Khushbakht Serosh

Contents
Partition of Bengal - 1905 ....................................................................................................................................................... 5
Causes of the Partition of Bengal ........................................................................................................................................ 5
Geographical Factor ........................................................................................................................................................ 5
Religious Factor ............................................................................................................................................................... 5
Regional disparity and improving relations with Muslims.............................................................................................. 5
Divide and Rule Policy ..................................................................................................................................................... 6
Language Issue ................................................................................................................................................................ 6
Success and Failure of the Partition of Bengal - 1905 to 1911 ........................................................................................... 7
Swadeshi Movement ...................................................................................................................................................... 9
Simla Deputation - 1906 ....................................................................................................................................................... 10
Importance of Simla Deputation....................................................................................................................................... 11
All India Muslim League – 1906 ............................................................................................................................................ 12
Formation of All India Muslim League in 1906 ................................................................................................................. 12
Objectives/ Aims of the All-India Muslim League. ............................................................................................................ 12
Causes for the formation of All India Muslim League – 1906 ........................................................................................... 14
To counter growing Congress influence: ...................................................................................................................... 14
Success of Simla Deputation: ........................................................................................................................................ 14
Partition of Bengal: ....................................................................................................................................................... 15
Hindu Nationalism: ....................................................................................................................................................... 15
Hindu – Urdu Controversy and Two Nation Theory: .................................................................................................... 16
Morley Minto Reforms – 1909 .............................................................................................................................................. 17
Terms of the Morley Minto Reforms. ............................................................................................................................... 17
Causes for the Morley-Minto Reforms ............................................................................................................................. 17
Congress Opposition on the Morley-Minto Reforms........................................................................................................ 18
Councils’ role was only advisory ................................................................................................................................... 18
Acceptance of separate electorate for Muslims ........................................................................................................... 18
Higher percentage of seats for Muslims in Councils..................................................................................................... 18
Non - official nominated members siding with British ................................................................................................. 19
Limited franchise........................................................................................................................................................... 19
Reversal of Partition of Bengal - 1911 .................................................................................................................................. 20
Protests and Rallies ....................................................................................................................................................... 20
Swadeshi Movement .................................................................................................................................................... 20
Terrorist Activities ......................................................................................................................................................... 20

1
 Khushbakht Serosh

Boycott of coronation ceremony .................................................................................................................................. 20

British measures failed.................................................................................................................................................. 21
Lucknow Pact – 1916 ............................................................................................................................................................ 23
Terms of the Lucknow Pact of 1916.................................................................................................................................. 23
Reasons for the Lucknow Pact .......................................................................................................................................... 24
1. Reversal of partition of Bengal – 1911 ...................................................................................................................... 24
2. Balkan Wars – 1912-13 ............................................................................................................................................. 24
3. Impact of the First World War on the Indian Subcontinent ..................................................................................... 25
4. Jinnah’s attempts for unity and Congress aim to get League’s support ................................................................... 25
Importance of the Lucknow Pact ...................................................................................................................................... 27
Rowlatt Act - March 1919 ..................................................................................................................................................... 29
Defence of India Act 1915. ................................................................................................................................................ 29
Reasons for Rowlatt Act: ................................................................................................................................................... 29
Terms of the Rowlatt Act: ................................................................................................................................................. 30
Opposition to Rowlatt Act: ............................................................................................................................................... 30
Amritsar Massacre/ Jallianwala Bagh Incident - April 1919.................................................................................................. 31
Montague Chelmsford Reforms - December 1919 ............................................................................................................... 32
Terms of the reforms: ....................................................................................................................................................... 32
Reaction of Indian people to the reforms:........................................................................................................................ 34
Khilafat Movement ............................................................................................................................................................... 36
Origins, causes and aim of the Khilafat movement .......................................................................................................... 36
Origins/ Background ..................................................................................................................................................... 36
Cause ............................................................................................................................................................................. 36
Aim/ Objectives ............................................................................................................................................................. 37
Main features of the Khilafat movement ......................................................................................................................... 38
A. The All India Khilafat Conference.............................................................................................................................. 38
Khilafat Movement gains momentum .......................................................................................................................... 40
B – Non-Cooperation Movement/ Civil Disobedience Movement ............................................................................... 42
Why did the Khilafat Movement fail? ............................................................................................................................... 45
1. Hijrat Movement ....................................................................................................................................................... 45
2. Khilafat Leaders Imprisoned ..................................................................................................................................... 46
3. Chaura Chauri Incident and Gandhi’s withdrawal .................................................................................................... 46
4. Moplahs Uprising ...................................................................................................................................................... 47
5. Multiple Objectives ................................................................................................................................................... 48
Importance of the Khilafat Movement ............................................................................................................................. 49

2
 Khushbakht Serosh

Pakistan Movement 1927-1939 ............................................................................................................................................ 53

Growth of Communalism .................................................................................................................................................. 54
Delhi Proposals 1927......................................................................................................................................................... 54
Simon Commission 1927 ................................................................................................................................................... 55
Nehru Report 1928 ........................................................................................................................................................... 61
Terms of the Nehru Report of 1928 .............................................................................................................................. 62
All India Muslim Conference rejection to Nehru Report .............................................................................................. 62
Jinnah’s Fourteen Points 1929 .......................................................................................................................................... 64
Reasons For Jinnah's Fourteen Points........................................................................................................................... 64
Allahabad Address 1930 ................................................................................................................................................... 66
Round Table Conferences 1930 - 1932 ................................................................................................................................. 68
First Round Table Conference, Nov 1930, London ........................................................................................................... 69
Reasons ......................................................................................................................................................................... 69
Salt March ..................................................................................................................................................................... 69
Successes....................................................................................................................................................................... 70
Failures .......................................................................................................................................................................... 70
Second Round Table Conference, Sept 1931, London ...................................................................................................... 71
Reasons ......................................................................................................................................................................... 71
Delhi Pact or the Gandhi- Irwin Pact ............................................................................................................................. 71
Successes....................................................................................................................................................................... 71
Failures .......................................................................................................................................................................... 72
Communal Award 1932 .................................................................................................................................................... 73
Third Round Table Conference, Nov 1932, London .......................................................................................................... 73
Reasons and Failure: ..................................................................................................................................................... 73
Government of India Act 1935 .............................................................................................................................................. 77
Terms Of Government Of India Act 1935 ......................................................................................................................... 77
Importance of the Government of India Act 1935 ........................................................................................................... 78
Reasons for Opposition/ Rejection ................................................................................................................................... 78
Elections 1937 ....................................................................................................................................................................... 80
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................... 80
Congress Successes ........................................................................................................................................................... 81
Muslim League Successes ................................................................................................................................................. 81
Congress Failures .............................................................................................................................................................. 82
Muslim League Failures .................................................................................................................................................... 82
Congress Rule 1937 - 1939.................................................................................................................................................... 86

3
 Khushbakht Serosh

Day of Deliverance 1939 ....................................................................................................................................................... 92

Lahore Resolution 1940 ........................................................................................................................................................ 93
Cripps Mission 1942 .............................................................................................................................................................. 98
Gandhi-Jinnah Talks 1944 ................................................................................................................................................... 100
Q. Why did the Gandhi-Jinnah talks of 1944 fail? [7] ..................................................................................................... 100
Importance of Gandhi-Jinnah Talks with other events in 1940s ..................................................................................... 102
Wavell’s Plan - 1945 ............................................................................................................................................................ 103
Simla Conference – 1945 ................................................................................................................................................ 103
Reasons for Failure of Wavell’s Plan: .............................................................................................................................. 103
Elections 1945 ..................................................................................................................................................................... 105
Reasons for Muslim League Victory:............................................................................................................................... 106
Cabinet Mission Plan 1946 .................................................................................................................................................. 109
Direct Action Day 1946 ....................................................................................................................................................... 111
3rd June Plan 1947 ............................................................................................................................................................... 112
Radcliffe Award 1947 .......................................................................................................................................................... 112

4
 Khushbakht Serosh

Partition of Bengal - 1905

Causes of the Partition of Bengal
Bengal was partitioned due to the following reasons:

Geographical Factor
One of the reasons why Bengal was partitioned was its huge size. It was the biggest
administrative unit of the British Empire in India. Its area was 189, 000 square miles with a
population of nearly 85 million, that was ten times more than the population of whole of Britain.
Its size and geography made it difficult to maintain law and order and collection of taxes.
Moreover, Bengal also faced frequent famines and floods, that made it difficult for the British
government to provide relief for a huge population. Therefore, Lord Curzon, the Viceroy of India,
proposed the idea of its partition in 1903 and the British government divided it into two smaller
provinces in 1905.

Religious Factor
There were around 30 million Muslims and 54 million Hindus in Bengal. Thus, Hindu-Muslim
communal clashes and animosity was huge. Religious riots were increasing on different issues
like slaughtering of cow and heavy taxes imposed by Hindu zamindars on Muslim peasants.
Hence, the British felt it was sensible to partition Bengal on religious grounds to maintain peace
in the region. The partition would create West Bengal a Hindu majority area (42 million Hindus
- 12 million Muslims) and East Bengal a Muslim majority region (12 million Hindus - 18 million
Muslims).

Regional disparity and improving relations with Muslims

Bengal were partitioned by the British to improve their relation with Muslims. Since the War of
Independence 1857 the British mistrusted the Muslims and blamed them for the revolt.
However, the British changed their view and wanted to cooperate with the Muslims. Bengal was
one of the parts of India where Muslims were living in huge numbers with no real opportunities
to prosper. Bengal was divided to free Muslim from Hindu oppression who dominated multiple
sectors e.g. education, press and industry etc. in Bengal.

5
 Khushbakht Serosh

The Eastern part of Bengal was underdeveloped as compared to the Western part. Calcutta that
was one of the first British residencies was situated in western part of Bengal. Therefore, the
area was a hub of British power. With the partition, the Eastern Bengal had a chance to prosper
with Dhaka as its new capital. Additionally, Muslims would benefit from new schools and
employment opportunities in the new province. Thus, for improving relations with the Muslims,
the British partitioned Bengal in such a way that East Bengal became a province of Muslim
majority, ending the social and economic persecutions or oppressions.

Divide and Rule Policy

Bengal was partitioned to counter the increasing Hindu nationalism. Since 1880s a form of
radical nationalism began to develop in India. A few important Hindu nationalist leader emerged
during the time e.g. Bal Gangadhar Tilak. He made impassioned speeches calling for freedom
and wrote provoking newspaper articles. Moreover, in 1897 British officer and his companion
was assassinated.

The million Bengali Hindus turned into a strong political force due to their unity. They had
Congress as a political platform, that demanded political concessions and administrative role in
Bengal. The British were forced to accept their demand in Indian Councils Act of 1892 by
increasing the number of Indian seats in the council. Such demands worried the British because
they were committed to follow their own policies. In order to counter this political challenge,
they partitioned Bengal to break the unity of Hindus in East and West Bengal.

Language Issue
Lastly, Bengal was inhabited by different ethnic groups speaking different languages, like people
of Bihar spoke Bihari language, people of Orissa spoke Uria language and people of East Bengal
spoke Bengali. This created administrative and law and order problems. Therefore, partition was
initiated with a view to solving such problem.

6
 Khushbakht Serosh

Success and Failure of the Partition of Bengal - 1905 to 1911

Q. Why did Muslims support the partition of Bengal?

Muslims who were just a third of former united Bengal, constituted a clear majority of 58% in
the new province of East Bengal. The poor economic situation of the Muslims of East Bengal was
changed overnight. Muslims of Bengal rightly felt that this step would open new doors of
development and prosperity for them due to the following reasons:

1. Bengal was severely centralized in the capital Calcutta, in all aspects. Most of the factories
and mills in Bengal were established in and around Calcutta even though the major sources
of the raw materials for these factories were in East Bengal. Most of the educational
institutions were also situated in Calcutta including the only university in Bengal.

After the partition, Dhakka became the capital of the new province (East Bengal) that hastened
its progress. Dhakka began to transform into a major city and regained its past glory.
Construction of some important administrative buildings like the Curzon Hall and High Court
took place in the city. It turned into a hub of many intellectual activities, legal circles and
journalistic activities. Muslims now had means to express their grievances to the government.
As a result, now their plight and problems could not be ignored by the government.

2. A number of educational institutions were established throughout East Bengal and Assam,
which resulted in an increase in the literacy rate of the region. A number of students colleges
opened in the new province. As a result, the enrolment of the Muslim students also
increased. Teaching staff was also increased. More than 200 miles of railway tracks were laid.
Steamer service was also introduced to provide quick means of transport to the general
public and businessmen. Policies were made for the benefit of East Bengal, which ushered
Bengal into a new era of progress.
3. East Bengal was also granted a new political setup. Legislative council was set up in Dhakka
Governor was appointed for the new province. Civil service for the new province was
composed. In short, partition offered Muslims chances of political domination. Chittagong
port developed to compete with the Calcutta port.

Hence, they supported the partition and it was a successful decision from their perspective.

7
 Khushbakht Serosh

Q. Explain how the Hindu community opposed the partition of Bengal between 1905 and
1911.

The Hindus believed that the partition was a part of the British 'divide and rule' policy which
would weaken Hindu unity and its influence in the new East Bengal with a Muslim majority. They
had several reasons to oppose the partition:

1. Bengali Hindus were better educated and economically much stronger as compared to the
Muslims. Calcutta was the economic, administrative and educational hub of the province and
a stronghold of Hindu Bengali nationalism. They felt that the partition gave Muslim’s
dominance over them. The Congress was not ready to give any opportunity to Muslims in
order to restore their position in the subcontinent. So, the Congress agitated against the
partition to regain their supremacy over the Muslims.
2. Congress opposed the partition of Bengal because the Hindu population was divided into
two provinces. Their majority was reduced to a minority in East Bengal where now Muslims
were in majority. Bengal was the province from which the Congress had a lot of support and
consequently this support had been reduced. Therefore, the Congress was against the
partition as they wished to regain the support which would help them in winning future
elections.
3. The Hindus feared that the partition would affect and damage their political interests.
Establishment of Dhaka High Court would affect Hindus legal practice. Establishment of the
Muslim press would affect the circulation of the Hindu newspapers and other business
interests. Hindu landlords feared that they would lose their political and supremacy.
4. They felt threatened by the partition because the Muslims of the province could then launch
a struggle for their civil and political rights. This would increase the prospects and
opportunities for the Muslims and they would start competing with the Hindus. Greater
awareness among the Muslims would mean an end to the Hindu domination. Hence, the
Hindus opposed partition of Bengal.

