A.

Importance of understanding electronic components and equipment

Any electrical circuit is made up of electronic components, and troubleshooting and circuit design would be
difficult without a solid grasp of these building blocks.
To guarantee optimum performance, it is necessary to comprehend the distinct functioning and features of each
component, including resistors, capacitors, transistors, and integrated circuits. Through an understanding of the
interactions between these components and external signals, engineers are able to develop creative solutions that satisfy
particular needs.

A.Resistor
In a circuit, resistors are used to regulate voltage or to prevent the passage of current. Ohms are a unit of
measurement for the resistance that a resistor provides. This code will indicate the resistance value of most resistors,
which have colored stripes on the exterior. Reducing current flow and lowering voltage in a specific area of the circuit is
the primary function of resistors.

Types of Fixed resistors.

 Carbon Composition Resistors
 Wire Wound Resistors
 Thin Film Resistors
 Thick Film Resistors
Types of Variable Resistors
 Potentiometers
 Rheostats
 Trimmers

C.COLOR CODING AND VALUE IDENTIFICATION

Yellow-Violet-Orange-Gold color code

A resistor colored Yellow-Violet-Orange-Gold would be 47 kΩ with a tolerance of +/- 5%.

Green-Red-Gold-Silver Color Code

A resistor colored Green-Red-Gold-Silver would be 5.2 Ω with a tolerance of +/- 10%.
 White-Violet-Black color Code
A resistor colored White-Violet-Black would be 97 Ω with a tolerance of +/- 20%. When you see only
three color bands on a resistor, you know that it is actually a 4-band code with a blank (20%) tolerance band.

Orange-Orange-Black-Brown-Violet color code

A resistor colored Orange-Orange-Black-Brown-Violet would be 3.3 kΩ with a tolerance of
+/- 0.1%.

Brown-Green-Grey-Silver-Red color Code

A resistor colored Brown-Green-Grey-Silver-Red would be 1.58 Ω with a tolerance of +/- 2%.

Blue-Brown- Green-Silver-blue color Code

A resistor colored Blue-Brown-Green-Silver-Blue would be 6.15 Ω with a tolerance of +/- 0.25%.

A capacitor is an electrical energy-storing device made up of two closely spaced, insulated conductors. There
are several significant uses for capacitors. For instance, they are employed in digital circuits to ensure that data
kept in big computer memory is preserved in the event of a brief outage of electricity.

Types of capacitors

CERAMIC CAPACITOR

The dielectric used in these capacitors is ceramic. Ceramic capacitors are divided into two classes: Class
1 and Class 2. Titanium dioxide and other para-electric ceramics provide the foundation of Class 1. This family
of ceramic capacitors features low loss, good temperature sensitivity of capacitance, and great stability. They
are utilized in oscillators, filters, and other radio frequency applications because of their intrinsic precision.

A ceramic dielectric made from ferro-electric materials, such as barium titanate, is used in class 2
ceramic capacitors. Class 2 ceramic capacitors have a larger capacitance per unit space than Class 1 capacitors,
but they are less accurate and stable due to the large dielectric constant of these materials. When the total
amount of capacitance is not important, they are utilized in bypass and coupling applications.
FILM CAPACITORS

In film capacitors, the dielectric material is a thin layer of plastic. Applying conducting plates can be
done as foil layers or as two thin the metallization layers, one on both sides of the plastic sheet. The material
used for the dielectric affects the characteristics of the capacitors.

ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS

Electrolytic capacitors are distinguished by their excellent volumetric efficiency and high capacitance
values. By using a liquid electrolyte as one of its plates, this is accomplished.

MICA CAPACITORS
Mica capacitors, which are mostly made of silver mica, are distinguished by their low temperature-
dependent value of capacitance (usually 50 ppm/°C), low dissipation factor, minimal capacitance change with
applied voltage, and tight capacitance tolerance (±1%). They are ideal for RF circuits because of their great
stability and tight tolerance. The conducting surfaces are provided by silvering the mica dielectric on both sides.
Since mica is a stable material, it doesn't react with the majority of typical electrical pollutants.

c.Capacitance value identification

INDUCTOR
In most power electronic circuits, an inductor is an inactive component that stores energy when electricity is
delivered to it in the form of magnetic energy. An inductor's ability to resist or hinder changes in the quantity of
current passing through it is one of its essential characteristics. In order to equalize the current flowing through
the inductor, it either gains or loses charge if the current across it varies. Other names for the inductor are
reactor, choke, and simply coil.

