Space Environment

AST 304
Implications for S/C Design
Tribble

1
 Introduction
• 300 years ago Isaac Newton understand what was required to place an
object in orbit around Earth.
• In 1957 Sputnik left the Earth’s surface and orbited around.
• Space travel not only very difficult to place an orbit
• But also designed to withstand the space environment which is very
different from Earth’s surface.
• Space often considered as perfect vacuum.
• But spacecraft encounter with neutral molecules, charged particles,
micrometer sized particulates and E/M radiation.
• These environmental effects has the potential to cause severe nteractions
with spacecraft;
– Surfaces or
– Subsystems.
• Studies of past NASA and US Air Force indicate that spacecraft
approximately 25% of all spacecraft failures are related to interactions
with space environment.

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 Anamolities
Spacecraft Anomaly
Anik E-1 and E-2 Failure momentum wheel control system during S/C charging event
Ariel 1 Failed following detonation of high-altitude atomic tests
GOES Numerous phantom command anomalies related to arc
discharges from surface charging
GPS Evidence of photochemically deposited contamination on
solar arrays decrasing power output
Intelsat K Command anomalies related to arc discharges from surface
charging
LDEF Numerous MMOD impacts-Extensive contamination and AO
degradation
Pioneer Venus Several Command memory anomalies related to high-energy
cosmic rays

7
 Anamolities
Spacecraft Anomaly
Skylab Reentered atmosphere as the result of increased
atmospheric drag
Space Shuttle Numerous MMOD impacts, shuttle glow, collision avoidance
maneuvers
Ulysses Failed during peak of Perseid meteroid shower

8
 Spacecraft Anomalies
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=90Omh7_I
8vI

http://www.space.com/22245-perseid-
meteor-shower-fireball-champion.html 9
 Spacecraft Anomalies
• The study of how the space environment affects a spacecraft, the field of
study that specialized in the investigation of these interactions is called
space environment effects.
• In 1994, NASA issued the first space environment effects research and
published orbital environment guidelines for spacecraft development.
• In mid 1990’s, NSF(National Science Foundation) formed a Space Weather
program to predict changes in space weather.
• The European Space Agency (ESA) has a similar program.
• ISO(International Standards Organization) also formed a space systems
technical committee to develop internationally recognized space
environment standards.
– This text seeks to bridge the gap between space physics and astronautical
engineering.
– The objective is to obtain an understanding of the relationship between the
space environment and spacecraft, or space instrument, operating principles,
and design alternatives.
• These relations are important to;
– Spacecraft designers
– Payload providers
– Spacecraft operators
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 The Space Environment
• We will group space environment effects into
five categories:
– Vacuum
– Neutral
– Plasma
– Radiation
– Micrometeroid/orbital debris (MMOD)

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 Space Shuttle
H=300 km
density=10-10 surface density
Example 1:
These electrically neutral particles can
interact with a spacecraft both mechanically,
through kinetic energy of impacy, or
chemically, through the reactive nature of the
neutrals themselves.
The neutral environment therefore describes
those phenomena that are related to the
presence of these neutral constituents.
http://forum.kerbalspaceprogram.com/
At 300 km about 0.1% of the neutral atoms are ionized, stripped of an electron, by the
solar ultraviolet radiation.
These charged particles form the plasma environment, which may charge the exterior
surfaces of a vehicle to large voltages.
As a result, data collected by scientific instrumentation may be biased or, arching on
the spacecraft may ensue.
Plasma environment includes, charged particles having energies on the order of keV or
less. Definition 1: 12
 Space Shuttle
• A smaller number of the charged particles in space is seen to have
energies in the range MeV or higher.
• These particles will exert a completely different influence on a
spacecraft than their lower-energy counterparts.
• They will penetrate through the bulk of many materials, altering
their physical structure.
• These higher-energy particles constitute the fourth category, the
radiation environment.
• Finally, a spacecraft may also encounter micrometer-sized (or
larger) pieces of naturally occurring dust or man-made debris that
composes the MMOD environment.
• At orbital velocities, these particles will give rise to surface erosion
and have the potential to terminate a spacecraft’s useful life.
• Depending on the spacecraft orbit, the magnitude of these
interactions may range from negligible to mission threatening.