8
 Khushbakht Serosh

Swadeshi Movement
A boycott of British goods by Hindus during / because of the Partition of Bengal, 1905–1911

• British cloth was thrown onto bonfires

• The Hindu community wore locally produced clothes
• There were a series of strikes by Indian workers, e.g. in Calcutta

Q. Explain how the British reacted to Hindu-led protests against the Partition of Bengal
between 1906 and 1908.

Restrictions were placed on newspapers and public meetings. Between 1906 and 1908 editors
of newspapers and journalists were prosecuted and some were imprisoned.

The Press Act of 1908 placed further restrictions on newspapers and gave the government
greater control over them. One organizer of Hindu-led demonstrations, Tilak of Poona was
arrested in June 1908 and he was sentenced to six years' imprisonment.

Other radical leaders left India to avoid arrest. Soon local prisons were filled with those the
British considered to be 'revolutionaries'. Sometimes suspects were simply deported without
being charged or put on trial.

The British also tried to win the support of the moderate Hindus by making reforms. In 1905
Lord Minto was appointed Viceroy. He worked with the Secretary of State (Lord Morley) for
India, in London on what were to be known as the Morley-Minto Reforms. These reforms were
intended to win the support of the Hindus., but could not appease them.

9
 Khushbakht Serosh

Simla Deputation - 1906

What was the Simla Deputation? [4]

• Simla Deputation was a delegation of 35 prominent Muslim leaders headed by Sir Aga Khan
III. It met the Viceroy Lord Minto on 1st October 1906 at Simla to make some requests.

• The deputation wanted to ensure that the British would not reverse the partition of Bengal
due to Hindu agitation/ protests, and Urdu was not replaced with Hindi as the national
language of British India.

• The deputation demanded that:

o Muslims to have their own representatives elected by Muslim voters in councils;
o Muslims to have higher percentage of seats than their percentage of population,
o Share should be given to the Muslims in civil services.

• Lord Minto, the Viceroy of India, agreed to these proposals, although Lord Morley, the
Secretary of State for India, thought the demands were undemocratic.

10
 Khushbakht Serosh

Importance of Simla Deputation

Q. Why was the Simla Deputation of 1906 an important event for the Muslims of the
subcontinent? [7]

1. Improved Relations: The Simla Deputation of 1906 was an important event for the Muslims
because it improved the relations between the British and the Muslims. Lord Minto’s
acceptance of the demands by Muslim delegation showed that Sir Syed Ahmed Khan's
contributions were successful. It also indicated that the British were prepared to work with
Muslims and had started to recognize Muslims as a separate community, hence Sir Syed’s
Two Nation Theory was acknowledged by the British. This resulted in Muslim getting
recognition for the first time after 1857, and created an opportunity for to prosper in India.
Therefore, it was an important turning point for the Muslims.

2. Formation of Muslim League: The success of the deputation encouraged the Muslims to
establish a political organization of their own, the Muslim League. Lord Minto guaranteed
Muslims an independent role in the Indian political process. As a result, an idea grew of a
separate political party that was vital to safeguard Muslim interest and counter the growing
influence of Congress. Muslims also realized that Congress main aim was Hindu-supremacy,
therefore, to secure a place in the Indian politics, they need to work independently to voice
their demands. Hence, this proved to be a significant event for Muslims.

3. End to Hindu domination: It was also a turning point because the Muslim demands for
separate representatives elected by Muslim voters only, and higher percentage of seats than
their percentage of population were accepted by the British, due to which Muslims could
select their own candidates in the future Legislative Councils. This increased their political
importance in India and made the Muslims a competitor to the Hindus. Further, this meant
that Muslims could advance their views through their representatives and it reduced their
fear of Hindu domination. Thus, it was the first real political step towards a separate
homeland.

11
 Khushbakht Serosh

All India Muslim League – 1906

Formation of All India Muslim League in 1906
All-India Muslim League (AIML), was founded at the 20th annual meeting of All-India
Muhammadan Educational Conference at Dhaka in 1906. After the conference a meeting was
called, headed by Nawab, to consider setting up an organization for Muslim unity. The name
"All India Muslim League" was proposed by Sir Agha Khan III who was appointed its first
President.

Objectives/ Aims of the All-India Muslim League.

Muslim League outlined its aims/ objectives in its first meeting in December 1906:

1. to protect and advance the political rights and interests of Muslims in India to counter the
growing influence of Congress
2. to represent Muslim needs and aspirations to the government of India
3. to promote feelings of loyalty to the British government
4. to remove any misunderstandings among Muslims as to the intentions of any government
measure
5. to prevent the rise of hostility in Muslims towards other communities in India

12
 Khushbakht Serosh

Similar 14-marks exam questions (4 reasons and conclusion is required in answer):

Q3 (c) - May/June 2022:

To what extent was the need for a political party to represent the Muslim community the main
reason for the establishment of the All-India Muslim League in 1906? Explain your answer. [14]

Q3 (c) - October/November 2019:

Was the Simla Deputation of 1906 the most important reason for the formation of the Muslim
League later that same year? Explain your answer. [14]

Q3 (c) - October/November 2016:

Was the partition of Bengal the main reason for the formation of the Muslim League in 1906?
Give reasons for your answer. [14]

Similar 7-marks exam questions (3 reasons are required in answer):

Q3 (b) - May/June 2018:
Explain why the Muslim community felt it necessary to form their own political party in 1906.
[7]

Q3 (b) - May/June 2021:

Explain why was the Muslim League formed in 1906. [7]

13
 Khushbakht Serosh

Causes for the formation of All India Muslim League – 1906

To counter growing Congress influence:
• Congress was established in 1885 to voice all Indian views to the British government.
However, it had turned into a pure Hindu party. The Muslims were disturbed by the
Congress demand that India should be treated as a cultural and political whole. Congress
by its policy, propaganda and activities proved that it only aimed to safeguard the interest
of the Hindu community and had no consideration for the Muslims' rights.
• Another factor was the development of the Morley-Minto Reforms by the Liberal Party
which came into power in Britain in 1905. They had stated that they would increase local
participation in Indian politics through elections. The Muslims feared that they would be
dominated by the Hindus and their political rights would not be advanced if they
continued to rely on the Indian National Congress.
• Hence, The Muslim leaders decided it was time to act. They realized that there was a need
of a political party to represent them in future elections and to protect Muslim rights. This
would further unite all Muslims on one platform.

Success of Simla Deputation:

• The success of the deputation encouraged the Muslims to establish a political
organization of their own, the Muslim League.
• The acceptance of demands by the Muslim delegation proved that there was a better
understanding between the British and the Muslim community as a result of the efforts
made by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. Lord Minto guaranteed Muslims an independent role in
the Indian political process.
• Many Muslims now recognized that they were a separate community who should be
treated differently to Hindu groups. Muslims accepted the significance of organized
attempt to express their needs, rather than merely protesting or misunderstanding
government measures.
• The acceptance of Muslim demands for separate electorates and higher percentage of
seats than their percentage of population meant that their political importance in India
was increased and had made them competitors to the Hindus. A political party was vital
to represent Muslims in Indian political landscape.
14
 Khushbakht Serosh

Partition of Bengal:
• The Hindu agitation (mob rallies, protests and Swadeshi movement) against the partition
of Bengal had convinced the Muslims that political differences between the two
communities were immense. It exposed Hindu feeling beyond any doubt. Muslims saw
this as a sign of the influence the Hindus had over the British.
• This forced Muslims to think about their own survival and political representation.
Muslims were also increasingly aware that their political rights would not be advanced if
they continued to rely on the Indian National Congress. By not establishing a Muslim
group they would continue to be disorganized and disunited over the partition.
• It was therefore imperative for them to have their own party which could protect Muslim
interests and speak for the community on all important occasion and issues. Hence, a
number of prominent Muslim leaders founded the Muslim League.

Hindu Nationalism:
• The Muslim League was established to defend the Muslims and their religion against
Hindu extremist groups.
• In late nineteenth century there were movements led by Hindu nationalists, who sought
to promote Hindu culture and identity. Movements like the Arya Samaj, demanded that
Muslims be forcibly converted to Hinduism. These activities sometimes fostered
communal tensions.
• Similarly, the anti-Muslim movement of Bal Gangadhar Tilak ‘Swaraj’ intensified the
feeling of insecurity among the Muslims. He laid the foundation of Cow Protection
Society. At last, he succeeded in generating a new religious fanaticism among the Hindus.
This led to a series of bloody Hindu-Muslim riots.
• At this stage, without a political party the Muslims suffered helplessly during the upsurge
of Hindu agitation. Therefore, a number of prominent Muslim leaders founded the
Muslim League as a means of promoting and safeguarding Muslim identity.

15
 Khushbakht Serosh

Hindu – Urdu Controversy and Two Nation Theory:

• The anti-Urdu movement in 1867, substituting Hindi for Urdu which had been in use in
the government offices for a long time, also played a vital role in the political awakening
of the Muslims.
• The Muslims were disturbed by the Congress demand that Hindi should be declared the
official language. The Muslim feared that the British would be influenced by the Congress
propaganda and replace Urdu with Hindi. As a result, Muslims founded the Muslim
League not only to defend Muslim interests, but also to protect Urdu.
• Sir Syed's Two-Nation Theory clearly stated that the Hindus and Muslim were two
separate nations, having their own distinctive national identities. In early 20th century
many Muslims had come around to the idea that they were a separate community who
should have been treated in a different way from Hindus. The situation after partition of
Bengal reinforced the Hindu-Muslim division. Hence, the Muslims League was established
to represent them as a separate nation in India.

Q. Describe the ‘Hindi–Urdu Controversy’.

• it took place in 1867

• Hindus demanded Hindi be the official language [1] not Urdu [1]
• Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and members of the Muslim community saw this as an attack on their
rights [1] as it had a special meaning to them [1]
• Hindu members of Sir Syed’s Scientific Society [1] wanted their journal published in Hindi [1]
• there was a growing belief that interests of Hindus clashed with those of Muslims
• this led to Sir Syed’s Two Nation Theory

16
 Khushbakht Serosh

Morley Minto Reforms – 1909

Terms of the Morley Minto Reforms.
Also known as the Indian Councils Act of 1909. The terms of the reforms are as following:

• The Imperial Council increased to 60 members by adding more non-official members. The
British retained control.
• The Central Executive Council increased by 60 members and could discuss matters of
importance and advise on government policies including the budget.
• Provincial Councils also increased to 50 members in larger provinces and 30 members in
smaller provinces.
• Muslim representatives to the Councils to be elected by a separate Muslim-only electorate.

Causes for the Morley-Minto Reforms

The Liberal Party's victory in the 1905 general elections in England and their promise of
introducing new constitutional reforms in India aimed at increasing local participation through
elections.

The negative impact of the Hindu agitation against the partition of Bengal on the British
economy, including the Swadeshi Movement and assassination attempts on the Viceroy, lead
to a significant decline in the sale of British goods and profits. There for to pacify Hindus the
reforms were passe.

The recognition by the British of the Indian demand for an increased share in governance as
justified, and the understanding that Hindu dominance in councils would worsen Hindu-Muslim
relations.

The British Government's concern over Muslims' anxiety regarding their future and the
inadequacy of existing constitutional provisions to provide safeguards for Muslims. The belief
by Lord Minto that ruling effectively required good relations with all Indian communities,
favoring the introduction of reforms over taking strong measures against the Congress and
Hindus.

17
 Khushbakht Serosh

Congress Opposition on the Morley-Minto Reforms

Q. Explain why the Congress Party opposed the Morley-Minto reforms of 1909. [7]

Councils’ role was only advisory

It only increased the number of Indians sitting in the Councils which gave the local population a
greater say in how the country was run. However, these Councils had no real powers, because
the British only intended that the Indians could voice their opinions in the Councils. They just
wanted to know what the Indians had to say but did not intend for the locals to have the power
to change the government policy. Therefore, the function of the councils was purely advisory
and decisions were always in the hands of the British. The Hindus wanted more responsibility
which the government was not prepared to give. This annoyed the Hindus who were looking
towards self-rule.

Acceptance of separate electorate for Muslims

British accepted the right of Muslim to have a separate electorate which meant that now Muslim
representatives would be elected by only Muslim’s voters. The Congress believed it would
increase the communal divide between the Indians. They believed it was the British policy of
"divide and rule" that would ultimately destroy the national unity. Therefore, the Congress
claimed that this concession was contrary to the principle of democracy. In 1910, at a Congress
meeting, the provision of separate electorate for the Muslims was attacked and the British were
asked to remove such 'anomalies'.

Higher percentage of seats for Muslims in Councils

The British also granted higher percentage of seats to the Muslims than their percentage of
population. As a result, the Muslims had suddenly attained a significant position within the
Councils and was heard with almost as much respect as the Congress, despite the much smaller
overall population of Muslims. Thus, the Hindus resented the high position of Muslims in the
Councils despite their much smaller number. The Congress claimed that it was undemocratic
and unfair. Hence, they opposed the Indian Council Act of 1909.

18
 Khushbakht Serosh

Non - official nominated members siding with British

Although non-official members had a majority in the provincial councils, the nominated non-
official members always sided with the Government and in this way the majority became
ineffective. Consequently, these reforms failed to satisfy the majority.

Limited franchise
Moreover, the franchise was extremely restricted and women were not allowed to vote. Only a
nominal number of male Indians were allowed to use their right of vote because of very high
property qualification. Further, elections were also indirect. As all the Indians were not given
voting right and only a few elites could vote, this discrimination and limited voting right led the
Indians to criticize the reforms widely.

19
 Khushbakht Serosh

Reversal of Partition of Bengal - 1911

The partition of Bengal failed as it was opposed by the Hindus/ Congress and their reaction also
caused the reversal of partition of Bengal in 1911. The reasons for reversal of partition are as
follows:

Protests and Rallies

The partition aroused fury amongst the Hindus. They proclaimed 16 October 1905, the day
partition was put into effect, as a day of mourning. There were hundreds of protest meetings
and many petitions sent to the government. Mob rallies were organized and shutter down
strikes were observed especially in Calcutta.

Swadeshi Movement
The Hindus introduced a boycott of British goods. Instead of buying British salt, cloth, or any
other manufactured product, Hindus vowed to buy Indian produced goods. British cloth was
thrown onto bonfires and it became a matter of honor to wear locally produced clothes. At the
same time some Indian workers, in Calcutta, began a series of strikes to show their opposition.
By 1908, imports from Britain had fallen off significantly and sales of British goods in Indian
markets dropped drastically.

Terrorist Activities
A number of small extremist groups came into existence that launched attacks on the British
officials. Its members threw bombs on government buildings and shot dead a number of
officers. A bomb in Bengal killed two English ladies. The Hindus even attempted to assassinate
future Viceroy Lord Minto.

