Ch2-PartII-Vacuum Environment Effects

Space Environment
Vacuum Environment
Composed from The Space
Environment by Alan C. Tribble
1
Vacuum Environment Effects
Pressure differentials
• If a S/C is pressurized, to maintain an
atmosphere for a crew for example, there
will be a large pressure differential between
the inside of the S/C and the vacuum of
space.
• If p=1 Atm. then the resulting force on a 1 m2
structure would be 101 kN.
• The structures should withstand the pressure er.jsc.nasa.gov
differentials seen on orbit or,
• Place vents so that S/C can depressurize
rapidly.
• Comparing to other problems, this problem is
very managable.
• However this problem is quite serious for
designers of spacesuit.
2
• A spacesuit can contain an
interior pressure of 101 kPa
would be almost impossible for
an astronaut to move in.
• Since our bodies need only the
oxygen to survive, space suits
often utilize a high oxygen
content with 35 kPa.
• This makes it possible for the
astronauts to move but
increases the risk of fire as in
Apollo 1 mission.
3
• One concern for manned spaceflight is the risk of
sudden depressurization as the result of an impact.
• This impact could be with another S/C as in MIR
collided with a resupply vessel in 1997.
• But more usually the concern is micrometeroids and
orbital debris (MMOD).
• Pressure losses from the very small holes so severe
that it would immediatey incapacitate the crew.
• Space Station consists of many compartment, which
crew can evacuate and seal it if any problem is met.
• Example 1:
4
Solar UV Degredation
• On orbit, S/C surfaces will be exposed to the full
strenght of the solar UV radiation.
• The energy of a single photon is related to its
wavelength λ (lambda) and ν (nu) according to the
relation E=hv=hc/λ
– h=Planck’s constant (=6.63x10-4 Js)
– c=speed of light (3x108 m/s)
• As shown in the next table the energy carried by a
single photon of UV light is sufficient to sever many
types of organic chemical bonds.
• As a result the physical characteristics of many
materials change upon exposure to UV radiation.
5
6
• As we will see in the next section,
darkening the exterior surfaces of a
vehicle causes it to absorb more
heat from the sun.
• This in turn raises the internal
temperatures and, my push many
elements above their safe
operating limit.
• As a result, maintaining surface
properties is a significant challenge.
• To ensure UV degredation does not
become an issue it is important to
select exterior materials that have
been tested, and verified.
7
• An excellent example of materials degredation upon
exposure to the space environment is the change in the
properties of the Betacloth liner used in the bay of the
Space Shuttle.
• Betacloth is a woven fabric of glass fibers dipped in an
emulsion of TFE Teflon and Polysiloxane during process.
– Teflon protects the fibers.
– Polysiloxane makes the final product more workable.
http://www.hq.nasa.gov/a
• During a one-week shuttle mission it is quite common for lsj/alsj-OPS.html
the Betacloth to darken visibly.
• This darkening caused when UV light creates «color
centers» in the fabric where oxygen atoms are removed
from the matrix.
• Upon return to the ground and exposure to the
atmosphere the oxygen atoms are replaced and cloth
recovers its original appearance.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Thermal_Micrometeoroid_Garment8
Molecular Contamination Degradation
Solar Absorptance Increase
• An object will absorb heat Q(W) from the Sun according to
the relation:
– Qin=αs An S
• Where αs :material’s solar absorbance
• An(m2): surface area normal to the solar flux
• S(W/m2):solar flux per unit area at the S/C orbit
– Approximately 1366.1 W/m2 at 1 AU.
• An object will also radiate heat to its surrounding
environment according to the relation:
– Qout=ε Atot σ T4
• ε is the material’s emittance.
• Atot(m2) is the total surface area.
• T(K) is the object temperature
• σ (W/(m2K4)) is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant=5.67x10-8 Wm-2 K-4
9
• One can assume that the surrounding space
environment so that radiation to the vehicle from
sources other than the Sun is small in
comparision.
– Note that the Earth’s albedo may be significant in LEO
however.
• Subject to this constraint, the equilibrium
temperature of the material is approximated by
– Ts/c=(σs/ε)1/4 (S An/(σ Atot)1/4
10
• As an example the blackbody (αs/ε=1) temperature of a
sphere at the distance of the orbit of the planets is shown in
below:
• Machinery works best at about room temperature and

thermal control is an important aspect of S/C design.
11
• All excess heat generated by S/C must be dissipated by some means, most
often the use of thermal radiators.
• To minimize S/C mass and volume materials having low values of αs and
high values of ε are used for radiator surfaces.
• Thermal balance can be maintained over the S/C lifetime only if the
radiator maintain its thermal properties, αs/ε.
• As shown figure many S/C see a significant increase in solar absorbtance
during their orbital lifetime.
12
• Typical values of αs and ε are listed in Table
below.
13
• Although some of the degredation noted in Figure, may
be due to the solar UV, much of the degredation is
associated with contamination.
• Consider a thin contaminant film sitting on top of a
surface, as shown in figure below.
• If light of some arbitrary intensity I and wavelenght λ is
incident on the film and surface, the film may absorb
some fraction of the energy α, some fraction ρ may be
reflected, and the remaining energy τ would be
transmitted into the underlying surface.
• Conservation of energy requires that:
     1 14
The thicker the contaminant film is the more energy it can be
expected to absorb.
The drop in the intensity of the incident light as a function of
film thickness is given by:
Where I(λ,0) is the intensity of the light at the surface of the

