to be the
triumvirate (trimurtis) of Kannada literature.
• Ponna was his poet laureate.
vi. Karka II:
• His feudatory,Tailapa or Taila II overthrew him and founded the
Kalyani Chalukya dynasty.
§ Administration: The Kingdom was divided into-
Empire Officer Importance
Province Rashtra Rashtrapati L/o,Revenue collection, head of the
army in the Rashtra.
District Vishaya Vishayapati
Tehsil Nadu/Bhukt Nadagavunda/Bho
i gapati/Bhojika
Village Grama Gramapati i/c of village and village militia.
(Prabhugavunda) Assisted by a Village assistant and
• Officers of the Provinces, Districts Grama
and BhuktisSabha
were directly
appointed by the Central govt.
• Both the Village Headman and Village Accountant were
hereditary officers.
• Towns and Cities were headed by Nagarapati/Purapati.
§ Economy:
• Main occupation-Agriculture; Main source of income-Land revenue
• Other taxes: Tax on goods, houses, shops & tax on occupations like
operating ferries etc.
• Types of coins- Dramma,Ponnu,Kanchana,Gadyana,Pongadyana etc.
• Golconda and Ceded districts were known for the mines of precious
stones.
§ Education:
• Imparted in Agraharas and Mathas.
• Subjects of study: Sanskrit, Vedas, Astrology, Logic, Puranas.
• Centres: Kalasa,Indi,Manyakheta.
• An inscription gives details of a college at Salatogi (Bijapur dt) which
was run by income from endowments.
§ Society & Religion:
• Both Vaishnavism and Saivism flourished under the
Rashtrakutas. Their seals have either Garuda or Siva
seated in a yogic posture.
• Dantidurga celebrated the Hiranyagarbha sacrifice at
Ujjain.
• Jainism was patronized by most of the kings but they
tolerated all religions including Islam. However,
Buddhism declined during this period.
• Important Buddhist centres of the period were Kanheri
(near Mumbai),Sholapur and Dharwar.
• Pandharpur in Maharashtra- centre of the
Panduranga cult.
• They maintained friendly contacts with the
Arab merchants and gave them facilities to
settle down in their kingdom including
permission to build mosques.
• Arab writers who visited western India
praised the religious policy of the kings.
• Both the king and his subjects are described
as being friendly to the Muslims and
according to some writers Muslims were
appointed as governors of some cities in
the kingdom.
• Nagavi (aka Nagavapi & Nagavavi in ancient times) town near
Kalaburagi was an Agrahara, a settlement of Brahmins who were then
called ‘Mahajan’.
• Nagavi is often termed “Takshashila of the South” as it housed a
‘Ghatikasthana’ (place of learning/University) which gained prominence
during the rule of Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna III (929-970) and the
Kalyana Chalukya ruler Someshvara I (1042-1068).
• The Nagavi Ghatikasthana housed over 200 students at a time studying
various subjects such as Vedas, Shastras, Vastu Shastra, Agastya
Samhita, Bhrigu Samhita, the works of Kumarila Bhatta and
Prabhakara. The inscriptions and ruined structures give evidence for the
presence of a number of houses for teachers and hostels for students in
the fortified Nagavi Agrahara.
• The Nagavi Ghatikasthana also had a good library under a Bhandaraka
(librarian) who was also a scholar, and his assistants to look after the
§ Literature:
• Rashtrakutas patronized both Kannada and Sanskrit language. It was the
‘Golden Age’ of Kannada literature.
§ Kannada Literature:
Author Book Importance
Srivijaya Kavirajamārga 1st available book in Kannada. The book says that Kannada
naadu extended from R.Kaveri in the South to R.Godavari
in the North.
Shivakotachary Vaddaradhane Oldest prose work in Kannada; Is a collection of Jain
a religious stories; belongs to the Pre-Pampa age.
Pampa Adipurana & Pampa was patronized by Rashtrakuta feudatory Arikesari
Vikramarjuna-vijaya (aka of Vemulavada.Both books are in Champu (prose & poetry)
Pampa Bharata/ Pampa style. In the Vikramarjunavijaya he depicted Arikesari as
Purana) Arjuna.He is called ‘Kavi-Kula-Guru’ of Kannada.

Ponna Shantipurana, Bhuvanaika Ponna was patronized by Krishna III. He is called

Ramabhyudayam, ‘Ubhayakavi chakravarti’.
Jinaksharamaale
• Sanskrit Literature:
Author Book/s
Durgasimha Katantra Vyakarana
Shaktayana/Shakatay Shabdānushasana
ana
Trivikrama Nalachampu (1st champu style in Sankrit),
Madalasachampu
Amoghavarsha Prashnottararatnamaalike
Mahaviracharya Ganitasara Sangraha
Jinasenacharya Aadipurana (Bharata and Bahubali stories in
Purana style) & Parshvabhyudaya
Asaga Vardhamana Purana
Halayudha Mruta Sanjeevini & Kavirahasya
• Rashtrakutas were the last rulers of India to
build Rock-cut cave temples.
• Rock-cut Cave architecture reached its
pinnacle under them. They also built
structural temples and Basadis.