TYPES OF INDUCTORS

Iron Core Inductor

These inductors are high power, high inductance, low-space inductors. They do have a limited high-frequency
capacity, though. Inductors like this are found in audio equipment.

Air Core Inductor

are employed when little inductance is needed. It does not have a core loss since there is no core. The term "air-
core inductors" is typically used to describe ceramic inductors.

Iron Powder Inductor

Iron oxide makes up the inductor's core in this type. They are composed of insulating, minuscule iron powder
particles.
Ferrite Core Inductor
The materials utilized for the core are ferrite. Ferrites are often composed of XFe2O4, where X stands
for transition material.
soft ferrite: soft ferrite material may change their polarity on their own without the need for outside energy.
Hard Ferrite: These are magnets that are permanent, meaning that even in the absence of a magnetic field, their
polarity will not change.

Choke
In an electrical circuit, a choke is a kind of inductor that is mostly used to prevent high-frequency alternating
current (AC).

C.INDUCTANCE VALUE IDENTIFICATION

Diodes
An electrical component with two terminals that conducts electricity mostly in one direction is called a diode.
On one end, it has little resistance, and on the other, high resistance.

TYPES OF DIODES

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Light is generated when an electric current flows through this diode between the electrodes.

Laser Diode
it generates coherent light, it is a distinct kind of diode. It is widely utilized in laser devices, CD drives,
and DVDs.
Avalanche Diode
This diode uses the avalanche phenomenon to function and is of the reverse bias kind.

Zener Diode
Given that it can supply a steady reference voltage, this kind of diode is the most efficient.
Power supplies frequently employ zener diodes to supply a reference voltage.

Schottky Diode
In comparison to other silicon PN junction diodes, it has a lower forward voltage. Where there is little current,
the voltage will drop and will be between 0.15 and 0.4 volts at that point. In rectifier applications, Schottky
diodes are commonly used.

Photodiode
A photo-diode is capable of detecting even minute current flow that arises from light. These are highly
beneficial for light sensing.

P-N Junction Diode

Rectifier diodes are another name for P-N junction diodes. These diodes are composed of semiconductor
material and are utilized in the rectification process.
 TRANSISTORS
is a semiconductor that may function as an electrically controlled switch or as a signal amplifier. A
transistor has three terminals, and a little voltage or current at one of the terminals, often known as the lead,
controls a massive current flow between the other two terminals.
TYPESOF TRANSISTORS

Junction Transistors
are often referred to as BJTs, or bipolar junction transistors. The terms "Bipolar" and "Junction" denote
the presence of both electrons and holes, or, more specifically, two junctions, necessary for the conductivity of
current.

NPN Transistor
Of the two varieties of Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT), NPN is one. A thin layer of p-type
semiconductor separates the two n-type semiconductor components that make up an NPN transistor. In this
case, electrons make up the bulk of the charge carriers, while holes make up the minority.

PNP Transistor
An additional variety of bipolar junction transistors is the PNP (BJT). A thin layer of n-type semiconductor
exists between the two p-type semiconductor components that make up the PNP transistors. In PNP transistors,
electrons are the minority charge carriers while holes are the majority charge carriers.

FET (Field Effect Transistor)

The voltage delivered at the gate creates a channel between Source and Drain, which is controlled by the
FETs in terms of both size and form.
JFET (Junction-Field Effect Transistor)
The earliest and most basic kind of field effect transistor is the Junction-Field-Effect transistor (JFET). JFETs
are resistors, amplifiers, and switches. It is a voltage-controlled transistor. No biasing current is required.

N–Channel JFET

The electrons in the N-Channel JFET are responsible for the current flow. A channel for current flow forms
between the source and the drain when voltage is applied between the gate and the source. N-Channel is the
name of this channel.

P–Channel JFET

The current flow in this kind of JFET is caused by holes. P-Channel refers to the channel that runs between the
source and drain.