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 Space Environment Effects
Environment Effect
Vacuum Pressure differentials
Solar UV degradation
Contamination
Neutral Mechanical effects 1)Aerodynamic drag 2)Physical sputtering
Chemical effects 1)Atomic oxygen attack 2)Spacecraft glow
Plasma Spacecraft charging-Shift in electrical potential
Electrostatic discharging 1)Dielectric breakdown 2)Electrostatic
discharge
Enhanced sputtering
Reattraction of contamination
Radiation Total dose effects 1)Electronics degradation 2)Crew safety
hazard
Single event effects-Upsets, latchup, burnout
MMOD Hypervelocity impact damage
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 Spacecraft Design
• All spacecraft must perform certain basic functions in order
to enable he payload to function properly.
• The S/C must have a propulsion system
– To boost the S/C to its intended orbit
– Maintaining the orbit
– De-orbiting at the end of the mission.
• There must be an electrical power system (EPS) to provide
power to the payload and other subsystems.
• A thermal control system (TCS) must maintain the
spacecraft within the proper operating temperature range.
• An attitude determination and control (ADC) system is
needed to orient the vehicle and to point the payload at its
desired point of reference.

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 Spacecraft Design
• A variety of avionics is needed to route electrical
commands around the vehicle; a telemetry,
tracking and communications (TT&C) system is
needed to transmit data to the ground and
receive instructions from the Earth
• A physical structure is needed to accommodate
the system and payload.
• If crew is onboard, an environmental control and
life support system (ECLSS) is also required to
provide a breathable atmosphere.
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 S/C Engineering Subsystems
Subsystem Purpose Key Features
Attitude determination Vehicle stability and pointing Reaction wheels
and control control Momentum wheels
Sun/Earth sensors
Magnetic torquers
Avionics Data and command relay to Data bus
payloads and subsystems Processing
Memory
Electrical power Power generation and distribution Solar arrays
Batteries
Load control electronics
Environmental control and Maintain liveable conditions for Oxygen
life support crew Shielding
Control electronics
Propulsion Maneuver vehicle into desired Thrusters
orbit Fuel
Tanks, plumbing
Structures Integrity during launch and Bulkheads
maneuvers Mechanisms
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 S/C Engineering Subsystems
Subsystem Purpose Key Features
Telemetry, tracking and Command and data Transmitters
communications handling with the ground Receivers
Antennas
Thermal control Maintain temperature Radiators, heaters
balance Heat pipes
Multilayer insulation
Anodized Aluminum

In general, the most critical components from the point of view

of space environment effects are those components that are
directly exposed to the space environment.

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Space Environment Effects on S/C
Subsystems

19
Synergistic Space Environment Effects

20
 Orbital Mechanics
• Repeat:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Am7Ewm
xBAW8

21
 Orbital Altitudes
• Most spacecraft can be grouped into one of three orbital
altitude ranges.
• Orbits with a perigee of less than about 1000 km are said to
be in low Earth orbit (LEO).
– This is the region reserved fo the largest operational payloads or
S/C that need a close view of the Earth.
• The 1000-2000 km altitude range is referred to as mid-
Earth orbit (MEO).
– Used by the reconnaissance satellites placed in highly elliptical
orbits.
– GPS satellites
• Geosynchronous orbit (GEO) altitude is 35.800 km.
– Used by surveillance and communications S/C.

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 Geosynchronous Orbit
• Also known as geostationary orbits, satellites in these orbits
circle the Earth at the same rate as the Earth spins.
• The Earth actually takes 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4.09
seconds to make one full revolution.
• So based on Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion, this would put
the satellite at approximately 35,790 km above the Earth.
• The satellites are located near the equator since at this
latitude, there is a constant force of gravity from all directions.
• At other latitudes, the bulge at the center of the Earth would
pull on the satellite.
• Geosynchronous orbits allow the satellite to observe almost a
full hemisphere of the Earth.
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 Geosynchronous Orbit
These satellites are used to study large scale phenomenon such as
hurricanes, or cyclones.
These orbits are also used for communication satellites.
The disadvantage of this type of orbit is that since these satellites
are very far away, they have poor resolution.
The other disadvantage is that these satellites have trouble
monitoring activities near the poles.