Boycott of coronation ceremony

King George V was scheduled to visit India in 1911. The Indian National Congress, threatened to
boycott the Coronation ceremony of the King that was a royal tradition and a hallmark of British
authority over its colonies. This threat of the Congress was a serious blow to the pride and
prestige of the British and they were forced to reconsider the partition.

20
 Khushbakht Serosh

British measures failed

Restrictions were placed on newspapers and public meetings. Between 1906 and 1908 editors
were prosecuted and some were imprisoned. The Press Act of 1908 placed further restrictions
on newspapers and gave the government greater control over them. One organizer of Hindu-
led demonstrations, Tilak of Poona was arrested in June 1908 and he was sentenced to six years'
imprisonment. Other radical leaders left India to avoid arrest. Soon local prisons were filled with
those the British considered to be 'revolutionaries'. Sometimes suspects were simply deported
without being charged or put on trial.

The British also tried to win the support of the moderate Hindus by making reforms. In 1905
Lord Minto was appointed Viceroy. He worked with the Secretary of State (Lord Morley) for
India, in London on what were to be known as the Morley-Minto Reforms. These reforms were
intended to win the support of the Hindus., but could not appease them.

Reversal of Partition of Bengal in 1911:

Sir John Jenkins, a member of the Viceroy's executive council, advised the British government
to reverse the partition and the King himself announced the reversal in Delhi in 1911. Assam,
Bihar and Orissa were separated from reunited Bengal.

21
Khushbakht Serosh

22
 Khushbakht Serosh

Lucknow Pact – 1916

Terms of the Lucknow Pact of 1916.
1. Muslims had the right to separate electorates in electing representatives to the Imperial and
Provincial Legislative Councils.
2. Although Muslims represented only one quarter (¼) of the population, Muslims should be
given (1/3) of the seats in the Councils.
3. No Act affecting a community could be agreed if ¾ of the representatives of that community
opposed it.
4. The number of elected seats on the Councils should be increased.
5. Motions which were passed by large majorities in the Councils should be accepted as binding
by the British government.
6. Minorities in the provinces should be protected.
7. All provinces should have autonomy.
8. The executive should be separated from the judiciary

23
 Khushbakht Serosh

Reasons for the Lucknow Pact

1. Reversal of partition of Bengal – 1911
The reversal of the Partition of Bengal had led to poor relations between the British and the
Muslims:

• The Muslims saw the reversal of the Partition as a betrayal of British promises that the
original Partition was final.
• They also soon realized that the Morley-Minto reforms did not provide Indians with any
genuine voice in the government of their country.
• Despite the attempts to work with the British since the days of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, the
Muslims now lost faith in the British to allow them any real political power.
• Muslims, who had viewed the British as a friendly ruling power since the work of Sir Syed,
realized that they could not rely fully on the British in the future.

2. Balkan Wars – 1912-13

• In 1912-13, the British supported the Balkan states fighting against Turkey in the Balkan Wars.
Turkey was the major Islamic state in Europe, the Muslim community in India realized that
the British had no interest in protecting Muslim rights. Relief fund was setup for donating
money to and a medical team was sent to Turkey.

• In the annual session of the Muslim League, in January 1913, the role of the League was
redefined from promoting loyalty to the government to a form of self- government suitable
to India, due to non-cooperative attitude of the British government with the Muslims. In
March 1913 they amended their constitution

• The resolution was important in improving relations with Congress, which now realized that
the League was not an organization designed to promote support for the British.

• Both parties realized that co-operation was the only way to get the British government to
agree to self-rule. Thus, the adoption of self-government marked a reorientation of League's
policy paving way for the League-Congress reunion in 1916 in the shape of the Lucknow Pact.
24
 Khushbakht Serosh

3. Impact of the First World War on the Indian Subcontinent

When World War I broke out in Europe in August 1914 there were mixed views in India:

Support of British: Many Indians had great sympathy for the British. Millions of Indians enlisted
in the army and thousands died fighting with the British in Europe. Many politicians in India
agreed for giving support to the British, in hope that they would be rewarded for loyalty by
getting a larger role in governing the country.

Against the British: The anti-British group soon began to take action. In 1913, Lala Hardayal,
who was in exile in America, set up a Mutiny Party and sent arms to India for opposition to the
British. However, they were unsuccessful. There was also a planned uprising by Indian
nationalists' in the Punjab in 1915, which was easily put down by the British. The 'Silk Letter
Conspiracy' in which anti-British Muslims proposed an uprising to free themselves from British
rule also failed.

Recognizing the potential for significant political unrest in India during the ongoing war against
Germany and its allies, the British acknowledged the necessity of taking measures to prevent it.
They wanted to gratify the native people politically in order to get their support and co-
operation.

So in October 1916, they let it be known. that they were considering a series of proposals which
would lead to:

• at least half of the members of the Executive Council being elected

• the Legislative Council having a majority of elected members.

Both Congress and the League supported these proposals. Hence, Lucknow Pact came about
between the Congress and ML to exploit the situation and place a number of political demands.

4. Jinnah’s attempts for unity and Congress aim to get League’s support
In 1915, under the influence of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, both Congress and the Muslim League
arranged their annual sessions in Bombay and had joint councils to develop mutual
understanding on important issues.

25
 Khushbakht Serosh

In 1916 they, once again, held their annual sessions in the same city, Lucknow. Largely as a result
of the support of the two leaders, Jinnah from the Muslim League and Ambeka Charan Mahajan
from Congress.

In this session, Jinnah negotiated with the Indian National Congress to reach an agreement
called Lucknow Pact to pressurize the British government to adopt a more liberal approach for
India and give Indians more authority to run their country.

Lucknow Pact was drawn to get more authority in future constitution that was promised 10
years earlier in Morley – Minto Reforms (Indian Councils Act of 1909).

Q. Describe what happened at Lucknow in 1916. [4]

• Lucknow Pact was an agreement reached between the Indian National Congress and the
Muslims League at the joint session of both the parties held in Lucknow in 1916. For the first
time a set of political demands were made by the two parties to the British government.
• Jinnah played a very important role in finalizing this Pact. He negotiated with the Congress
to reach an agreement.
• Congress agreed to concessions with Muslim League – right to separate electorates, 1/3 of
seats in Councils
• Both parties agreed to a set of demands that there should be more seats in Councils,
protection of minorities, provinces to have autonomy, proposals to be binding on British.
• First time Congress accepted recognized League as the sole representative of the Muslim.
Home Rule seemed a possibility and Muslim League realized they needed to work with
Congress.

26
 Khushbakht Serosh

Importance of the Lucknow Pact

Q. Explain the importance of the Lucknow Pact of 1916. [7]

Hindu – Muslim Unity:

This was the first time that a set of political demands had been made by the two parties to the
British government. Therefore, the pact was considered high water-mark of Hindu-Muslim
unity. Both realized that they had to overcome their mutual differences if further concessions
were to be gained from the British. A united front to the British and to adopt collective measures
for the attainment of their goal was necessary.

Congress acceptance of Muslim League:

The Congress agreed to the Muslim demand for separate electorates for the first and last time.
It was the recognition by the Congress that Muslim League was the sole representative of the
Muslims of India. It also guaranteed to Muslims that no that no non-official bill affecting their
position could be passed by any of the legislatures if three-fourths of the Muslim members of
the house opposed it. The Congress acceptance of League’s demand of having one-third seats
in Councils made Muslims realize the benefit of working with Congress, to get politically
stronger.

Indian Home Rule League 1917:

It means self-government on colonial lines.

It marked the first acceptance by the Hindus that a degree of partition would be necessary in
any self-governing India. During 1917, two Indian Home Rule Leagues campaigned across India.
One was led by Tilak and the other by an English woman Annie Besant. She was imprisoned by
the British in June 1917, but she was released in August when Muslim League and Congress
threatened to launch a series of protest. Lucknow Pact gave Muslims an opportunity to take
part in Home Rule Movement.

27
 Khushbakht Serosh

10 or 14 marks question

Q. Which of the following had the most important effect on the Pakistan Movement between
1909 and 1919?

(i) the Morley–Minto reforms, 1909

(ii) the reversal of the Partition of Bengal, 1911

(iii) the Lucknow Pact, 1916

Explain your answer with reference to all three of the above.

(Two explanations are worth 6 or 7 marks. Additional explanations on the same two events
cannot be awarded more than 8 marks. Explanation of all events is worth 9 marks)

Para 1: Morley-Minto Reforms became law in 1909 as the Indian Councils Act. The importance
of the Councils, which were enlarged, was to ensure that Indian legislators were given a chance
to express their opinions. The British also accepted the right of the Muslim community to have
a separate electorate (explain further…….)

Para 2: The Hindu community reacted to the Partition of Bengal with protests. The decision by
the British to reverse the partition was seen as a victory by the Hindu community, but as betrayal
by the Muslim community who now realized how important it was to ensure the success of the
Muslim League for the Muslim community to prosper in India. They felt they could no longer
rely on either Congress or the British to protect their interests (explain further…….)

Para 3: The Lucknow Pact of 1916 was an agreement between the Muslim and Hindu
communities, which presented a number of political demands to the British government to
show a united front and produce common aims. For the first time, the Hindu community
acknowledged that the Muslim community had the right to a separate electorate and the
Lucknow Pact was seen as a promise of hope for the future (explain further…….)

Add conclusion

28
 Khushbakht Serosh

Rowlatt Act - March 1919

Defence of India Act 1915.
The Defence of India Act 1915 was an emergency criminal law enacted by the Governor-General
of India in 1915 with the intention of limiting the nationalist and revolutionary activities during
and in the result of the World War I.

The law was to be valid for the duration of the war and was due to be expired six months after
the war "for public safety" and "the defense of British India".

The main object of the law made it illegal to communicate with the enemy, spreading false
reports, and any activities that the government saw harmful to the war effort.

The act formed the basis of Rowlatt Act of 1919.

Reasons for Rowlatt Act:

In response to revolutionary activities in India and to maintain order after the expiry of the
Defence of India Act post-World War I, the British government introduced the Rowlatt Act. This
act aimed to extend emergency measures to control unrest.

The 1917 Communist revolution in Russia and the spread of communist ideals alarmed the
British government. The British were worried that growing unrest due to appeal of communism
to Indians, could lead to armed uprising like 1857. The Rowlatt Act was seen as a necessary step
to maintain British control over India amidst these fears.

The Lucknow Pact of 1916, which proved Hindu-Muslim unity and a collective demand for
greater self-rule, further alarmed the British government. The Rowlatt Act was introduced as a
defensive measure to control potential political tension and maintain British authority in India.

29
 Khushbakht Serosh

Terms of the Rowlatt Act:

In December 1917, the Rowlatt Committee was set up to examine and advise on measures to
counter revolutionary threats in India. In April 1918, Rowlatt proposed extending some of the

Defense of India Act's measures permanently. The most controversial amongst those were:

• people could be tried in private by 3 High Court Judges

• there was no right of appeal
• people could be ordered where to live
• people were stopped from holding meetings
• detention without bail
• people could be arrested without warrant and kept in prison without trial

The proposals caused uproar in India for violating principles of trial by jury and protection
against unlawful imprisonment. In protest, Jinnah resigned from the Imperial Legislative Council,
and Gandhi launched a hartal. There were strikes and rallies across India in 1919 but the Viceroy
ignored it and passed the Rowlatt Act in 1919.

Opposition to Rowlatt Act:

This caused uproar in India because it appeared to go against the central principles of British
justice: trial by jury and safeguards against illegal imprisonment. The measures were seen as
being oppressive, especially as people could be made to live in a particular place and were
stopped from attending meetings. Strikes and demonstrations took place and the British made
matters worse by introducing further measures such as banning anti-British publications.

30
 Khushbakht Serosh

Amritsar Massacre/ Jallianwala Bagh Incident - April 1919

31
 Khushbakht Serosh

Montague Chelmsford Reforms - December 1919

Also known as Montford reforms or Government of India Act of 1919.

Terms of the reforms:

1. Central Government – Executive:
• The Executive Council was still nominated by the Viceroy, although it now had three Indian
members out of six.

In the central government (administration) Indian role was further restricted and vast powers
were given to Viceroy. Viceroy could pass any law he chose, if he felt it was necessary for the
safety and peace of India. This 'certification' power kept real control in the hands of the Viceroy
or British control.

2. Central Government – Legislature:

A bicameral system was introduced in the center. The Legislature was divided into two chambers
i.e. Upper House and Lower House. The Lower House was known as the Legislative Assembly,
while the Upper House was called the Council of State.

The Legislative Assembly would have 145 members, of which 103 would be elected and 32 seats
were reserved for the Muslims because separate electorate. Members of the Legislative
Assembly (Lower House) were elected for three years.

The Council of state would have 60 members, 33 of whom would be elected. Lower house had
the power to make laws and discuss financial issues with the Viceroy’s approval only. Members
of the Council of State (Upper House) were elected for a period of five years.

A Council of Princes was set up with 108 members to allow the princes to discuss matters of
importance. As it had no real power, therefore major states such as Hyderabad did not even
bother to join.

32
 Khushbakht Serosh

3. Provincial Government – Diarchy / Dyarchy System:

Dyarchy system was introduced in the provinces. Under this system, provincial subjects were
divided into groups i.e. Reserved and Transferred subjects.

• Reserved Subjects consisted of Police, Justice, and Revenue collection, Power Resources,
Press and Publication. The Provincial Executive Council was responsible for Reserved
Subjects. The Council was headed by a provincial governor (British), with 2 to 4 members
nominated by him.
• Transferred Subjects consisted of Local Government, Health, Education, Forests, Agriculture
and Public Works. The Provincial The Provincial Executive Council was responsible for
Transferred Subjects. They were to be under the control of Provincial Ministers (Indians).

Provincial Legislative Council members were elected by locals. The provincial ministers were
chosen from this Council by the Viceroy. The Viceroy had the authority to dismiss the Councils.
This meant that the British had a tight control on local bodies and there were only minor
concessions.

4. Extension of voting rights:

The British extended voting rights to more local people, but still only 2% or 5.5 million out of
250 million Indian population could vote.

The act also made a provision that a commission would be set up at the end of 10 years (1929)
which shall inquire into the working into the system of the government. This commission would
also assess the success or failure of these reforms and to explore the prospects for further
improvements in them. (Reference to Simon Commission – 1927, to be studied later).

33
 Khushbakht Serosh

Reaction of Indian people to the reforms:

Q. Why were the Montague-Chelmsford reforms opposed by the Indians in 1919? [7]

One of the reasons why Indians opposed the reforms is that both the Muslims and Hindus had
hoped for greater concessions. They had given loyalty and sacrifice to Britain during the war and
had expected much more in return. They had supported the British during the WW1 and had
lost 1000s of men. So, they felt that the British government should reward that by giving them
responsibility in running their own affairs, but the reforms kept power in British hands in respect
of law and order, finance, justice, administration and the civil service.