film (W/m2), x(μm) is the film thickness and αc(μm-1) is the
absorption coefficient (the fraction of energy absorbed by the
film per unit pathlenght) of the contaminant.
Solving equation gives:
The resulting absorptance of the contaminant film is given by:
 film ( , x)  1  exp  c ( ) x 
15
• By definition the solar absorptance of a material is the
fraction of energy it absorbs from the Sun.   S  d
 
• Solar absorbtance is given by:  S  d
s
– Where α(λ) is the absorptance of the uncontaminated surface.

• When a surface is contaminated its net absorptance
typically increases.
• It is difficult to measure absorptance directly.
• Reflectance, or transmittance is more easily measured in
the laboratory.
• Many materials are designed to reflect the majority of their
light back to space and transmit little if any.
• These high reflectance materials satisfy the relation α=1-ρ
16
• The presence of a thin contaminant film on the surface of a highly
reflective material will increase its solar absorptance according to the
relation:
• Note that the factor 2 in the exponential term occurs because a photon
must traverse the film, be reflected, and traverse the film a second time to
avoid being absorbed.
• The absorption coefficient from a mixture of typical S/C outgassing
products is shown below.
17
• The contaminant layer will increase the absorptance of the
surface material and consequently its equilibrium
temperature as shown figure below.
A general rule of thumb for

thermal control surfaces is
that the numerical value for
the change in absorptance is
approximately twice the
contaminant thickness in
μm’s.
18
• On orbit most S/C witness a degradation in thermal control associated
with changes in radiator absorptance.
• A change in αs of 0.2 would be catastrophic for a radiator designed with a
beginning of life value of 0.08.
• Solar absorptance can be degraded by a number of environmental factor
such as radiation, MMOD impact, arching, sputtering, or the solar UV, but
contamination is usually the largest concern.
• Historically, some S/C have had end of life (EOL) αs values as high as 0.3-
0.4. For OSRs (optical solar reflector) a typical beginning of life (BOL) value
is 0.08.
• In order to maintain thermal control and still allow for a large degradation
in αs , thermal radiators would have to be significantly oversized at the BOL
in order to provide enough radiator surface to do job at EOL.
• EOL αs values of less than 0.2 are achievable with the proper choice of
materials and proactive S/C design.
19
Solar Array Degredation
• In addition to the thermal control systems, solar arrays can also be
contaminated.
• If we define a degradation factor (DF) for a solar array to be the ratio of
the amount of energy a «contaminated» array would produce to the
amount of energy a «clean» solar array would produce:
DF ( x) 
 S ( ) I ( ) exp(  ( ) x)d
s c
 S ( ) I ( )d
s
Is(λ) (W/m) is the response of the cell, a measure of how effectively

the cell converts a particular color of light into power.
A typical solar cell response curve and resulting cell degradation in
cell output due to contamination are shown in Figures below.
20
• As a rule of thumb, the power output
from a cell is decresed by approximately
2% times the contaminant thickness in
μm.
• They are quite warm when illuminated
600 C.
• For room temperature surfaces a sticking
coefficient of 0.1 is a typical.
• The warmer a surface is, the less likely
contamination will collect on it due to the
decrease in residence time anticipated for
impacting molecules.
• A molecule have a residence time of one
year on a 250 C, 2.5 days on a 600 C
surface.
• The sticking coefficient of the solar array
will be much less than 0.1, possibly by
several orders of magnitude.
21
• Solar arrays are so warm that no
contamination will stick to them is not
correct.
• Solar UV radiation capable of inducing
photochemical depositon of films on even
very warm surfaces.
• Now accepted that photochemical
deposition process is most likely
responsible for an accelerated
degradation in solar array output on GPS
Block I satellites.
• Other power loss mechanism such as
radiation cannot be ruled out.
22
Optical Signal Attenuation
• The presence of a contaminant film on a lens, mirror,
or focal plane will degrade the signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR) of the detector by absorbing light from the
target.
DF ( x) 
 S ( ) I s ( ) exp( c ( ) x)d
 S (  ) I (  ) d
s
• UV and IR sensors are both usually very sensitive to