• Ellora, Ajanta & Elephanta are the centres of
their art.
• Their sculptural art reached its zenith at
Elephanta (or Gharapuri), an island off
Mumbai.
• Originally called Sripuri, there is close
similarity b/w the sculptures at Ellora and
those at Elephanta.
• The most imposing figure is that of Shiva as
‘Trimurthi’ representing the 3 aspects of
Shiva as Creator, Preserver and Destroyer.
 Pratiharas (Avanti branch)
§ Introduction
• There were at least 3 branches of Pratiharas of which
the Avanti branch became famous by their success
over the Arab Muslims.
• Initially, they served as ‘Pratiharas’ (‘door keepers’ of
the Rashtrakutas).
• They originated first in Gurjaratra (C & E Rajasthan)
with Kanauj as capital.
• The Gurjara-Pratiharas were probably descendants of
the Gurjaras who had settled in India in the 6th century
CE.
q Important Kings: Nagabhatta I, Mihirabhoja, Devaraja,
Mahendrapala, Mahipala, Rajyapala.
i. Nagabhatta I
• Resisted the capture of Gujarat by the Arabs of Sind.
ii.
Mihirabhoja
• Greatest
• Was a Vishnu devotee and took titles Adi Varaha &
Prabhasa.
• Daulatpura copper plate (Raj) describes his military
achievements.
• Arab traveller Sulaiman visited his kingdom and
speaks of good cavalry of the Pratiharas.
iii.Devaraja or Devasakti
• Dantidurga (Rastrakutas)invaded his kingdom.
According to the Sanjan (Thane) plates of
Amoghavarsha,Dantidurga conquered Avanti and
performed the Hiranyagarbha sacrifice where the
Avanti king was made to act as his door keeper.
• This struggle b/w the Rashtrakutas and Pratiharas
marks the beginning of hereditary struggle b/w the
two which lasted for about 200 years.
iv. Mahendrapala
• Patronised Rajasekhara who wrote
i. Karpuramanjari (only extant drama in Prakrit)
ii. Kavyamimamsa
iii. Bala Ramayana
iv. Bala Bharata,
v. Viddhasalabhanjika &
vi. Bhovanakosa.
v. Mahipala
• Al-Masudi, Arab historian and traveler visited his
kingdom in 915-16 A.D-He speaks of the Rashtrakuta-
Pratihara conflict and calls the GP kingdom as Al-Juzr
(a corrupt form of Gurjara) and the king Baura (or
Banura),although Mihirabhoja had died by then.
vi. Rajyapala
• When Mahmud of Ghazni raided Kanauj in 1018 A.D
Rajyapala fled without a fight.

Ø Banares to South Bihar:Bone of contention b/w the Palas

and Pratiharas.
Ø Later,yet another Rajput dynasty-the Rathors occupied
Kannauj during 1090 CE.
 Palas (CE.750-1095)
q Introduction:
• Palas ruled over Bihar and Bengal for more than 300 years.
• Their initial capital was Pataliputra which was later shifted
to Monghyr (both in Bihar)
• They patronized Buddhism (Vajrayana sect) and were the
last of the Indian rulers to do so.
§ Important Kings: Gopala, Dharmapala, Devapala, Mahipala I,
Ramapala, Madanapala
i. Gopala (765-70 CE):Founder
• He was elected by the people to end
‘matsyanyaya’(law of fish) prevailing in Bengal.
• Built the vihara (monastery) & university of
Odantapuri or Uddandapura (modern Bihar Sharif)
near Nalanda.
ii. Dharmapala (770-815 CE)
• Founded a number of Buddhist universities in Bihar
such as-Vikramashila, Oddantapuri, Somapura &
Jagaddala.
iii. Devapala
• Greatest;Shifted the capital from Pataliputra to Monghyr.
• The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya is said to have been
constructed under his patronage.
• Devapala’s Nalanda copper plate inscription: Sailendra
ruler of Java,Balaputradeva sent an ambassador to
Devapala asking for a grant of 5 villages in order to endow
a monastery at Nalanda (Chudamani Vihara).Devapala
granted the request.
• Patronised Vajradatta who wrote Lokeswarasataka.
• Arab traveller Sulaiman visited his kingdom.
Mahabodhi temple-Bodhgaya
iv. Mahipala I (988 AD)
• Rajendrachola invaded Bengal in 1023 AD.
(Rajendra’s Tirumalai inscription records details of his
conquests in the north)
v. Ramapala
• His court poet Sandhyakara Nandi wrote a book
Ramapalacharita in which he discussed the revolt of
Kaivarta peasants which was suppressed by Ramapala.
vi.Madanapala
• Last king
• In 1095 was killed by his noble Vijayasena who founded
the Sena dynasty.
 Senas
• The Senas ruled over eastern India for about a century
with Lakhnauti (Bengal) as their capital.