In central government viceroy had vast powers e.g. he could pass any law he chose, if he felt it
was necessary for the safety and tranquility of India. Hence, the Indians bitterly attacked the
proposals and this led to anger and frustration.

At provincial level under the system of diarchy, only transferred subjects were vested to
ministers who were Indians. But these ministers were appointed by the Viceroy himself from
the provincial legislative council. He also had the authority to dismiss the provincial legislative
councils.

Another reason was that separate electorates had been given to Muslims in these reforms, but
other minorities such as Sikh were not and thus these began to demand access to power. So,
other religious groups, including Anglo-Indians and Sikhs, demanded that they too should be
granted concessions. It was a sign of even further divisions among Indians. This created
communal division and hostility between the minorities and resulted in further difficulties for
the British government.

Although, the qualifications required for voting were relaxed so as to allow more voters in the
next elections but still only 2% population or 5.5 million Indians out of 250 million could vote.
As majority had no right of vote and only a few rich people could vote, this discrimination was
rejected.

34
 Khushbakht Serosh

Rowlatt Act, Amritsar Massacre and Montford reforms

Same type of questions:

Was the introduction of the Rowlatt Act in 1919 the sole cause of violence in India during 1919
and 1920? Explain your answer.

Were the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms the main reason for the outbreak of violence across
India in 1919? Explain your answer.

Explains Rowlatt Act reason AND other reasons that caused violence in India

HOW TO ANSWER THE ABOVE QUESTIONS

Start with the Rowlatt Act’s brief introduction and why it caused violence:

1: Rowlatt Act introduction: why was it imposed and what were the terms

2: How Rowlatt Act caused violence

Then explain what happened at the Amritsar massacre and why it caused violence:

3: What were the causes that led to a meeting/ peaceful demonstration at Jallianwala Bagh

4: What happened at Jallianwala Bagh

5. How did it increased violence in India

Lastly, explain briefly what was Government of India Act/ Montague-Chelmsford Reform and
then explain why the Indians opposed these reforms and how it increased violence:

6: Briefly explain Montague Chelmsford reforms (terms of reforms)

7: Why Indians opposed the reforms and how it caused violence

Add conclusion in the end

35
 Khushbakht Serosh

Khilafat Movement
Origins, causes and aim of the Khilafat movement
Q. Why did the Khilafat Movement emerge? [7]

Origins/ Background
World War I and Turkey
During the First World War, the Turks had fought on the side of the Germans - against Britain.
This created a serious problem for the British in India. They wanted the Indian Muslims to fight
in the war against the Turks, but they knew that Indian Muslims would not take part in any
fighting which led to the Khalifa being overthrown, or his empire being dismantled.

To solve the problem, the British informed the Indian Muslims that the British would respect
the rights of the Khalifa and that the Turkish Empire would be maintained. As a result of this
promise thousands of Muslims joined the British army.

Defeat of the Central Powers and Treaty of Versailles

At the end of the war peace treaties were drawn up showing how the defeated nations were to
be treated. The Treaty of Versailles set out what would happen to Germany. Its armed forces
were greatly reduced, its colonies taken away and the country was split in two by the creation
of a new country, Poland. The Germans were also forced to pay a huge sum to the victorious
Allies for the damage caused by the fighting.

Similar measures were taken against Germany's ally, Austria.

Cause
Betrayal of British promise
These treaties worried the Muslims in India. In view of the punishments imposed upon Germany
and Austria, it was difficult to see how Turkey could be treated any differently. The British Prime
Minister, Lloyd George, felt strongly that the Turkish Empire should be split up in the same way
that Germany and Austria had seen their empires taken away. The Indian Muslims were

36
 Khushbakht Serosh

outraged at this suggestion and began to organize opposition to the British plan, that came to
be known as Khilafat movement.

Aim/ Objectives
Protection of Caliph and the Ottoman Empire
• Protection of the institute of Caliph: Protecting the Caliph was very important for the
Muslims because he was the symbolic religious and political leader of all Muslims in the
world. Indian Muslims had developed a deep-rooted devotion with the caliphate over the
years. As, the collapse of caliphate would harm the concept of Muslim Ummah. Thus, the
Khilafat Movement was launched in order to protect the caliphate from breakage and save
the Caliph from being dethroned.

• Protection of the Ottoman Empire: The Ottoman Empire was one of the largest Muslim
empire at that time. The Indian Muslims looked upon it as the fortress of Islam. They felt that
any decline in its power would mean a blow to the independent existence of Islam as a world
community. Therefore, the Muslims were not prepared to see Turkey split up after the War.
As Muslims feared that the British wanted to split Turkey, so they founded the Movement to
influence the British government and to protect the Ottoman Empire.

Protection of holy places under Ottoman Empire’s control

As the Ottoman Empire was defeated in the war, the Muslims of India feared that collapse of
the Caliphate could result in fall of the Holy places in Makkah, Madinah, Jerusalem and other
parts of Arabia under the control of non-Muslims. Muslims all over the world have strong
religious attachment with these places and their sanctity is of top most priority to them.
Therefore, the Khilafat movement was launched to defend Turkey and the sacred places.

Attainment of self-rule for India

The Hindus and the Muslim had been working together since Lucknow Pact 1916 for self-rule.
So, in 1919, when Muslims launched the Khilafat Movement in India, Gandhi had seen an
opportunity for self-rule by joining the Movement. So, Gandhi along with Hindus joined the
Movement, as they thought that it was a good opportunity to get self-rule. This encouraged the
Muslims and soon the Movement spread across the sub-continent under the leadership of Ali
Brothers and Gandhi. Thus, another aim of the Khilafat Movement was to get maximum
concessions, especially self-rule for India.

37
 Khushbakht Serosh

Main features of the Khilafat movement

A. The All India Khilafat Conference
First Conference
In November 1919, the first Khilafat Conference was called in Delhi to try to persuade the British
to keep their promises about maintaining the Turkish Empire. The leading figures at the
conference were two brothers, Maulana Shaukat Ali and Maulana Muhammed Ali Jauhar, and
senior member of Congress, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad. The Conference passed a resolution to
send a delegation to Britain to make the British aware of the strength of Muslim support for the
Khalifa.

Mahatma Gandhi was also present at the conference

By the end of the first world war he had become an unofficial leader of Congress and his
presence showed that the Khilafat Movement was one that at first united Hindus and Muslims
as anti-Britishness seemed more important than religious differences.

Second Conference
In December 1919, the second Khilafat Conference was held in Amritsar. At the same time both
Congress and the League were also meeting in the city. It was agreed that all three organizations
should work together to oppose plans to dismember the Turkish Empire.

It was decided during the conference that Gandhi would take the lead in trying to persuade the
British not to punish Turkey.

Maulana Muhammad Ali visited to Britain earlier in which he had impressed upon the British
the importance of solving the Turkish problem. They had listened politely but were not
persuaded by his arguments.

38
Khushbakht Serosh

39
 Khushbakht Serosh

Khilafat Movement gains momentum

First Khilafat Delegation
In January 1920, a Khilafat delegation of thirty-five people called on the Viceroy in Delhi. The
delegation included Ali-brothers, Mr. Jinnah, Mahtama Gandhi, and Abdul Kalam Azad. They
asked for fairness in the treatment of Turkey. But the Viceroy did not gave any reassurance.

Second Khilafat Delegation

In February 1920, another delegation was sent to England to meet the western leaders including
British Prime Minister Lloyd George. They tried to persuade the western powers not to treat
Turkey in the same way as Germany and Austria. This group included Muhammad Ali Jauhar,
Syed Suleman Nadvi and Abdul Kalam Azad.

But while the delegation was in England the terms of the Treaty of Sevres were announced.

40
 Khushbakht Serosh

Treaty of Sevres

As per the terms of the treaty:

1. the Ottoman Empire was to be split up.

2. Arabia was made independent.
3. Turkey's other lands in the Middle East were placed under the League of Nations and
allocated to Britain and France.
4. Turkish land was to be given to Greece so that Turkey's only land in Europe was a small
area around Istanbul.
5. Turkish army’s size was also restricted.

41
 Khushbakht Serosh

B – Non-Cooperation Movement/ Civil Disobedience Movement

Satyagraha
• Hindu word meaning truth force / holding onto truth;
• A form of non-violent or passive resistance;
• Gandhi’s idea in 1919 and saw it as having a strong spiritual force;
• Gandhi urged Indians to join movement in seeking Swaraj;
• It involved sit-down strikes and hunger strikes, petitions, protest marches and boycotts.

42
 Khushbakht Serosh

On 22 June 1920 the Indian Muslims threatened the Viceroy that if the Treaty of Sevres was
imposed on Turkey, then a policy of non-cooperation in the country would begin on 1 August.

Gandhi toured India to rally support for the movement. It involved:

• surrendering of titles and resigning from seats in local bodies,

• withdrawing children from government schools and colleges,
• boycotting British courts,
• refusing to volunteer to join the armed forces,
• refusing to stand for election and to pay taxes,
• boycotting foreign goods - British cloth was burned in huge amounts and the production
of hand-woven Indian cloth was encouraged.

These measures turned the Khilafat Movement into an anti-British movement.

Indian Reaction to Non-cooperation Movement

• There was a great deal of support across the country and the British were highly
embarrassed when visits by British royal princes were greeted with demonstrations and
strikes.
• The Prince of Wales visited Bombay in 1921, there was a nationwide strike and
demonstrations in Bombay led to anti-British rioting in which 53 people were killed.
• The British reacted by introducing a policy of repression involving widespread arrests. By
the end of 1921, there were more than 30,000 political prisoners in India's jails.
• The Khilafat Movement had attracted Muslims and Hindus alike and, for a short while,
communal rivalry was put aside.
• There was a great deal of support across the country and the British were highly
embarrassed when visits by British royal princes were greeted with demonstrations and
strikes.
• The Prince of Wales visited Bombay in 1921, there was a nationwide strike and
demonstrations in Bombay led to anti-British rioting in which 53 people were killed.
• The British reacted by introducing a policy of repression involving widespread arrests. By
the end of 1921, there were more than 30,000 political prisoners in India's jails.
• The Khilafat Movement had attracted Muslims and Hindus alike and, for a short while,
communal rivalry was put aside.

43
Khushbakht Serosh

44
 Khushbakht Serosh

Why did the Khilafat Movement fail?

1. Hijrat Movement
2. Imprisonment of Khilafat leaders
3. Chaura Chauri Incident and Gandhi’s withdrawal
4. Moplah Uprising
5. Multiple Objectives of Movement

1. Hijrat Movement
To many Muslims, however, the Khilafat Movement was not about opposing the British. It was
about protecting and fostering Islam. During the years when the Movement was at its strongest,
Western dress and hair styles became less popular and the idea grew, particularly in the North-
West Frontier and Sindh that disregard of the law of Islam by the British made India a Dar-ul-
Harb (enemy territory).

Consequently, in August 1920, 18,000 Muslims set off on a hijrat (migration) to Afghanistan.
They sold their land and property and began the long trek with their few remaining possessions
in carts and their wives and children walking beside them. The journey was long and difficult,
but the emigrants were told that the Afghan Government would welcome them and that fertile
fields would be
made available for
them to plant their
crops. The truth
was very different.
The Afghanis did
not welcome the
idea of such huge
numbers suddenly
descending upon
their country. The
emigrants were
refused entry and forcibly sent back to what now is part of Pakistan. When they got back to their

45
 Khushbakht Serosh

villages, their homes and jobs were in the hands of others and could not be got back. Many died
on their way back.

2. Khilafat Leaders Imprisoned

On 8 July 1921 the All-India Khilafat Movement met for the third (and final) time. It passed a
series of resolutions, which offended the British that the Khilafat leaders were arrested.

The resolutions stated that no Muslim should attend British schools, serve in the police or army
or offer any form of cooperation to the British.

As a result of this, both the Ali brothers were imprisoned. The arrest of the leaders infuriated
the Muslims, who carried out nationwide protests.

3. Chaura Chauri Incident and Gandhi’s withdrawal

• In November 1921 riots broke out in Nilambur which led to a pitched battle between the
locals and British soldiers.
• The most famous of incident occurred in Chauri-Chaura, a village in Gorakhpur district. In
February 1922, twenty-one policemen were killed after they fired on a political procession.
• There was also unrest in Madras, Calcutta and Bombay.

Gandhi got worried about the increasing level of violence. He eventually decided that India was
not yet ready for a mass campaign and he called off the movement. His decision upset many
Congress leaders and the Muslims, too, accused Gandhi of retreating just when the Indian
people were taking up the cause with enthusiasm.

The British saw how Gandhi's support had declined and, a few weeks after he called off his civil
disobedience campaign; he was arrested and sentenced to six years' imprisonment.

Further, this decision infuriated the Muslims who saw this action taking the pressure off the
British government. Consequently, it weakened Hindu-Muslim unity and also weakened support
for the Khilafat Movement. This was a massive blow to the chance of success for the Movement
as a large proportion of the support for the cause fell quickly away.

46
 Khushbakht Serosh

4. Moplahs Uprising
Background
Malabar District in Madras had become the center of disturbances because the Muslim
inhabitants were mainly ethnic Arabs who were forced to live a life of slavery under Hindu feudal
lords. They had great reverence for the Sultan of Turkey. The Khilafat Movement in India greatly
inspired them.

In June 1920, the Khilafat Committee was set up in Malabar. The government later imposed a
ban on public meetings and arrested many Moplahs leaders. This incident infuriated the
Moplahs.

Although, initially they were only anti-British, but when some Hindus obstructed a Khilafat
meeting in a mosque, they turned anti- Hindus also.

Event (Extract taken from Nigel Smith)

47
 Khushbakht Serosh

5. Multiple Objectives
Khilafat Movement also failed due to lack of clear and common objectives

During the time, Gandhi had seen an opportunity for self-rule by joining the movement and the
involvement of Hindus welcomed by many Muslims. However, by joining the Hindus the
objectives of the Movement were made less clear since the Hindus and Gandhi especially were
using it for their own ends and did not have the interests of the Muslims at heart. Hence, their
lack of interest and enthusiasm filled them with disappointment.

Furthermore, poor leadership was another cause of the failure. The movement was organized
by Ali Brothers e.g. Maulana Muhammad Ali and Maulana Shaukat Ali Jauhar, and a senior
member of Congress i.e. Gandhi. The British were concerned that the Khilafat Movement was a
threat to law and order, and it is true that there were disturbances across India. Therefore, main
leaders including Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar, Maulana Shaukat Ali Jauhar and Gandhi were
imprisoned in 1921 which made the organization less effective. Since the movement's
leadership was missing at a crucial time. So, the large scale arrests had weakened the movement
and with the imprisonment of his principal lieutenant Gandhi, was losing control of it.