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 Orbital Inclinations
• Inclination angle is angle between Earth’s equator and orbital
plane.

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/
Features/OrbitsCatalog/

• Different inclination orbits are used for a variety of reasons.

• A primary driver of orbital inclination is the latitude of the launch
site.
• A given launch vehicle can launch the heaviest possible payload
into an inclination equal to the latitude of the launch site.
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 Sun-synchronous orbit
• An orbital inclination of about 990 places the S/C in an orbital
plane that precesses at the same rate as the Earth orbits
around the Sun.
• This provides the S/C with a constant Sun angle and is
referred to as a Sun-synchronous orbit.
• These orbits allows a satellite to pass over a section of the
Earth at the same time of day.
• Since there are 365 days in a year and 360 degrees in a circle,
it means that the satellite has to shift its orbit by
approximately one degree per day.
• These satellites orbit at an altitude between 700 to 800 km.

26
 Sun-synchronous orbit
• These satellites use the fact since the Earth is not perfectly round (the
Earth bulges in the center, the bulge near the equator will cause additional
gravitational forces to act on the satellite.
• This causes the satellite's orbit to either proceed or recede.
• These orbits are used for satellites that need a constant amount of
sunlight.
• Satellites that take pictures of the Earth would work best with bright
sunlight, while satellites that measure longwave radiation would work best
in complete darkness.

27
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/OrbitsCatalog
 Sun-synchronous orbit
• Movie:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VtHENUn
h43o
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z3espRW
mLbw

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 Polar Orbits
• The more correct term would be near
polar orbits.
• These orbits have an inclination near
90 degrees.
• This allows the satellite to see virtually
every part of the Earth as the Earth
rotates underneath it.
• It takes approximately 90 minutes for
the satellite to complete one orbit.
• These satellites have many uses such as
measuring ozone concentrations in the
stratosphere or measuring
temperatures in the atmosphere.
http://marine.rutgers.edu/cool/education/class/paul/
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Worlwide Launch Facility Latitudes

http://www.spacetoday.org/Rockets/Spaceports/LaunchSites.html
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 Worlwide Launch Facility Latitudes
Country Location Latitude Longitude
Australia Woomera 31.1o S 136.8o E
Brazil Alcantara 2.3o S 44.4o W
Canada Manitoba 58.8o N 94.1o W
China Jiuquan 40.6o N 99.9o E
Europe Kourou 5.2o N 52.8o W
India Sriharikota 13.9o N 80.4o E
Israel Palmachim 31.5o N 34.5o E
Japan Kagoshima 31.2o N 131.1o E
Norway Andoya 69o N 16o E
Pakistan SUPARCO 40.5o N 3.5o W
Russia Baikonur 45.6o N 63.4o E
United States Kennedy 28.5o N 81.0o W
http://www.spacetoday.org/Rockets/Spaceports/ 31
 The Earth’s Magnetic Field
• The Earth’s magnetic field plays important
role in defining the near-Earth
environment.
• The Earth’s magnetic field is essentially a
dipole.
• The magnetic axis is not aligned with
geographical axis.
• Sun’s magnetic field causes perturbations.
• The north magnetic pole is approximately
11.70 south of north geographic pole at
about 78.30 N, 690 W.
• The south magnetic pole is at about 78.30 S, http://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/
-1110 E. features/2012-poleReversal.html
• Magnetic Formulations 1:

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 The Earth’s Magnetic Field
• Any field derivable from a potential function may be
expressed in terms of a multipole expansion of the
potential.
¥ ¥ n +1 -n
é a
æ ö a
æ ö ù
( ) (
V = a åå Pnm (cos q )´ êç ÷ g nm cos mf + hnm sin mf + ç ÷ Anm cos mf + Bnm sin mf ú
)
n =1 m =1 êëè r ø èrø úû
• r=radial distance
• θ=colatitude
• φ=East longitude
• a=radius of Earth
• P=legendre polynomials
• g,h,A,B are Schmidt coefficients.
– (g,h) internal,(A,B) external