MOSFET
Of all transistor types, the Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) is the most widely
utilized and well-liked. The term "Metal Oxide" refers to the thin layer of metal oxide (often SiO2) that
separates the channel from the gate area.

N-Channel MOSFET

Electrons are the cause of the current flowing between the source and the drain. The circuit's current flow is
regulated by the gate voltage. Because electron mobility is higher than hole mobility, N-Channel MOSFETs are
utilized more frequently than P-Channel MOSFETs.

P–Channel MOSFET

P-Channel MOSFETs are MOSFETs with a P-Channel area between the source and drain, where the substrate
is coated with N-type material and the source and drain terminals are highly filled with P-type material. The
concentration of holes is the cause of the current flow between the source and drain. The current flowing
through the channel area is controlled by the applied voltage at the gate.
Integrated Circuits (ICs)

a semiconductor substrate that is covered with a collection of tiny electronic devices. As a result, the
circuit that results is a tiny, monolithic "chip," maybe measuring just a few square millimeters. In most cases,
the individual circuit components are tiny.

Types of IC

Types of Digital Integrated Circuits

MICROPROCESSORS, often known as central processing units or CPUs, are the brains behind many
electronic devices, including computers. They carry out a program, which is a set of stored instructions.
MICROCONTROLLERS
Compact integrated circuits called microcontrollers are made to control a single function in embedded systems.
On a single chip, a microcontroller combines a microprocessor with other functionalities including input/output
(I/O) ports, timers, and memory (RAM and ROM).
DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSORS Real-time digital signal processing is best suited for Digital Signal
Processors, which are specialized microprocessors made for rapid numerical computations. Digital signal
processors (DSPs) are indispensable in applications like digital image processing, audio signal processing, and
telecommunications that call for quick mathematical calculations.
MEMORY CHIPS are essential parts of digital electronics because they provide the data and instructions that
microprocessors and microcontrollers need to store. Memory chips come in a variety of forms, such as flash
memory, random access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), and electrically erasable programmable
read-only memory (EEPROM).
LOGIC INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (ICS) Digital circuits are built using logic integrated circuits (ICs). Simple
logical operations like AND, OR, NOT, XOR, NAND, NOR, and XNOR are carried out by them. Logic
integrated circuits (ICs) are essential for building digital communication circuits. They may be coupled to create
more complicated processes and functionalities in a range of electronic devices.

Types of Analog Integrated Circuits

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS The essential components of analog electronics are operational amplifiers, or
Op-Amps. These adaptable parts are essential to many circuits because they increase voltage signals. Op-Amps
are utilized in filtering and signal conditioning as well as addition, subtraction, integration, and differentiation in
mathematics.
VOLTAGE REGULATORS In spite of changes in input voltage or load circumstances, voltage regulators are
crucial for sustaining a steady output voltage level. They are essential to the reliable operation of electronic
devices in power supply circuits.
RADIO FREQUENCY INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (RF ICS)
specifically engineered to function at extremely high frequencies, which are crucial for wireless communication
networks. They are employed in many different applications, including as satellite communications, wireless
networks, and mobile phones.

Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADCs) are essential in creating a connection between the digital and
analog worlds. They change analog signals into digital data that can be handled by digital systems, such as light
and sound. Digital cameras, music players, and data acquisition systems are just a few of the gadgets that
employ ADCs.

Digital-to-Analog Converters (DACs) carry out ADCs' opposite role. They retransform digital signals
back into analog ones. Applications where digital audio data need to be converted into analog signals for
speakers or headphones, including music playback, depend on this conversion.

SENSOR a gadget, device, or subsystem that recognizes events or changes in its environment and transmits the
information sequentially to other electronics—typically a computer processor. In electronics, sensors are a
given.