48
 Khushbakht Serosh

Importance of the Khilafat Movement

Although the Khilafat Movement had not saved the Khilafat, it did bring significant benefits to
the people of India.

1. The policy of non-cooperation with the British had united Hindu and Muslim and it showed
that the Indian people were no longer prepared to accept British rule. Some historians see the
Khilafat Movement as the first step on the road that led to independence.

2. The Khilafat Movement made the Muslims realise that they had political power. They realised
that they could organise themselves to demand their political rights. They were not the 'pets' of
the British and did not have to rely on either the Hindus or the British to gain their rights. Indeed
the British opposition to the Movement reinforced the growing feeling that the British only
accepted the need for Muslims to have rights when doing so did not contravene other policies
they were pursuing (like punishing Turkey).

But there
were also
some very
negative
consequences
of the Khilafat
Movement.

1. Many
unfortunate
Muslims had
given up their
jobs in public service and many students had forsaken their studies as part of the non-
cooperation policy established in 1920. Even more unfortunate were the Muslims who had
tried to emigrate to Afghanistan. They returned home to economic misery.
2. The failure of the Khilafat Movement, and the joint efforts of Hindus and Muslims to work
towards a common objective, drove a wedge between the two communities. Communal
rioting followed the calling off of the non-cooperation campaign and hostility and suspicion
increased. These events proved that the Hindus and Muslims could never live together in
harmony.

49
Khushbakht Serosh

50
Khushbakht Serosh

51
Khushbakht Serosh

52
 Khushbakht Serosh

Pakistan Movement 1927-1939

53
 Khushbakht Serosh

Growth of Communalism
The end of non-cooperation movement led to serious communal riots in India. During 1920s
Hindu fundamentalism gained more influence. Hindu nationalist groups Arya Samaj and Hindu
Mahasabha carried out militant activities that strained Hindu-Muslim relations. The growth of
such groups and Congress worried the Muslim League.

The Hindus believed that the right of separate electorate granted to the Muslims in 1909, was
the main obstacle in the way of Hindu-Muslim unity.

For the sake of Hindu Muslim unity, leaders like Jinnah were prepared to forego their right of
separate electorate, if only certain demands were accepted.

Delhi Proposals 1927

In 1927 Jinnah called a conference of all Muslim leaders in Delhi. The purpose was to discuss
how Muslim interests should be protected in the future. The Delhi conference resulted in a
number of demands, known as the Delhi Proposals:

1. Muslims should be given one-third of the seats in the Central Legislature through joint
electorates.
2. Sindh should be given full provincial status.
3. All British reforms in India should be extended to Balochistan and the North West Frontier
Province.
4. The number of seats to be given to Muslims in provinces where they were in majority
(Punjab and Bengal) should be proportional to the Muslim population living there.

Jinnah stated that if these proposals were accepted, the Muslims would call off their demands
for a separate electorate. The Congress decided to accept the Delhi Proposals but changed their
decision six months later.

54
 Khushbakht Serosh

Simon Commission 1927

Q. Why was the Simon Commission sent to India? [7] OR

Q. Why was the Simon Commission constituted? [7]

Amendment of constitution every ten year

• Morley Minto Reforms = 1909

• Montague Chelmsford Reforms = 1919

It was a promise of the British government that after every ten years new reforms had to be
introduced in India. As last reforms were introduced in India by the British government in 1919
in the form of Montagu-Chelmsford reforms, the time had approached for the British
government to send a commission to India to prepare recommendation on the future
constitution. So it could be introduced timely. Therefore in 1927, the British government
constituted a commission under Sir John Simon to investigate the working of the reforms
introduced in 1919 and suggest further political reforms for India.

Communal Violence and opposition to previous reforms

After the Khilafat Movement, the communal violence in India became so serious by 1927 that it
threatened any cooperation between Hindus and Muslims. Hindu nationalist groups Arya Samaj
and Hindu Mahasabha carried out militant activities that strained Hindu-Muslim relations.
Hence, Simon commission was sent to India to solve issue of communal riots.

Major Indian parties had already rejected the 1919 Act and wanted fresh political reforms. The
Indians wanted a greater degree of central and provincial autonomy. This had led to outbreak
of protest and strikes in India. The British Government, therefore, decided to review the reforms
as early as possible to get the situation under control.

55
 Khushbakht Serosh

Labor Party coming to power

The Simon Commission was sent to Indian in 1927 because the British Conservative Party was
in government at that time in Britain feared that it might soon lose power to its rival party, the
Labor Party, which it thought was too sympathetic to the beliefs of Indian nationalism. It feared
that the Labor Party could use Indian problem as an important issue during the 1929 elections
and might make too many concessions. In anticipation of such a development, the Conservative
Party appointed a Commission in 1927, well before its scheduled time.

56
 Khushbakht Serosh

Q. Describe the Simon Commission? [4]

The Conservative government sent a constitutional commission of seven members headed by

Sir John Simon in 1927, to consider further political reforms in India.

There was no Indian representation on the commission and this was opposed especially as its
membership had been carefully selected to oppose self-government.

Congress and ML boycotted it. The Simon Commission prepared a report amidst opposition by
the major Indian political parties. INC and ML rejected it and the Nehru Report was prepared in
its response in 1928.

Q. What were the terms of the Simon Commission Report? [4]

Simon Commission Report was published in May 1930, which made the following
recommendations:

• Federal system with more powers to provinces

• Diarchy system ended with provincial government in hands of ministers responsible to
elected legislatures
• Governors to choose all ministers from parties that had majority support.
• Provincial Prime Ministers would be free from control by the governor or central
government
• NWFP to be given a legislative council but no government
• The separation of Sindh from Bombay was not granted
• No change in central executive and Council of Greater India was to be set up representing
India and the individual provinces were to discuss matters of all-India concern

Q. Why was the Simon Commission Report rejected? [7]

• No Indian representation - The Indians wanted their participation in the process of making
the future constitution for India.
• All major political parties of India took it as an insult to their self respect, and rejected the
Commission and its report.

57
 Khushbakht Serosh

• The INC wanted a federal form of government with most of the powers with the Center
government whereas the ML wanted a weak Central government with a greater degree
of provincial autonomy.
• The ML also was disappointed as the Report recommended separate electorates for
Muslims but did not favor one third Muslim seats in the Central Legislative Assembly.
• The report also declared that there was no need of making Sindh and the NWF as new
provinces.

Indian Reaction to Simon Report

It was unacceptable to both Congress and the Muslim League. The report was unanimously
condemned by all Indians. It was greatly resented by Congress who in reaction decided to start
a civil disobedience movement. This campaign was launched under Gandhi's command and
violent demonstrations were held as a protest against the Report. In reaction, Gandhi and
Jawaharlal Nehru were arrested.

58
Khushbakht Serosh

59
Khushbakht Serosh

60
 Khushbakht Serosh

Nehru Report 1928

What was the Nehru Report? [4]

• Nehru Report presented in 1928

• It was a document outlining a proposed new constitution for India.
• Prepared by a committee of the All Parties Conference.
• Chaired by Motilal Nehru with his son Jawaharlal acting as secretary.
• There were total nine members in this committee other than the chairman, including two
Muslims leaders.
• Gandhi proposed that Britain should have one year to accept the recommendations of the
Nehru Report or face a campaign of non-cooperation.

61
 Khushbakht Serosh

Terms of the Nehru Report of 1928

1. Dominion Status for India – India to become member of Commonwealth and accept British
monarch as Head of State (semi-independent government)
2. India to be a federation with a two-chamber parliament (bicameral system).
3. There would be universal suffrage (right to vote) for provincial councils and lower house.
4. Residuary powers should be vested in the center.
5. There should be no separate electorates or weightage for minorities. Minorities will only
have protection through a system of reserved seats in the central parliament.
6. Hindi would be the official language of India.

All India Muslim Conference rejection to Nehru Report

Reasons for the Rejection of Nehru Report:

1. Right of separate electorates not added – complete Hindu domination

2. Congress refused to accept the proposal of Jinnah – Four terms
3. Hindi to be the official language of India

Reasons No. 1: Separate electorates

Identify Reason: Right of separate electorates not added

Explain (Reasoning):

• Muslims view ignored

• Muslims asked to make too many sacrifices
• Congress allowed to go back on the concessions made in the Lucknow Pact in 1916
• Hindu nationalists' belief that separate electorates only divided the 'Indian' population
Impact: Hindu-Muslim unity compromised
Outcome (Connect back to question):

Political rights of the Indian Muslims = only be safeguarded under separate electoral system,
therefore, Nehru Report was rejected.

Reasons No. 2: Congress refusal to accept the Jinnah’s proposal

In January 1929 All India Muslim Conference rejected the report.
62
 Khushbakht Serosh

Jinnah proposed four changes to make the Nehru Report acceptable:

1. one third representation for the Muslims in the central legislature,
2. the residuary powers should be vested in the provinces and not in the center,
3. in Punjab and Bengal, the Muslims should have representation on the basis of population.
4. NWFP and Sindh to have full provincial status.

Congress rejected these suggestions. For Jinnah it was a bitter disappointment, and he spoke of
it as "the parting of the ways".
Muslim League wanted a federation with strong provincial autonomy, that would have the right
to decide matters like education and finance. Congress wanted the opposite which meant Hindu
domination since they were in majority. Muslims feared, due to residuary powers in the center
they would not be able to introduce their policies even in Muslim majority province.

Reasons No. 3: Hindi official language

Another reason which led the Muslim League to oppose the Nehru Report was that, it
demanded Hindi to be the official language of India which was not acceptable to Muslims. Many
Muslims believed it would be a cultural and economic blow for the Muslims. Muslims were
closely attached with Urdu, therefore they wanted to protect Urdu as a second official language
of India. Further, they were feared in the presence of Hindi not only their culture would be
destroyed, but job opportunities in government sector would also be decreased. So, as Muslims
were against Hindi being the official language of India, they saw no future in their relationship
with Hindus and rejected the Nehru Report.

63
 Khushbakht Serosh

Jinnah’s Fourteen Points 1929

Reasons For Jinnah's Fourteen Points
It was an answer to Nehru Report in which Muslim interests were rejected. Congress had gone
back on the concessions which it had made in the Lucknow Pact in 1916 e.g. right of separate
electorate and one-third representation for Muslim in the councils. Many Muslims felt that they
were being asked for too many concessions for which they were not ready. Hence, Jinnah
produced Fourteen Points to answer the Nehru Report and to show that Muslims were
committed to protect their interests in India.

Further, Fourteen Points were proposed by Jinnah as a constitutional reform plan to safeguard
the political rights of the Muslims in a self-governing India. Jinnah's aim was to get more rights
for Muslims which he believed were not only ignored in the Nehru Report but Simon
Commission had also not been much interested to protect Muslim interests. The points
constituted the entire political, constitutional and socio-cultural problems of the Muslims
confronting them in 1929. The aim was to ensure that in future in any constitutional reform plan
along with the Nehru Report and Simon Commission Report, Fourteen Points would also be
considered as a Muslim constitutional reform plan.

Another reason was that, Jinnah had proposed four amendments in the Nehru Report to make
it acceptable to Muslims, but they were rejected in the all-party conference. For Jinnah it was
the turning point. All his political life he had believed that Hindus and Muslims could work
together for an independent India. To Jinnah, it was a bitter disappointment, and he spoke of it
as "the parting of the ways" and decided to revive the Muslim League and to give it directions.
As a result, his Fourteen Points became the demands of the Muslims and greatly influenced the
Muslim thinking for the next two decades, till the establishment of Pakistan in 1947.

Jinnah produced Fourteen Points as an earnest attempt on the part of him to achieve unity
between different Muslim groups and parties, so their community might be better able to
uphold its claims. It was also an attempt to consolidate the Muslim position culminated in India.
Therefore, these Fourteen Points contained all major demands of India Muslims.

Jinnah produced Fourteen Points because he realized the importance of negotiations between
different nations in India in future to sort out different issues. He felt that Muslims had no
64
 Khushbakht Serosh

organized set of demands. Hence, he produced Fourteen Points to set out the demands of
Muslims for any future negotiations with either Congress or the British. So, Muslims could
negotiate effectively and safeguard their rights.

Q. Were Jinnah’s 14 Points the most important development in the Pakistan Movement
between 1929 and 1940? Explain your answer.

Explains Jinnah’s 14 Points AND other development(s)

14 Points

• Set out the demands of any future negotiations with either Congress or the British
Government. It was apparent that any Hindu-Muslim cooperation had now come to an end;

• Formed the basis of demands for a separate homeland. It also convinced the movement that
Hindu and Muslim communities should form separate nations. Muslim groups were united in
support of these demands, which became their ultimate goal.

Other developments

• Allama Iqbal further developed the concept of two separate nations in 1930 with the
Allahabad Address in which he became the first Muslim leader to suggest partition in keeping
with the Two-Nation Theory; his views became an inspiration to Muslims;

• Rahmat Ali also developed the Pakistan Movement in 1933 with his ‘Now or Never’ pamphlet
in which he stated that the Muslim community should have their own homeland called Pakistan;

• The Government of India Act of 1935 introduced a federal system of government, but the
Muslim League had expected more concessions from the British. However, it was important to
the development of the Pakistan Movement as it was in place at partition and became the
instrument by which Pakistan was first governed;

• The Pakistan Resolution (Lahore Resolution) in 1940 set out the path towards independence
in the 1940s, the Muslim League became the driving force of this process by committing to the
establishment of an independent Muslim state.
65
 Khushbakht Serosh

Allahabad Address 1930

Allahabad Address was the Presidential Address of Dr. Allama Muhammad Iqbal to the 25th
session of the All-India Muslim League on 29 December 1930, at Allahabad, British India. This
was the climax of Iqbal's political career, he set before the Indian Muslims, the national goal of
what later came to be known as Pakistan.

In his address, Iqbal advocated the partition of India and the creation of a separate Muslim state
for the Muslims of India which was ultimately realized in the form of Pakistan. Iqbal was the first
person who propounded the idea of the partition of the sub-continent keeping with Sir Syed
Ahmed Khan’s "Two- Nation Theory". He has, therefore been called the "father of the ideology
of Pakistan".

In his presidential address, he said:

"India is a continent of human groups belonging to different races, speaking different

languages, and professing different religions. Personally, I would like to see the Punjab, North-
West Frontier Province, Sindh and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single State. Self-
government within the British Empire, or without the British Empire, the formation of a
consolidated North-West Indian Muslim State appears to me to be the final destiny of the
Muslims, at least of North-West India".

Dr. Iqbal's demand for a separate Muslim state was ultimately culminated in Lahore Resolution
on 23 March 1940. After the Pakistan Resolution was passed by the Muslim League, Jinnah said;
Iqbal is no more amongst us, but had he been alive he would have been happy to know that we
did exactly what he wanted us to do".