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 The Gravitational Field
• Isaac Newton showed, any two objects having mass will attract
each other with a force by the Universal Law of Gravitation.
• For the case of a S/C in orbit around Earth, the force is given by,

M E ms / c
F =G
( RE + h) 2
• G(N m2kg-2)=Universal Gravitational Constant (6.67x10-11 m3 s-2 kg)
• ME(kg)=mass of the Earth (5.98x1024 kg)
• ms/c=mass of the S/C
• RE=radius of the Earth (~6.4x106 m)
• h(m)=S/C altitude

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 The Gravitational Field
• This gravitational force is important because it makes it difficult to get a
S/C into orbit in the first place, and it keeps it in orbit once it’s there.
• As with the Earth’s magnetic field, the Earth’s gravitational field is not
uniform.
• The gravitational field varies because the Earth is not a perfect sphere.
• It is larger around the equator than it is around the poles.
• This variation is important in accurately predicting S/C trajectories and is
addressed in a number of models such as the Earth Gravitational Model
2008 (EGM2008).

http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/EGM96
35
 The Solar-Planetary Relationship
• Virtually every energy conversion process on the
Earth can eventually be related back to the fact that
the Sun is shining.
• The sun is the largest mass in the solar system and is
the predominant source of energy for the Earth.
• The Sun is composed primarily of hydrogen and
generates its energy through the fusion of hydrogen
into helium.

2
1 H +12H ® 24He+ 10n
• The majority of the solar energy reaching the Earth
originates in the outermost layer of the Sun called
the corona with a temperature 5760 K.
• The interior of the Sun is quite hot ~15 millon K. http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/
images/green_line_corona.jpg
• DEVAM

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 The Solar-Planetary Relationship
• On average the Sun deposits
1366.1 W/m2 of energy at the top
of the Earth’s atmosphere.
• This varies from a high of 1423
W/m2 at Sun-Earth perigee to a low
of 1321 W/m2 at Sun-Earth apogee.
• This heat flux poses a significant
thermal control problem for S/C.
• In the absence of an atmosphere
to aid in convective cooling, all
heat absorbed by the S/C must be http://www.tmtsdl.com/
conducted to cooler parts of the thermalControlPanels.html
vehicle or radiated back to space.
37
 The Solar Spectrum
The energy that reaches the Earth is
known as solar radiation. Although the
sun emits radiation at all wavelengths,
approximately 44% falls within visible-
light wavelengths. The region of the
spectrum referred to as visible light (light
our eyes can detect) is composed of
relatively short wavelengths in the range
400 nanometers (nm), or 0.4
micrometers (μm), through 700 nm, or
0.7 μm.

http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr162/l
ect/sun/spectrum.html
The Sun at X-Ray wavelengths The Sun at UV wavelengths 38
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
http://www.ces.fau.edu/nasa/module-2/
radiation-sun.php

The electromagnetic spectrum represents

the complete range of electromagnetic
radiation.
The region of the spectrum with a shorter
wavelength than the color violet is
referred as ultraviolet radiation, and the
region of the spectrum with a longer
wavelength than the color red is referred
to as infrared radiation. 39
 The 11-Year Solar Cycle
• The output of the Sun is not
constant, but varies slightly over
an 11-year cycle.
• Historically, this variation was
noticable by observing the
number of sunpots.