TYPESOF SENSORS
1. Temperature Sensor It tracks changes in temperature
 2. Proximity Sensor recognizes the existence of an object
3. Accelerometer
4. IR Sensor (Infrared Sensor) are found in practically all mobile phones as proximity sensors.
5. Pressure Sensor
6. Light Sensor also known as Photo Sensors,
7. Ultrasonic Sensor may be used to calculate an object's distance and velocity.
8. Smoke, Gas SENSOR identify any fire-related smoke and trigger the alarm
9. Alcohol Sensor. Breathalyzer machines employ alcohol sensors to detect if a person is intoxicated or
not.
10. Touch Sensor recognize a finger or stylus touch
11. Color Sensor is capable of detecting any hue and producing a square wave that is
proportionate to the color's wavelength.
12. Humidity Sensor USED IN WEATHER MONITORING SYSTEM
13. Position Sensor
14. Magnetic Sensor (Hall Effect Sensor)
15. Microphone (Sound Sensor)
16. Tilt Sensor used to determine orientation or inclination
17. Flow and Level Sensor
18. PIR Sensor
19. Strain and Weight Sensor

Calibration and testing of sensors

Relays are the switches that work both electromechanically and electronically to open and close circuits. It
regulates how an electrical circuit's circuit connections open and close. The relay is not activated with the open
contact when the relay contact is open (NO). On the other hand, given the closed contact, the relay is not
powered if it is closed (NC). Nonetheless, the states are prone to alter when energy (such as electricity or
charge) is applied.

Electrothermal Relay
An electrified bimetallic strip is created when two distinct materials come into contact and bends. Making
contact connections is made possible by this bending.

Electromechanical Relay
A contact connection is formed when several mechanical components are coupled using the electromagnet.

Solid State Relay

The relay ensures the efficacy, efficiency, and simplicity of the switching speed by connecting through
semiconductor devices. Two prominent reasons for using this are its longevity and quicker changeover
procedure.

Hybrid Relay
It is the term used to refer to electromechanical and solid-state relays.

Testing relay functionality

The easiest method to test a relay to see if it is working properly or not would be to measure the resistance
values of the relay using a multimeter that is set to the ohmmeter setting.

Multimeters are measuring devices that are used to measure several electrical characteristics, such as voltage,
current, and resistance. This is also known as a volt-ohm-milliampere, or VOM. This tool is essential for
identifying the problems in the circuits so that they may be quickly and effectively troubleshooted. On the front
panel of the multimeter, there is a rotary switch that may be used to choose different electrical parameters for
measuring electrical qualities.

DC voltage of the most common and basic multimeter readings. The difference in electrical potential
between two places in a DC, or "direct current," circuit is ascertained using the DC voltage measurement.
AC voltage for measuring the voltage potential between two locations in an AC, or "alternating current,"
circuit, the process is much the same as for measuring DC voltage. For AC voltage, [volts, AC] is the unit of
measure.

RESISTANCE Depending on how precise the measurement has to be, there are a few methods for measuring
resistance using a multimeter. By introducing a little current into the circuit and monitoring the voltage drop
across specific locations, multimeters can measure resistance.
Current that alternates between directions on a regular basis is measured as AC current, or alternating current.
For AC CURRENT, [amps, AC] is the unit of measurement. Measurements of AC current, like those of DC
current, require that the circuit be in series for the electrons to pass through the multimeter in order to obtain a
measurement.
PRECAUTIONS IN HANDLING AND USING A METER

These precautions apply equally to digital and analog meters.

 Do not drop any meter.

 Do not overload any meter. When in doubt, use a high range that you know will not be overloaded. You
can always switch to a lower range if necessary.
 Do not tamper with precision instruments. Let a competent instrument repair person service precision
instruments.
 Before you connect a meter to a circuit, ensure that the range switch is set to an appropriate position.
 Carefully check circuit connections before applying power to meters.
 Be careful not to touch any other electronic components within the equipment.
 Be careful not to touch the probe tips to each other while connected to anything else.
 Never switch settings (voltage to current for example) while the probes are connected to circuit

OPERATION

 Check if the switch (or push button) is properly working or not.

 Measure the amount of current flowing through a device, like an LED.
 Measure the voltage of a battery.
 Check if the wire is conducting electricity or not.

Purpose and function

Waveforms, which are graphic depictions of voltage fluctuation over time, are tested and shown by
oscilloscopes, also known as scopes. The signals' changes are displayed on a graph by plotting them. Time is
represented by the horizontal (X) axis, while the vertical (Y) access displays the voltage measurement. An
oscilloscope's primary function is to graph an electrical signal's variations over time.
DISPLAY TYPES AND CONTROLS
Vertical controls are employed to establish the input coupling, modify further signal conditioning, and position
and scale the waveform vertically.