contamination. http://tr.wikipedia.org
• UV sensors cannot tolerate much contamination. /wiki/Hubble_Uzay_Te
• IR sensors usually require cryogenically cooled leskobu
surfaces, which has the effect of increasing the sticking
coefficient (residence time) of contaminants effectively
to 100%.
• This problem may be reversed somewhat if the optics
can be warmed up.
23
Particulate Contamination
• Particulates on a surface may absorb or reflect light,
ultimately changing the characteristics of the underlying
surface.
• Before launch, thermal control radiator and solar array
should be cleaned.
• The only real concern for particulates on orbit is from
optical sensors.
• Particulates will scatter incoming light and may create
problems for optical devices by limiting SNR.
• Similarly, particulates may be mistaken by optical devices as
false signals.
• If they ejected from S/C in orbit, they either obscure the
intended target or be interpreted as star fields or MMOD.
24
Modeling, Simulation and Testing
Numerical Modeling Techniques
• ISEM(Integrated Spacecraft Environments Modeling)
– Predicting the effects of the environment
• CONTAM
– Assist in contamination modeling of S/C.
• These codes are very specialized and are utilized only
on contamination-sensitive S/C.
25
Measuring Molecular Film Techniques
• The procedure used to determine the amount of material remaining on a
surface, the non-volatile residue (NVR) is ASTM E 1235.
• The surface is wiped using a solvent mixture.
• The NVR is extracted from the wipers with additional solvent, which is
either evaporated in a vacuum oven or in a class 100 unidirectional air-
flow hood.
• The mass of the residue minus the mass of a blank sample, divided by the
area wiped, is equal to the mass per unit area of NVR on the surface.
https://www.link
edin.com/comp
any/momentum
-services-a-
division-of-
mogas
26
Measuring Solar Absorptance:Calorimeters
• In order to measure degradation of thermal control
materials on orbit, S/C may be instrumented with devices
called calorimeters.
• Essentially, a calorimeter is a thermistor that is calibrated to
operate over the predicted range of temperatures.
• By isolating a sample material from the S/C and allowing it
to establish thermal equilibrium, its temperature is
indicative of its αs/ε ratio.
• Changes in αs/ε will be indicated by a change in
temperature of the sample. T4  QL"
• The absorptance is given by:  s  S
"
• QL is the heat loss due to coupling between the sample
and its surrounding supports.
27
Measuring Mass Deposition:QCMs
• A calorimeter can measure the change in αs of a
surface.
• But it cannot determine the change is due to the
physical deposition of contaminating material on
the surface or due to degradation of the sample
itself.
• A quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) may be used
to measure the physcial mass of a molecular film.
• Essentially the QCM operates by comparing the http://www.biosensingu
resonant frequencies of two quartz crystals. sa.com/Application103.h
tml
• One crystal is exposed to the environment and
the other is shielded.
• The resonant frequency of the exposed crystal
will change if mass is deposited on its surface and
mass deposition can be inferred.
28
Measuring Particulate Levels
• The procedure used to determine
the distribution of the particulates
on a surface is ASTM E 1216.
• Essentially, a tape sample is applied
to a surface in order to cause any
particulates present to bond to the
tape.
• The tape sample is then removed
and examined under a microscope.
• If sample is large enough, the result http://www.tedpella.com/
will yield surface cleanliness. mscope_html/light-
microscopes.htm
29
Cleaning Techniques
• During ground processing, most molecular films may be
removed by chemical wiping methods.
• Certain films, however such as those containing silicone for
example, may be extremely difficult to remove.
• Surface inspection is typically used to verify surface
cleanliness before launch.
• On orbit, warming a surface is typically the only option
present for removing molecular films.
• Chemical wiping will also remove the majority of the
particles resident on the surface.
• Where optical surface are involved, making physical contact
with the surface is generally prohibited as this will damage
the surface smoothness or optical coatings.
30
Cleaning Techniques
• A variety of noncontact techniques have been investigated as potential
means to clean particulate contamination from surfaces.
• The forces adhering particulates to a surface are ultimately electrical in
nature.
• In general particle adhesive forces vary widely with particle size, shape,
material characteristics.
• Some particles may fall off under the influence of gravity, while others will
remain attached under the influence of 1000 g’s.
• In order to clean particulates form a surface, an external force must be
applied to overcome adhesive forces.
• One accepted method is simply to blow air across the surface.
• 90% cleaning efficiencies are associated with the removal of 10μm sized
particles have been reported for >150 psi cold gas jets.
• Particulates smaller than 0.5 μm are extremely difficult to remove.
• Ultrasonic and megasonic agitation methods are used.
• Sensitive surfaces may also be stored facing downward to furher minimize
particulate buildup.
31
Design Guidelines and Mitigation
Techniques
• Chose materials UV resistant
• Low outgassing materials
• Be prepare for the self-contamination
• Vents and thrusters can be directed away from
the S/C
• Thermal control systems should contain an
adequate margin.
• Leave sensitive optics warm and covered for the
first few days on orbit to protect from the
outgassing contamination.
32

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Space Environment

• Machinery works best at about room temperature and

Where I(λ,0) is the intensity of the light at the surface of the

The resulting absorptance of the contaminant film is given by:

– Where α(λ) is the absorptance of the uncontaminated surface.

A general rule of thumb for

Is(λ) (W/m) is the response of the cell, a measure of how effectively

• UV and IR sensors are both usually very sensitive to

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