http://www.crh.noaa.gov/fsd/
?n=sunspots

http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/
images/ssn_predict_l.gif 40
 The 11-Year Solar Cycle
• In modern times the total integrated solar output is
monitored.
• The varation in solar output from one solar cycle to the
next is quite small, less than 0.1%.
• The Earth’s atmosphere absorbs all UV radiation less than
0.3 micrometers in wavelenght.
• As UV output changes over the solar cycle, the amount of
energy absorbed by the Earth’s atmosphere changes and
the atmosphere responds accordingly.
• Heating a gas will cause the gas to expand.
• Consequently, the density, and temperature of the neutral
atmosphere will change in response to the solar cycle.
• This in turn will affect plasma density at the lower altitudes.
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 The 11-Year Solar Cycle
• The 11-year solar cycle is monitored by tracking sunspot activity,
which is defined as
• R=k(10 g +s) where
– s=spot number
– g=spot group number
– k=observatory factor (=1 for Zurich observatory)
• The variation can be monitored by tracking the solar output in the
UV region of the spectrum, which must be done from space.
• Variations can be as high as a factor of 10 or more.
• Accepted wavelenght is 10.7 cm.
• This is often reported as F10.7 value, which is measured in units of
Jansky=10-26 W/m2 Hz or in solar flux unit (sfu)=104 Jansky.
• Each 11-year solar cycle is numbered sequentially, with the first
solar cycle corresponding to observations made in the 1750s.

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 The 11-Year Solar Cycle
• Solar cycle 23 ended 2008 summer.
• Solar cycle 24 started 2008 (solar minimum).
• 2013 solar maximum.
• Once solar cycle is underway it is possible to predict the smoothed montly
average sunspot or F10.7 values, based on linear regression analysis of past
cycles, for the remainder of the cycle.

43
http://www.swpc.noaa.gov/products/solar-cycle-progression
 The Solar Wind and Solar Particle Events

• In addition to the electromagnetic radiation produced by

the Sun, a variety of processes in the Sun also give rise to
a small amount of corpuscular radiation called solar
wind.
• The solar wind is composed mainly of protons
– On the order of 375 km/s speed
– Density ~5 cm-3 (5x106 m-3)
– At 1 AU distance (distance between Sun and Earth)
• The charged particles in the solar wind follow trajectories
tied to the Sun’s magnetic field lines, which have an
intensity of about 5 nanotesla at 1 AU.

44
 The Solar Wind and Solar Particle Events
• The Sun is observed to
rotate on its axis with a
period of rotation of 25
days at the equator, with
the higher latitudes
requiring a few days
longer.
• As a result of the rotation,
the trajectory of particles
in the solar wind
resembles the flow of
water from a rotating
sprinkle head.
http://www.redorbit.com/news/space/
2072512/studying_solar_wind/ 45
 The Solar Wind and Solar Particle Events
• The Sun itself constantly changing.
• Visual confirmation of this change is often
seen in the form of solar flares.
• A flare is sudden brightening of the
chromosphere.
• There are five classifications of solar flares.
Classification Corrected Area
[millionths of hemisphere]
S < 100
1 100 - 250
2 250 - 600
3 600 - 1200
4 > 1200
H-alpha classification
An earlier flare classification is
based on Hα spectral
observations.
The scheme uses both the
intensity and emitting surface.
The classification in intensity is
qualitative, referring to the flares
as: (f)aint, (n)ormal or (b)rilliant.
The emitting surface is measured
in terms of millionths of the
hemisphere and is described
below. (The total hemisphere
area AH = 6.2 × 1012 km2.)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_flare
46
 Solar Wind
• Solar flares may occur at
either optical or X-ray
wavelenghts, with X-ray
flares being of greater
concern to S/C.
• Solar flares are classified as
A, B, C, M, X, or Z according
to the peak flux (in watts per
square metre, W/m2) of 100
to 800 picometre X-rays near
Earth, as measured on the
GOES spacecraft.
Peak Flux Range
Classification at 100-800
picometre
(Watts/square
metre)
A < 10−7
B 10−7 - 10−6
C 10−6 - 10−5
M 10−5 - 10−4
X 10−4 - 10−3
Z > 10−3

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_flare
47
 Solar Wind
• Solar activity, as measured by enhanced X-ray emission, is
monitored by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) Space Environment Services Center
(SESC) in Boulder, Colorado.
• Five standard terms are used to describe the solar activity
onserved or expected within a 24-hour period.
• http://www.swpc.noaa.gov/

Very Low Low Moderate High Very High

Less than C- C-class Isolated (1-4) M5-class Several M5-
class M-class events class events