Allama Iqbal was a highly educated person and had many accomplishments in education. He
had a degree of Law and was qualified as barrister. Allama Iqbal was knighted by British in 1922
and given the title of Sir. He was known to give lectures in colleges, universities, social and
political meetings regarding revival of Islamic civilization and main problems of Muslim society,
due to which people were inspired.

Allama Iqbal was a famous poet as well. He wrote poetry both in Urdu and Persian which
contained themes of Islamic identity and self-realization, that played an important role in
awakening a sense of nationhood among Muslims. It inspired them to struggle for progress and

66
 Khushbakht Serosh

fight for their rights as a separate community. His poetry was a representation of Muslim
League’s goal and the views of many Muslim leaders of that time.

He persuaded many Muslims that the Muslim League had to build an effective mass political
party to challenge the domination of the Congress. Allama Iqbal also opposed the British control
of India.

As a senior member of Muslim League, Dr. Allama Muhammad Iqbal was asked to deliver the
Allahabad Address (Presidential Address) of the 25th session of the All-India Muslim League on
29 December 1930, at Allahabad, British India. In his address, Iqbal proposed the idea of
partitioning India to create a separate Muslim state. His speech marked a key moment, setting
the goal of a separate nation, which encouraged the Muslim community to work towards a new
objective.

This idea came to Allama Iqbal because he was a strong believer of Two-Nation Theory. He
promoted the ideas and concepts of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan. Iqbal believed that Muslims and
Hindus were distinct nations, each deserving the right to live according to their cultural and
religious beliefs. He thought that separating the two communities was the only viable solution
to avoid future conflicts and ensure peaceful coexistence. Iqbal saw a separate Muslim state as
a means for Muslims to achieve economic prosperity independent of Hindu competition.

He believed, that both Hindus and Muslims mistrusted each other and had doubts about the
motives and intentions of each other. For those reasons, it is not possible for both nations to
live in one country with harmony.

In case, western system of democracy is imposed, Hindus would dominate India forever because
there were four times more Hindus than Muslims in India. As a result, Muslims would be pushed
to live under Hindu rule in misery. In this manner, he fully justified the demand for a separate
Muslim state by division of British India.

Iqbal's ideas laid the foundational ideology that led to the formal demand for Pakistan in the
1940 Lahore Resolution. His advocacy for a separate Muslim state influenced many, including
Jinnah, who later took forward the political struggle to realize the vision Iqbal had outlined.

Explain why Allama Iqbal was described as the ‘Architect of Pakistan’. [7] OR
Why was Allama Iqbal asked to chair the Muslim League at Allahabad in 1930? [7]

67
 Khushbakht Serosh

Round Table Conferences 1930 - 1932

Question A:
Explain why were the Round Table Conferences held between 1930 and 1932? [7]

Guidelines: Since it’s a 7-marker question, you have to explain three reasons. Hence, give
reasons why each round table conference was held. This means one paragraph for why first
round table was held, then second paragraph on why second round table was held and similarly,
one on third round table conference

Question B:
How successful were the three Round Table Conferences of 1930 – 1932. Explain your answer.
[14]

Guidelines: Explain both SUCCESSES and FAILURES

• Successes = the first paragraph will be on the successes of first and second round table
conferences

• Failures = the next three paragraphs will be on the failures of first, second and third round
table conferences respectively.

• Last paragraph will be conclusion

68
 Khushbakht Serosh

First Round Table Conference, Nov 1930, London

Reasons
• In 1930, Labour Party won the elections came to power in Britain
• Labour Party was sympathetic towards Indian nationalism and were in favor of giving
concessions to the Indians.
• Lord Irwin (Viceroy) suggested that dominion status for India might be granted if sufficient
progress was made in the talks.
• Since both Congress and League had rejected Simon Commission, it led Labour Party calling
all Indian political parties together, to bridge the gap between British and Indians on future
constitution for India.
• Nehru Report was published in 1930 in response to Simon Commission and Gandhi had
declared to start non cooperation campaign if the terms were not accepted.
• Since British rejected the terms of Nehru Report Gandhi started Salt March in 1930 leading
to civil unrest in India.
• British wanted to pacify the Indians, therefore, all Indian political leaders and princes were
invited to discuss the recommendations for future reforms.

Salt March
• In 1929, following the approval of the Nehru Report, Congress issued an ultimatum to the
British government to accept its recommendations or face a non-cooperation campaign.
• As the British did not comply, Congress launched a campaign led by Gandhi known as the Salt
March, or Dandi March.
• It was an act of non-violent civil disobedience to produce salt from the seawater in the
coastal village of Dandi, without paying tax. Gandhi started the 25-day march from 12 March
1930 to 6 April 1930. He walked from his ashram in Ahmedabad to Dandi.
• This act challenged the British law that called reclamation of salt illegal. British cloth shops
were picketed and British schools, colleges and services were boycotted under Gandhi civil
disobedience.
• Despite the British response of outlawing Congress, censoring media, and arresting leaders
like Gandhi and Nehru, the movement drew global attention to India's struggle for
independence.

69
 Khushbakht Serosh

Successes
• The princely states declared that they were ready to join a future federation of India and
extend maximum cooperation for it, provided that their rights were recognized. So the
conference paved the way in successful formation for an all-Indian Federation.
• Secondly, agreement was reached on the abolition of the Diarchy system in the provinces
and introduction of a responsible representative government at provincial level with power
to be shared at the center.
• A federal system of India with the provincial autonomy granted was an achievement for
Indians who could voice their demands on a more powerful provincial platform.

Failures
• The Congress party boycotted the Conference, since British had not promised immediate
self-government for India as a dominion.
• Congress, under Gandhi's leadership demanded an undertaking that the term agreed in the
conference would be implemented by the British.
• As no such assurance was given by the government, Congress rejected to take part in the
RTC

Impact of Boycott: Since, Congress was India's largest party, it was difficult for significant
progress to be made in the talks in its absence.

• No agreement was reached regarding Muslim weightage in future constitution. League were
not ready to accept anything less than the separate electorates with weighted
representation, while Congress called it undemocratic.

70
 Khushbakht Serosh

Second Round Table Conference, Sept 1931, London

Reasons
• British realized that no solution can be attained without the cooperation of Congress, and a
second RTC would be of little value without its participation.

Delhi Pact or the Gandhi- Irwin Pact

• To ensure the presence of Congress in the second RTC, an agreement between the
Government and the Congress was signed on March 5, 1931, called Delhi Pact or the Gandhi-
Irwin Pact.
• Lord Irwin agreed to lift ban on Congress and released all political prisoners arrested during
the non-cooperation movement except those involved in violence and returned property
seized by the government.
• Gandhi agreed to call off the non-cooperation campaign and participate in the second RTC.
• Gandhi also agreed to give up his demand for immediate full independence in return for a
promise that in a federal India, Indians would have a genuine say in how they were governed.

Successes
• An agreement was reached that NWFP and Sindh were to be made provinces with governors.
This meant greater political power for the Muslims in these regions where they were a
majority.
• This ensured protection of many Muslims from Hindu domination. Second, this improved
British-Muslim relationship as the Muslims saw that the British were being considerate
towards them. These improved relations would later help in negotiating for independence.
• Lastly, it helped in the Pakistan Movement because subsequently these provinces, especially
Sindh played a vital role in the creation of Pakistan.

71
 Khushbakht Serosh

Failures
• Communal Issue Deadlock: Persistent disagreements, particularly regarding Muslim
representation and separate electorates. Gandhi's rejection of the separate electorates led
to heightened tensions.

• Gandhi's Stance: Refused to recognize the minority issues as central, leading to significant
discord among delegates. Claimed to represent all of India, which was contested by other
parties.
• Gandhi also insisted that communal issue should not be allowed to become an obstacle in
the way of the formulation of the constitution. But other delegates especially ML responded
by saying that it is impossible to frame a constitution without settling the communal
problem. Gandhi presented proposal for the solution of communal problem but this proposal
was not any different from the Nehru Report. This stiffened the attitude of all minorities, for
they had already unanimously rejected the Nehru Report since 1928. The situation became
more complicated when the minority subcommittee entered into an agreement and
demanded separate electorate for themselves. But Gandhi rejected this. He continued to
insist that as Congress was the representative party of whole India, so its plan should have
been accepted.

• Political Climate Change: The Labour Government had collapsed and had been replaced by
Conservative Party which was less keen to reach a compromise in India. The Conservatives
were determined to hang on to India. This lack of interest by the British government led to
the failure of this conference as the attendants saw the British not to be bothered, Indians
also lost hope and made no efforts toward making a settlement.
• The conference ended without significant progress, with a British warning of a possible
imposed settlement.

72
 Khushbakht Serosh

Communal Award 1932

• As in first two RTC no decision could be taken on communal disputes, thus in 1932, Prime
Minister Ramsay Macdonald announced the Communal Award.
• This gave the right of separate electorates and the principle of weightage to all the minority
communities.
• The Muslims were given more representation in the Muslim minority provinces but reduced
their majority in Muslim majority provinces i.e. Punjab and Bengal. For example in Punjab
Muslim population was 56% but they were given only 86 (47.6%) seats out of 175 seats.
Similarly, in Bengal Muslim population was 55% but they got only 119 seats (49%) out of 250
seats.
• The Award took no concrete decision on distributing powers between the center and
provinces on genuine federal line. Muslims demand that residuary powers should be vested
in the provinces, was not accepted.
• The major consolation for the Muslims was the decision that Sindh was taken from the
Bombay presidency and made into a separate province.
• Gandhi and the Congress completely rejected the Award and decided to re-launch a
campaign against it.

Third Round Table Conference, Nov 1932, London

Reasons and Failure:
• Since no agreement was made at second conference, a third and final conference was held
in 1932.
• It was poorly attended as the Congress boycotted again and Jinnah had gone into voluntary
exile from politics due to lack of progress being made and was not even invited to the
conference. Nothing constructive was achieved in this session. The Muslim stand remained
practically the same as before with a fresh emphasis on their demand that in the proposed
federal structure that residuary powers must go to provinces.
• Lord Irwin was replaced as Viceroy by Lord Willington. New Viceroy was less prepared to
make concession. Therefore, when Congress threatened to restart the non-cooperation

73
 Khushbakht Serosh

movement, Willington responded by having Congress leaders, including Gandhi and Nehru,
arrested, which made the situation more tense and Congress- boycotted the Conference.
• The Conference was short-lived and did not make much progress.
• The British used the disagreement between Congress and the League to argue that India was
not ready for self-government.

74
 Khushbakht Serosh

75
Khushbakht Serosh

76
 Khushbakht Serosh

Government of India Act 1935

Despite the failure of the Round Table conferences, in March 1933 the British government
announced its proposals for how India should be governed. These were published in a 'White
Paper' (a discussion document issued before a Bill is presented to the British parliament).

After discussions by British politicians, and consultation with 'safe' Indian delegates, nominated
by the government to take part in the talks, a Bill was introduced before the British parliament
in December 1934.

In August 1935, the bill passed by the British parliament and The Government of India Act 1935
became law, also known as Indian Council Act of 1935. This was the last major legislation that
the British government passed before independence was granted.

Terms Of Government Of India Act 1935

1. India was to be a federation including both the provinces of British India and any Princely
States which chose to join.
2. There were to be two houses of parliament at central government level.
• The upper house (Council of State) was to have 156 members from British India and
104 from the Princely States. The members from British India were to be elected and
those from the Princely States were to be nominated.
• The lower house (Assembly) was to have 250 members from British India (elected by
the provincial legislatures) and 125 members from the Princely States (nominated).
3. Diarchy was introduced at central government level. The Governor-General (Viceroy) was in-
charge of the defense, foreign affairs (external relations), religious and tribal affairs. The
Governor-General (appointed by the British government and was always British person)
remained head of the Federation, had special powers in these subjects and could veto the
laws passed by the Assembly. Other subjects were controlled by the ministers
4. At provincial level representative governments were introduced, elected by the Indian
people. Some provincial autonomy was granted, so decision-making power was given to
elected representatives. Ministers in the provinces could have control over all departments
except when governors chose to intervene in cases of public order or to veto a bill. Governors
were instructed to act on minister's advice except in areas where they had special powers.
77
 Khushbakht Serosh

Provincial Governors (always British) had the authority to dismiss ministers and even the
right to dismiss the whole administration and rule in case of an emergency.
5. Three new provinces were created i.e. Sindh, NWFP and Orrisa. So, eleven provinces were
registered.

Importance of the Government of India Act 1935

1. For the first time during the British Raj representatives’ governments were introduced at provincial
level which were elected by the people themselves. Some provincial autonomy was granted which
meant that every provincial government was allowed to devise and carry out its own programme
and be responsible for its own administration. Furthermore, ministers in the provinces could have
control over all departments and were considered heads of provincial administration because
provincial governors were instructed to act on their advice in few areas, except when governors
chose to intervene in cases of public order or to veto a bill . Hence, provincial autonomy paved
the way for independence of India.
2. It gave a large proportion of the local population the opportunity to exercise some power and voice
their opinions. The property qualification for voting was lowered which increased the number of
voters to 35 million, including 5 million women. This was five time the previous numbers and first
time in India women were also allowed to vote. It was an important step in the favor of the people
and democracy in India.
3. An acceptable federal government was introduced in the center for the first time as per demands
of almost all political groups in India. As a result of this system princely states could decide to
participate politically in affairs which concerned the subcontinent. So, first time princely states got
an opportunity to participate in India politics which was important for them. Moreover, bi-cameral
system was introduced, under which two houses were introduced and, in both houses, Indian
representation was increased. Due to diarchy system Indian also got an opportunity to share powers
along with the British in the central government. Consequently, Indians political role was increased
which was a matter of satisfaction for many people in India.

Reasons for Opposition/ Rejection

1. Provincial Governors (British) had vast powers. They could intervene in all provincial departments
in case of public order. The governors retained the power to veto any bill they disliked. Further,
Provincial governors had the authority to dismiss ministers and even the whole administration and
rule by proclamation during a period of emergency. This was a drawback since it meant that the real
power lay with the governors.

78
 Khushbakht Serosh

2. According to new system only 35 million people could vote. This limited franchise meant that the
majority of the people still did not have the right to vote. Although, property qualification was
reduced but still it meant that only 25% of the total adult Indian population could vote. Hence,
Indian opposed the Government of Indian Act 1935 and demanded universal suffrage (right to vote)
which was one of their old demands.
3. Indians were not satisfied with their role in the Centre. The act appeared to grant real power to the
people of India, but in reality, things were completely different. Still, the Governor-General (Viceroy)
remained head of the federation and had vast powers which he could exert anytime. Most
important, he had special powers in the reserved subjects and key decisions relating to external
relations and defense. The political parties condemned the Act, because it did not possess the true
nature of Federation and thus it faced wide-spread criticism.
4. Minorities were not satisfied. Although they were all given safeguards through separate electorates,
but none of them was given a proper share of power. Hence, it was opposed by minorities. The
princely states also resented the loss of power, the Hindus likened it to slavery with so many
safeguards given to minorities.