 Position
 Coupling: DC, AC, and GND
 Bandwidth: Limit and Enhancement
 Termination: 1M ohm and 50 ohm
 Offset
 Invert: On/Off
 Scale: Fixed Steps and Variable

The horizontal system of an oscilloscope is most directly related to how it acquires input signals. Here, some
factors to take into account include sample rate and record length. The waveform may be positioned and scaled
horizontally using horizontal controls.
  Acquisition
 Sample Rate
 Position and Seconds per Division
 Time Base
 Zoom/Pan
 Search
 XY Mode

 Z Axis
 XYZ Mode
 Trigger Position
 Scale
 Trace Separation
 Record Length
 Resolution

Analog Oscilloscopes
An analog oscilloscope tracks and shows the signal that is detected by a probe on the screen. The
waveform's storage capabilities let it show for longer stretches of time instead of instantly decaying.
DIGITAL OSCILLOSCOPE'S
Numerous varieties of digital oscilloscopes are available. A digital oscilloscope's performance is mostly
determined by two factors: bandwidth and sampling rate. The sampling rate of an oscilloscope determines how
well it can record fleeting, one-time events. An oscilloscope's bandwidth determines how frequently repeating
signals may be seen.

Digital Storage Oscilloscopes

Oscilloscopes with digital storage are able to record and preserve brief occurrences for further
processing, analysis, archiving, or printing.

Digital Phosphor Oscilloscopes

Comparing digital phosphor oscilloscopes to regular digital storage oscilloscopes, the former provide quicker
signal collection and processing.

Mixed Domain Oscilloscopes

A mixed domain oscilloscope is a single device that combines the capabilities of an RF spectrum analyzer, a
logic analyzer, and a digital oscilloscope.

Mixed Signal Oscilloscopes

These devices are a combination of a multi-channel logic analyzer and a digital storage oscilloscope, sometimes
known as a digital phosphor oscilloscope.
Digital Sampling Oscilloscopes
Oscilloscopes with digital sampling employ a slightly different input method that compromises dynamic range
for bandwidth.

Handheld Oscilloscopes
For field and testing situations where larger oscilloscopes are inconvenient or power outlets are not available,
smaller portable oscilloscopes are available.

Computer-Based Oscilloscopes
Computer-based oscilloscopes are external, compact devices that attach via USB to a computer.

In the lower left part of the image, you will see 500mV
That indicates two things:
 Channel 1 is displayed on the oscilloscope in yellow.
 For channel one each grid rectangle corresponds to 500 mV in the vertical direction. So we have "500
millivolts per division" with 8 vertical rectangle visible, and
thus 500mV1division×8divisions=4V500mV1division×8divisions=4V visible in the vertical direction
In the bottom left, you will see another box that says AFG Sine 100.00kHz 1.0000 Vpp:
 AFG Indicates the Arbitrary Function Generator is active (I used it to create this waveform)
  Sine is the shape of the waveform
 100.000 kHz is the frequency of the waveform: 100,000 cycles each second.
 1.0000 Vpp is the amplitude of the transmitted waveform.
In the bottom-center there is another box with:

4.00 µs 5.00 GS/s ①∫

T →▼0.000000 s 1M points 0.00V

 4.00 µs is the value of each rectangle in the horizontal direction: "4 microseconds per division." The
display includes 10 rectangles,
so 4.00μs1 division×10divisions=40 μs4.00s1 division×10divisions=40 s of time is visible across the
entire screen.
 The oscilloscope is recording 5.00 GS/s, i.e., 5×1095×109 samples per second.
 Channel 1 is used to control the triggering of the waveform.
 Triggering occurs on the rising edge of the channel 1 waveform.
 The image is centered at T →▼0.000000 s from the trigger point.
 1 million (1 M) data points will be collected.
 Triggering occurs when a rising signal passes through 0 V.

Function generators are essentially signal generators that may generate a variety of waveforms. Waveforms like
sine, square, triangle, sawtooth, and others can be generated using it. The function generator has a
programmable frequency range from a few Hz to several hundred KHz.