48
 Solar Wind
• SESC issues alerts and warnings of a variety of
solar-geophysical phenomena that may directly
or indirectly affect S/C performance.
• Flares may also be accompanied by a variety of
radio emissions.
• The radio emission following a flare is variable. By
studying the rapidly variable component over a
range of frequencies one can classify the
emissions into five principal types:
49
Solar Wind

50
 Solar Wind
• Of greater concern for the long-term survivability of a S/C
are energetic fluxes of particles, mainly protons, associated
with some flares.
• These particle fluxes, referred to as coronal mass ejections
(CMEs), are often, but not always, associated with erupting
prominences and flares.
• In a worst-case scenario, billions of tons of matter mey be
ejected from the Sun within a few hours.
• This ejected matter, which is mainly protons and electrons
but also some heavier elements, is also called a solar
particle event (SPE).
• An SPE may be one of the most important factors
contributing to a S/C’s total dose

51
 Solar Wind
• The SESC monitors and categorizes the particles
received from the Sun.
Name Flux of 10 MeV Particles
(s-1 ster-1 cm-2)
Minor (S1) 10-100
Moderate (S2) 100-1000
Strong (S3) 1000-10.000
Severe (S4) 104-105
Extreme (S5) >105

• These particles may have significant effects both

on the Earth’s environment and on orbiting S/C.

52
 Solar Storm Effects
Storm Biological S/C System Other Systems Storm
Category Frequency
Minor (S1) None None Minor on HF Radio 50 /Cycle
Effects

Moderate (S2) None Infrequent Electronic Moderate HF Radio 25 /Cycle

Upsets Effects,
Minor Polar Navigation
Errors

Strong (S3) Extra Vehicular Frequent Electronic Degraded HF Radio 10 /Cycle

Activity Avoided Upsets, Effects,
Noise Imaging Systems Navigation Position
Minor Solar Array Errors Likely
Power Loss

Severe (S4) Minor Radiation Dose Frequent Electronic HF Radio Black-out 3 /Cycle
Possible Upsets, Over Poles Likely,
Noise Imaging Systems Navigation Position
Moderate Solar Array Errors Likely
Power Loss

Extreme (S5) Minor Radiation Dose System Shutdown HF Radio Black-out <1 /Cycle
Unavoidable Possible Over Poles
Unavoidable,
Navigation Position
Errors Unavoidable
53
 Geomagnetic Storms
• The boundary between the region
where the Sun’s magnetic field
dominates and the region where the
Earth’s magnetic field dominates is
called the magnetopause.
• The Sun’s magnetic field fluctuates in
response to various solar phenomena,
on time scales as short as seconds.
• Consequenty, the magnetopause
moves in response to the Sun’s field.
• Normally, in the sunward direction the
magnetopause is at about 10 Earth http://planeterrella.osug.fr/spip.php?article45
radii.
• But it occasionally gets pushed to
within the geosynchronous orbit (6.6
Earth radii)

54
 Geomagnetic Storms
• These magnetic fluctuations, or magnetic storm’s, are
typically quite small, being on the order of nanoTeslas.
• Because of the interaction between the solar magnetic
field and the Earth’s magnetic field, the magnetic field
strenght encountered at higher orbital altitudes is also
seen to vary with an 11-year sun cycle.
• A variety of parameters is used to describe fluctuations
in the strenght of the geomagnetic field.
• The K index, a quasi-logarithmic value ranging from 0
(calm) to 9 (greatly disturbed) is a measure of the
general level of magnetic activity caused by the solar
wind.

55
 Geomagnetic Storms
• The K indices are converted to roughly linear
ak indices.
The ak Index
K 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
ak 0 3 7 15 27 48 80 140 240 400

• Kp is planatery index.
• Daily averages of the ak and ap are in turn used
to compute the daily station index, Ak, and
geomagnetic index (or average planetary
index), Ap.
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 Geomagnetic Storms
• Geomagnetic Activity
Category ak index
Quiet 0-7
Unsettled 8-15
Active 16-29
Minor Storm 30-49
Major Storm 50-99
Severe Storm 100-400

57
 Geomagnetic Storms
• Past observations of Ap show temporal fluctuations, while
future predictions are generally very smooth.

http://www.swpc.noaa.gov/products/solar-cycle-progression 58