• Their ancestors were of Kannada origin and settled as
subordinates to the Palas of Bengal (The Deopara
Prashasti described the founder of Sena dynasty Samanthasena, as a
migrant Brahmaksatriya from Karnataka. The Sena kings were also
probably Baidyas, according to historian P.N. Chopra.)
i. Samantasena:Founder
ii. Vijayasena
• He built the Pradyumneswara temple at Rajashahi
• Patronised Sri Harsha who wrote Vijayaprasasti.
iii. Ballalasena (1158-69 CE)
• Wrote 2 Sanskrit books:
i. Danasagara (on omens and portents) &
ii. Adbhutasagara (on Astronomy)
• Introduced ‘Kulinism’(a system of nobility among the
Brahmins)in Bengal.
v Kulinism in Hinduism, caste and marriage rules said to have been
introduced by Raja Vallala Sena of Bengal.The name derives from
the Sanskrit word kulina (“of good family”). Hypergamy (marrying a
bride of a lower caste) was allowed for the top three castes.This was
because Brahmans were divided into 36 mels, or groups, that could
not intermarry
• Founded Gaur (Lakhnauti) and made it his capital.Nadia
was his 2nd capital.
iv. Lakshmanasena
• Last king of the dynasty
• Patronised 5 gems (Pancharatnas) in his court
Author Work
Jayadeva Gita Govinda
Dhoyi Pavanaduta
Halayudha Brahmanasarvasva & Kavirahasya
Sridharadasa Saduktikarnamrita
Umapathi ---------
• Tabaqat-i-Nasiri (written by Minhaj-us-Siraj) gives a
detailed account of Bakhtiyar Khalji’s invasion of
Bengal-Raja Lakshmaniya who fled from Ikhtiyaruddin
Muhammad Khalji is identified with Lakshmana Sena.
• Bakhtiyar Khalji destroyed all the Buddhist universities
in Bihar and Bengal regions and massacred the
Buddhists. Buddhism practically disappeared from the
land of its birth by the beginning of the 13th century.
 Questions
1. Consider the following statements.
1) Rastrakutas,Paramaras and Palas continuously fought for
more than one century.
2) This fight is popularly known as tripartite struggle.
3) Capture of Kanauj was the main objective of the struggle
4) Rastrakutas were victorious in the struggle
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
a) 1 and 4 c) 3 and 4
b) 1 and 2 d) None *
2. Grant of land to the Buddhist monastery Silendra
Chudamani Vihara was made by
a) Pala King Devapala*
b) Chola king Kulottunga I
c) Pandya king Sundara Pandya
d) Pallava king Narasimhavarman
3.The Gurjara king and others are said to have worked
as door keepers in the Hiranyagarbha sacrifice
performed by
a) Dharmapala
b) Devapala
c) Dantidurga*
d) Amoghavarsha
4. Who was the Pala ruler who was elected to the throne
according to the Rajatarangini?
a) Gopala*
b) Yasaskara
c) Nandivarman
d) Karikalan
5.Who among the Rashtrakuta rulers assumed the title
Kanchiyum Tanjaiyum konda?
a) Amoghavarsha
b) Krishna II
c) Indra III
d) Krishna III*
6.Who among the following was the poet laureate during
the reign of Rashtrakuta king Krishna III?
a) Pampa
b) Ponna*
c) Ranna
d) Chavundaray
7. Who among the following Arab travelers described
Amoghavarsha as one of the four greatest kings of the
world?
a) Suleiman*
b) Al Masudi
c) Abu Hassan
d) Al Istakri
8.Which of the following is the correct chronological
sequence of the visit of the Arab travelers to India?
a) Alberuni-Suleman-Ibn Batuta-Almasudi
b) Suleiman-Almasudi-Alberuni-Ibn Batuta*
c) Suleman-Alberuni-Al Masudi-Ibn Batuta
d) Almasudi-Suleman-Alberuni-Ibn Batuta
Ø Suleiman(900 CE),Almasudi(1000 CE),Alberuni (1100 CE),Ibn
Batuta (1400 CE)
9. Match the following with regard to the Mutts founded
by Adi Shankaracharya.
A. Jyotir Mutt 1) Puri
B. Sharada Mutt 2) Dwaraka
C. Kalika Mutt 3) Badrinath
D. Govardhana Mutt 4) Shringeri
a) A-3, B-4,C-2, D-1* c) A-4, B-3, C-1, D-2
b) A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2 d) A-4, B-3, C-2, D-1
10.Match the following by using the codes given below.
Jain Scholar Work
A. Jinasena 1) Ratnamalika
B. Amoghavarsha 2) Adipurana
C. Shaktayana 3) Amoghavritti
D. Mahaviracharya 4) Ganitasarasangraha
a) A-2 ,B-1, C-3 ,D-4 * c) A-1, B-2 ,C-4, D-3
b) A-2 ,B-1, C-4 ,D-3 d) A-1 ,B-2 ,C-3, D-4
11.Consider the following statements: (2006)
i. The Ikshvaku rulers of Southern India were antagonistic
towards Buddhism.
ii. The Pala rulers of Eastern India were patrons of Buddhism.
Which of the following statements given above is/are correct?
a)i only
b) ii only*
c)Both i and ii
d) Neither i nor ii
12.Who among the following laid the foundations of the
Rashtrakuta Empire? (2006)
a)Amoghavarsha I
b)Dantidurga*
c)Dhruva
d)Krishna I
END