79
 Khushbakht Serosh

Elections 1937
Question A:
How successful were the 1937 elections? Explain your answer. [10]

Question B:
'The outcomes of the 1937 elections brought more benefits for the Muslim League than for
the Congress Party.' How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer. [14]

Guidelines
Explain BOTH successes and failures of 1937 elections for Muslim League and for Congress to
reach to a conclusion

Introduction
Although both Congress and the Muslim League did not approve of the 1935 Act, but both saw
the advantage of contesting the elections in 1937. Both Congress and the League produced
manifestos setting out their policies.

The manifestos of the two rival parties for the elections showed little difference, as main
objective of the both parties was full self-government in India.

Congress: Nehru wanted to use elections to demonstrate Congress's dominance, dismissing the
Muslim League as a significant party by claiming that only Congress and the British were the true
parties in India.

Muslim League: Jinnah rejected Nehru's claim, emphasizing the Muslim League as a third key
party representing Muslims, urging them to unite under the League to strengthen their
negotiation position with Congress and Britain.

80
 Khushbakht Serosh

Congress Successes
• Congress won absolute majorities in five provinces and was the largest single party in four
others.
• It was invited to form ministries in eight out of eleven provinces. The provinces were United
Provinces, the Central Provinces, Bihar, Orissa, Madras, Bombay and later, Assam and the
NWFP.
• Although, Congress only won 26 Muslim seats and represented about 5% of Indian Muslims,
the victory confirmed their view that they were the sole party representing Indians.

Mass campaign in rural and urban areas had increased the popularity of the Congress over the
years. Rich wealthy Hindus supported the party which helped the party to win the elections. The
newspapers that were under Congress’s control also helped to spread its ideas all across India.

Congress had long political experience and a strong organizational structure. There was unity
among its ranks. Their leadership was foreign bred but behaved like common people. They
remained close to people and often led many marches and protests for the rights of people.
Thus, it gained the success.

Muslim League Successes

Jinnah took over the leadership of ML and Lucknow meeting of ML in 1937 helped to transform
the entire party which led to its victory in 1945 elections:

Support from local areas: Jinnah persuaded the Muslim League that it needed to build up
support from the grass roots as in the elections victory had come from local branches of the
party established before 1937. Therefore, offices of ML were opened up all over India. Mass
contact campaign was also started to gain the support of people. This changed the fortunes of
ML and its support increased manifold.

Jinnah made the League more accessible: In 1937, ML was considered as the party of princes
and landlords who would not do anything special for the Muslim interests but Jinnah persuaded
the party to be more open to all Muslim groups and began to mobilize the Muslim community
and make the League more attractive to get support. Its popularity in young generation was
remarkable and the students of different institutes like University of Aligarh and Islamia College
81
 Khushbakht Serosh

Peshawar were very active to spread its message across India. So in 1945 elections the Muslims
throughout the subcontinent considered it their own party and supported in on large scale.

Increased the membership: League realized that it was important to gain support in the Muslim
majority areas to have real bargaining power with the British and the Hindus. Hence, League
changed its strategy and obtained the support of the chief ministers of Bengal, Assam and
Punjab which gradually increased influence of the Muslim League in these areas.

Congress Failures
• Congress victories were won mainly in Hindu districts.
• Congress, which claimed to speak for all Indians, won only 711 seats out of a total of 1585. It
had failed to secure even 50% of the total number of seats.

Post-Elections

Since Congress was able to form government in most provinces of India, they freely imposed
their own laws such as Wardha scheme, banning of Azan and introduction of Bande Matram
anthem against Muslims.

The Muslim League distanced themselves from Congress following by their treatment by
Congress rule post-election. This created difficulties for Congress during negotiations for the
future of India over the next ten years.

The attitude of Congress and Nehru strengthened Muslim views in support of a separate nation.

Muslim League Failures

• Out of 482 Muslim seats the League won only 109 seats.
• It won a number of seats in the Hindu-majority provinces but did poorly in the Muslim-
majority provinces. In the Punjab, it won only 1 out of 86 Muslim seats.

This was the first election contested by the ML, and they had no prior experience in
campaigning, resulting in poor planning, organization, and communication of their message.

82
 Khushbakht Serosh

Lack of Unity: In the past due to political difference the party had been divided into different
groups e.g. Jinnah and Shafi League. Moreover, there was a lack of nationalism. In different
Muslim majority provinces Muslims preferred to vote for their regional Muslim parties.

In the Punjab, people voted for Unionist Party (comprised Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs), in Bengal,
Fazal-ul- Haq's Krishak Praja party won. Abdullah Haroon’s part from Sindh and NWFP’s Red
Shirts led by Abdul Ghaffar Khan made coalition with the Congress.

No unique philosophy: The League's election manifesto was not different compared to
Congress, lacking effective slogans to attract voters. Congress was more reputable in advocating
for self-government, having a history of movements like the non-cooperation movement,
making it more popular for this agenda.

Not able to connect with ordinary Muslims: Muslim League leaders had an image problem. Its
leaders were seen as aristocrats and princes who had little in common with poor and illiterate
Muslims of India. Majority of people believed it would not do anything for poor Muslim
interests; this led to less support by the Muslims of the subcontinent. Subsequently, much less
vote was cast in favor of Muslim League.

League’s partial focus: With the provincial autonomy granted by the Government of India Act
1935, Muslim-majority areas did not fear Hindu domination and thus predominantly supported
Congress. The League also focused its efforts on Muslim minority areas fearing Hindu
oppression, neglecting Muslim-majority areas which led to lesser support from these crucial
regions.

83
Khushbakht Serosh

84
Khushbakht Serosh

85
 Khushbakht Serosh

Congress Rule 1937 - 1939

Question:
Was the introduction of the Wardha Scheme/ Bande Matram the main reason why Congress
rule (1937–1939) was disliked by Muslim community? Give reasons for your answer. [14]

1. Religious Intolerance and Disruption of Worship

During Congress rule, Muslims faced restrictions in practicing their religion leading to a sense of
oppression and inability to freely practice their faith.

During the Congress rule, Muslims call to prayers (Azan) was banned in some areas, and in some
places pigs (which were considered unclean by the Muslims) were pushed into mosques.

Moreover, organized attacks were made on the Muslim worshippers in mosques, noisy
processions were arranged and loud music was played before or near the mosques at the time
of prayers and Azan; and their religious functions were interrupted.

Hence, the Muslims were offended because they were not being allowed to practice their
religion freely.

2. Imposition of 'Bande Matram' as National Anthem

Bande Matram was a song from Binkam Chatterji's (a Bengali Hindu) novel 'Anandmath'. This
song was in the form of a prayer which was made before (Hindu) goddess to invoke her help in
the conquest and defeat of Muslim nation.

Instead of respecting the sentiments and religious susceptibilities of the Muslims, the Congress
governments insisted that it should be sung both by Hindus and Muslims in the legislative
session, schools and colleges. The song had to be sung at the beginning of each day, therefore
it alienated and worried the Muslims.

In this song the Hindus were encouraged to expel Muslims from Hindustan.

86
 Khushbakht Serosh

The Muslim League strongly condemned the attitude of the Congress in foisting Bande Matram
as the national anthem.

3. Wardha Educational Scheme

The introduction of Wardha Educational Scheme based on Gandhi's ideas.

Under this scheme, Hindi was made the sole language. Religious education was removed and
cotton spinning by hand became part of curriculum. Co-education and teaching of music was
made compulsory. Under this scheme, students had to bow before Gandhi's picture each day
which offended the Muslims because huge majority believed it was un-Islamic. Accordingly the
scheme laid great stress on giving up meat-eating, cow slaughtering and becoming a strict
vegetarian.

The real purpose of this scheme was to brain wash the Muslim youth by infusing in them the
ideology and theory of One Nation in place of Two Nation Theory. Further, the Scheme sought
to erase from the minds of the Muslims the glory, importance, and love of their religion, culture
tone social values.

Hence, Muslims were offended and saw this as an attempt to convert them to Hinduism.

4. Vidya (Widdia) Mandirs Scheme

Vidya (Widdia) Mandirs Scheme (temple of learning)

This scheme was introduced at elementary level and according to the scheme schools were to
be set up in Mandirs. Under this scheme, the students were taught that the Muslim rulers
(heroes) were cruel and plunderers of India and Hindus rulers were real heroes, a they worked
for the betterment of India and served people.

The scheme was bitterly opposed by the Muslims. For Muslims a Hindu-Temple was a place
where idols were worshipped and this they thought was an insult to their religious feeling, as
the idol-worship is strictly prohibited in Islam.

87
 Khushbakht Serosh

Further, the Muslims were disturbed by these moves as they saw this as a way to plant in Muslim
children love for Hinduism and subvert the love for Islam.

Consequently, Muslims hated the Congress rule.

5. Political Marginalization of the Muslim League

In areas where the League was the largest single party, Congress refused to cooperate.

In the Muslim majority provinces Congress agreed to Muslims forming the government as long
as they were not members of the League.

Congress launched a campaign of Muslim mass contact. The main objective of this campaign
was to weaken and demoralize the League and to discredit its leadership. In fact, the idea of
Muslim mass contact was not to win their support by genuine goodwill and service but to scare
them by a show of Hindu strength and to make them feel that unless they surrendered to
Congress, they would face disaster and suffering.

However, the mass contact movement could not make much headway instead created hostility
in the leaders of Muslim League and its supporters.

6. Efforts to Erase Urdu Language

Congress raised the status of Hindi as an official language. It created the Hindi-Urdu Controversy.

Though, the controversy over Hindi or Urdu has been powerful since long but during these two
years the Congress found the real opportunity to implement its designs. The Congress had
adopted the kill-Urdu policy because of the perception that Urdu was the religious language of
the Muslims. Congress believed that India should have a common language and that everybody
agreed that Hind was the common language.

In short, the Congress, after coming to power tried its level best to eliminate Urdu language but
such efforts upset the Muslims who were not ready to give up Urdu as it was a treasure of rich
literary and cultural values. Therefore, Muslim elite were not likely to accept any compromise.

88
 Khushbakht Serosh

7. National Flag Controversy

After constructing the ministry, the Congress hoisted Three Colored Flag, Tricolor of Taranga
Flag on all official and important non-official buildings.

As National flag, the tricolor had to be respected and saluted by everyone though it was no more
than the flag of a particular party, just as every other political party of the country, including the
Muslim League, had its own party flag. It was expected that the national flag would be chosen
by common consent and after mutual agreement, between all the political parties in the
country.

The Congressmen dispensed with this basic requirement and thrust their own party flag upon
other nationalities. By this act, the Congress provided of its hostile attitude towards the Muslims
and as a result resented the Muslims.

89
Khushbakht Serosh

90
Khushbakht Serosh

91
 Khushbakht Serosh

Day of Deliverance 1939

World War II started on 1 September, 1939, and Britain went to war with Germany.

On 3 September 1939, Viceroy of India Linlithgow announced that India was at war with
Germany.

Congress objected to this announcement, saying that if India was to fight, it could only do so if
it were granted a promise of full independence. The British would not grant this, instead
promised Dominion status after the war. Congress could not accept this and called on its
members to resign from the provincial government. On October 22, 1939, the Congress
ministries resigned.

On 22 December 1939, Muslim League President Muhammad Ali Jinnah declared a 'Day of
Deliverance' across the subcontinent to celebrate the end of the 'tyranny, oppression and
injustice that had occurred under Congress rule.

Jinnah urged the provincial, district and primary Muslim League organizations to hold public
meetings and offer thanks giving prayers to express their sense of relief at this historical
development.

Do you agree that the celebration of the 'Day of Deliverance' in 1939 was justified? Give
reasons for your answer. [14]

Guidelines

Discuss Congress oppression examples (Wardah scheme, Bande Matram etc.) in first 3 rd
paragraphs.

4th Paragraph = explain why it was not justified:

• The unity between the Muslim League and the Congress became irreconcilable and the
chance of a future united India even less likely.
• Congress was deeply offended by this and Nehru was moved to comment on how Congress
and the League now seemed to agree on very little.

92
 Khushbakht Serosh

Lahore Resolution 1940

The 27th annual session of the Muslim League was held on 22-24 March, at Minto Park, Lahore.

On March 23, 1940, a resolution was presented by Maulvi A.K. Fazl- ul-Haq, the Muslim League
Prime Minister of Bengal. This resolution asked for greater Muslim autonomy within British
India. This has been largely interpreted as a demand for a separate Muslim state, Pakistan.
According to few sources it was authored by Sir Muhammad Zafrulla Khan.

It demanded that 'Regions in which the Muslims were in majority (the north-western and
eastern zone of India) should be grouped to establish independent states in which the units
shall be autonomous and self-governing.’

This resolution was passed unanimously and soon became known as the 'Lahore Resolution'.
However, the Hindu press began referring to it as 'The Pakistan Resolution and that title was
soon adopted.

Q. Why was the Lahore Resolution passed in 1940?

Reason 1:
Originally, Jinnah did not support the idea of partitioning India as he thought Muslims could
have autonomy and protection of their rights within a federation (united India).

But the two years of Congress rule and a growing realization that the British would soon be
forced to leave India, convinced Jinnah that it was time to consider establishing a Muslim state.

The idea was already discussed by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Allama Iqbal and Rahmat Ali. Sir Syed
developed Two Nation Theory to call for the partition. Once Muslims came to accept the wisdom
of this theory, it was only a small step to call for the partition.

Reason 2:
Another reason was the fear of end of the British rule.

The beginning of World War II and serious setbacks for Britain exposed weaknesses of the British
Government in India. Congress taking advantage of this weak British position, began to demand
complete independence and transfer of power which worried the Muslims.
93
 Khushbakht Serosh

Muslims realized that the British departure at this stage would leave millions of Muslims at the
mercy of Hindus and Congress. To avoid this situation and secure Muslim future, ML passed the
Lahore Resolution and demanded a separate Muslim country.

Reason 3:
By the end of 1939, the relationship between Hindus and Muslims in India had worsened,
making Hindu-Muslim unity impossible.

Muslim experiences under the Congress-led provincial governments, formed under the 1935
Government of India Act, contributed to this the clash. Muslims lost faith in Congress's vision of
a united India. This led them to conclude that their only practical option was to advocate for an
independent state where they could live freely according to their customs and beliefs.

Moreover, the Muslims realized that a democratic India would likely be Hindu-dominated
because they were four times as compared to Muslims. This reinforced Muslim fears and the
impossibility of fair representation.

This belief drove the demand for a separate nation where Muslims could develop their society
without Hindu dominance.

94
Khushbakht Serosh

95
Khushbakht Serosh

96
Khushbakht Serosh

97
 Khushbakht Serosh

Cripps Mission 1942

In 1941, the Japanese entered the war and advanced through South-east Asia as far as Burma,
near the Indian borders. Therefore, the British were more anxious to build stronger support.

In March 1942 British sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India to gain support for the British war effort
in return for a number of promises:

• after the war an Indian Union would be set up with Dominion status (though individual
provinces could opt out of the Union and negotiate their own independence),
• after the war a Constituent Assembly should frame a new constitution,
• elections for the Constituent Assembly would be held immediately after the war.
• Both the Congress and the Muslims League rejected these proposals on different grounds.

Why did the Cripps Mission of 1942 fail? [7] OR

Why did Congress and Muslim League oppose Cripps Mission of 1942? [7]

Reason 1:
Muslim League rejected the Cripps Mission plan because it did not grant the creation of
Pakistan, which was the League's main demand. The League was firm in its commitment to the
Lahore Resolution, which advocated for the partition of the subcontinent and the establishment
of a separate Muslim state. This demand stemmed from a fear of Hindu majority rule, which the
League believed would undermine Muslim rights.

Reason 2:
Although Muslim provinces would be given the right to opt out of the proposed Indian Union in
future, but it was not confirmed that their demand of independence would be accepted by the
British as in the Cripps Mission only said that provinces after opting out of the Union could
negotiate their independence. Hence, Muslim League demanded a clear promise for
independence. As it was not made by British, thus rejected it.

Reason 3:
• Congress rejected the Cripps Mission proposal since they demanded immediate and full
control over the central government, but Cripps proposal offered only Dominion Status after

98
 Khushbakht Serosh

World War II. Congress was unwilling to wait and doubted the British would keep their
promises post-war.

• Additionally, Congress strongly opposed that provinces were allowed to opt out of the Indian
Union, viewing it as a potential first step towards partition and the creation of Pakistan.

• Moreover, the Japanese invasion of Burma, bringing the war closer to Indian borders,
revealed the fear of the British. Congress recognized this weakness and saw an opportunity
to push for complete independence.

99
 Khushbakht Serosh

Gandhi-Jinnah Talks 1944

Q. Why did the Gandhi-Jinnah talks of 1944 fail? [7]
REASON 1:

Gandhi wanted independence first and partition afterwards but Jinnah wanted Pakistan
(partition) first and independence afterwards.

Gandhi demanded immediate support of the Muslim League for the Congress in its struggle to
remove the British. Only after achieving independence from the British, partition discussions
could follow.

Gandhi wanted that after the departure of the British, the Muslim League and Congress could
sit down together to discuss possible partition of India. But Jinnah knew that he had to settle
the issue of partition first and before the British left, otherwise bargaining position would be
much weaker if he went along with Gandhi's plan.

Therefore, he demanded 'Divide and Quit’.

REASON 2:

Jinnah wanted six provinces included in Pakistan (i.e. Sindh, NWFP, Balochistan, Punjab, Bengal
and Assam) whereas Gandhi only agreed to three.

Gandhi stated that although he accepted that three provinces were certainly Muslim, i.e. Sindh,
NWFP and Balochistan but the province of Punjab, Bengal and Assam were only partly Muslim
and so should be divided along communal lines.

Jinnah refused this suggestion and maintained that all six provinces must come to Pakistan as
whole units as they would be 'maintained and mutilated' if divided.

Gandhi tried to argue that all residents of the provinces of Punjab, Bengal and Assam should be
given the right to decide whether to stay within an Indian Union or not.

Thus, the talks failed.

100
 Khushbakht Serosh

REASON 3:

Gandhi strongly disapproved the Two-Nation Theory and argued that India was one nation
before the beginning of Islam, and the Muslims were simply converted from Hinduism, so they
had no right to call themselves an independent nation.

But Jinnah advocated that the Muslim and Hindus were two major nations and Muslims had
their own distinctive culture and civilization, language and literature, art and architecture,
names and legal laws, custom, history and tradition, aptitude and ambitions. It was their basic
right to have a separate nation.

Hence, due the difference of opinion the issue was not resolved.

REASON 4:

Gandhi insisted that he spoke for all Indians. Hence, independence for all Indians as a united
nation was on his agenda. Jinnah argued that he regarded Gandhi as the Congress and Hindu
spokesman and found it hard to deal with him on any other basis. So, this was another reason
of dispute between both the leaders.

REASON 5:

Gandhi wanted the central government to have control of key areas such as defense and foreign
policy.

Jinnah wanted these issues to be in control of the provincial government, because he knew
Hindus would dominate in the center due to their huge majority and incase these subjects would
be controlled in the center then Muslims would never be able to implement their policies. Hence
because of this difference in views the Gandhi-Jinnah talks broke out without any conclusive
decision.

101
 Khushbakht Serosh

Importance of Gandhi-Jinnah Talks with other events in 1940s

102
 Khushbakht Serosh

Wavell’s Plan - 1945

In May 1945, Viceroy Lord Wavell visited London for the formulation of a plan of action. The
plan was announced on June 14, 1945, by L.S. Amery, the Secretary of State for India, and by
Wavell, commonly known as the Wavell Plan. The plan proposed:

1. an Executive Council with an equal number of Muslims and Hindus.

2. The Council would act as an interim government and govern the country under the present
constitution until a new constitution was agreed upon.
3. Other minorities including low-caste Hindus, Shudras and Sikhs would be given
representation in the Council.
4. All the members of the Council, except the Viceroy and the defense minister (Commander-
in-Chief) would be Indians.
5. As a result of this plan, for the first time, foreign affairs, finance and interior would be held
by Indians.

Simla Conference – 1945

To discuss the formation of the Executive Council and the future handover, the viceroy called a
conference in Simla. All political parties were invited to Simla in June 1945.

All parties agreed with the basic idea of the Executive Council but the sticking point was the
method of selection.

Reasons for Failure of Wavell’s Plan:

Congress wanted the right to nominate SOME of the Muslims of their own choice on the
Executive Council since it represented whole India. But Muslim League was not ready for it at
all. It demanded that they should choose ALL the Muslim members on Muslim reserved seats
because it is the sole representative party of the Muslims.

Muslim League was also worried about other minority representatives on the Councils, Sikhs
and so-called Scheduled Hindu castes, who would always support Congress. They argued that,
Muslim votes would always be outnumbered by the combined votes of other minorities and

103
 Khushbakht Serosh

Congress. This would prevent Muslims from sharing power and lead to Hindu dominance in
government.

Jinnah feared that the proposed temporary arrangement could become permanent, where a
Hindu-majority central government dominated. Without a clear establishment to prevent this,
Muslims were risked permanent political slavery at hands of Congress. Jinnah insisted on first
recognizing the principle of Pakistan for a lasting solution.

104
 Khushbakht Serosh

Elections 1945
In Britain, the Labour Party won a massive and unexpected victory in 1945 general elections and
Clement Attlee became the Prime Minister.

The Labour Party was committed to self-government in India. Therefore, Viceroy Lord Wavell
was told to organize elections in India for both provincial and central assemblies.

The central and provincial elections were held over the winter of 1945-46 and had striking
results.

The goal/ manifesto of the two main parties was entirely opposite to each other:
• Muslim League stood for an independent Muslim country (Pakistan) and claimed that it is
the sole representative of the Indian Muslims.
• Congress claimed to represent all Indians and an undivided and independent India.

Muslim League won:

• All 30 Muslim seats in the Central Legislative Assembly, and
• 446 seats out of 495 seats in the Provincial elections, it took control of Bengal and Sindh, and
largest party in Punjab.
• League won a total of 87% of the Muslim votes (a remarkable improvement than the 1937
elections, when League secured only 4.4 %).
• Altogether nearly 500 Muslim League members were elected to the Central or Provincial
legislature.

Congress won:
• 91% of the non-Muslim votes and took control of 8 non-Muslim majority provinces.
• The victory of Congress in the NWFP was a serious blow to the League, as Congress took 19
Muslim seats to the League's 17 seats.
• Congress took this narrow victory through a coalition with Dr. Khan Sahib (Khan Abdul Jabbar
Khan).
• The results demonstrated that the League was the voice of the Muslims.
• Even though Congress won, the League had united the Muslim vote and as such it gained the
negotiating power to seek a separate Muslim homeland.
105
 Khushbakht Serosh

Reasons for Muslim League Victory:

Why did the Muslim league do better in the 1945 elections than it had in 1937? [7]

1. Congress Rule:

• Congress Rule had made Muslims realize that if they did not stand up for their rights, they
would suffer at the hands of Congress. During the rule, Congress introduced a series of
measures which threatened Muslim culture and identity. For example the singing of Bande
Matram and the introduction of the Wardha Scheme were both considered by Muslims as
attempts to undermine their culture, threaten a love for Islam amongst their children and
convert them to Hinduism. The communal divide was much greater and there was a split in
between Congress and the Muslim League.

• This led Muslims to support the League in 1945 elections because it was the party with
promise to support Muslim against the Hindu Congress party.

2. Focus on Muslim majority + Muslim minority provinces:

• In 1945 elections, it focused on Muslim majority, as well as, on Muslim minority areas, as
Jinnah knew that by performing well in Muslim majority areas, they can take control over the
provincial governments. Thus, because of Jinnah's more effective polices, ML took control in
Bengal, Sindh and became the largest party in Punjab.

3. Distinct Goal:

• There was an increased awareness amongst Muslims of what the Muslim League stood for.
League had passed the Pakistan Resolution and Jinnah was fighting to show that the League
was an equal force in politics to Congress. The strong goal/ manifesto of establishing an
independent Muslim homeland and realization among the Muslims that it is last chance to
partition India, convinced the Muslims to vote for the ML.

106
 Khushbakht Serosh

4. Jinnah took over the leadership of ML in 1937 and transformed the entire party which led
to its victory in 1945 elections:

• Support from local areas: Jinnah persuaded the Muslim League that it needed to build up
support from the grass roots as in the elections victory had come from local branches of the
party established before 1937. Therefore, offices of ML were opened up all over India. Mass
contact campaign was also started to gain the support of people. This changed the fortunes
of ML and its support increased manifold.

• Jinnah made the League more accessible: In 1937, ML was considered as the party of princes
and landlords who would not do anything special for the Muslim interests but Jinnah
persuaded the party to be more open to all Muslim groups and began to mobilize the Muslim
community and make the League more attractive to get support. Its popularity in young
generation was remarkable and the students of different institutes like University of Aligarh
and Islamia College Peshawar were very active to spread its message across India. So in 1945
elections the Muslims throughout the subcontinent considered it their own party and
supported in on large scale.

• Increased the membership: League realized that it was important to gain support in the
Muslim majority areas to have real bargaining power with the British and the Hindus. Hence,
League changed its strategy and obtained the support of the chief ministers of Bengal, Assam
and Punjab which gradually increased influence of the Muslim League in these areas.

107
Khushbakht Serosh

108
 Khushbakht Serosh

Cabinet Mission Plan 1946

In March 1946 members of the British Cabinet Mission arrived in Delhi, India, and met leaders
of Congress, Muslim League, the Sikhs and Hindu Mahasabha.

The mission consisted of Lord Pethick-Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps, and A. V. Alexander.
It aimed to discuss and plan for the transfer of power from the British Raj to Indian leadership.
The Mission found little common ground between Congress and the Muslim League. The
mission proved to be a failure.
Jinnah insisted on the formation of Pakistan comprising six provinces. Jinnah wanted partition
first and only then he was willing to discuss an arrangement with the Congress party on matters
such as defense.
Congress opposed the plan because that time it was not ready to consider any kind of partition.

The Cabinet Mission then came up with Plan A:

• An interim government to rule while the British withdrawal was organized under the
government.
• After the departure of the British, the government would form an All-India Commission from
members of the provincial and central legislatures.
• The commission would decide whether there should be one or two separate states after the
British had left.
But again the plan was turned down by both the Congress and the League.

Thus, the Mission announced its own Plan B on May 16, 1946 :
1. The provinces would be divided into three groups
• Group A - Hindu majority provinces,
• Group B - Western Muslim majority provinces, and
• Group C - Bengal and Assam
2. All groups would have a local autonomy and could frame their own constitutions.
3. Defence, foreign affairs and communication would be managed by Central Indian Union

109
 Khushbakht Serosh

Muslim League had concerns but approved the plan.

Nehru declared that they would not be bound by any plan after British left.

This destroyed any chance that the Cabinet Mission Plan had of being accepted by the Muslim
League. So the Cabinet Plan was dropped and the Cabinet Mission left India.

110
 Khushbakht Serosh

Direct Action Day 1946

111
 Khushbakht Serosh

3rd June Plan 1947

The British government sent Lord Mountbatten as the final Viceroy of India in February 1947 to
work out a plan for the British to leave India. On 3 June 1947 Mountbatten announced the
Government's plan for the transfer of power. This was also known as the Mountbatten Plan:

• Two states to be set up India and Pakistan, and Government of India Act 1935 to be
interim constitution of both countries.
• Each state to have Dominion Status, and an Executive responsible to Constituent
Assembly.
• It provided an option for princely states and Muslim majority provinces to decide on
whether to stay with India or join Pakistan.
Sindh and Balochistan provincial assemblies voted to join Pakistan, Punjab and Bengal decided
to join Pakistan but their Muslim-minority areas should stay in India. NWFP (KPK) also joined
Pakistan after holding a referendum. Sylhet (Muslim majority district) in Assam joined East
Pakistan. Mountbatten brought forward the date of the British withdrawal of India from June
1948 to 15 August 1947.

Radcliffe Award 1947

112
 Khushbakht Serosh

One issue which could not be resolved by 15 August was the boundary between Muslim and
non-Muslim areas. Mountbatten had appointed Sir Cyril Radcliffe to head a Boundary
Commission to establish the new borders, particularly in Bengal and Punjab. Radcliffe had four
assistants, two nominated by the League and two by Congress.

The decision of the Boundary Commission (known often as the Boundary Award or Radcliffe
Award) was announced on 16 August. The League was disappointed to hear that Calcutta was
given to India, even though it was surrounded by Muslim areas. In the Punjab, both Ferozepur
and Gurdaspur were given to India.

Again, the Muslims were disappointed by this decision. Ferozepur had a Muslim majority and
the Pakistanis had evidence to suggest that Radcliffe had originally awarded it to Pakistan but
had been forced by Mountbatten to change his mind. Gurdaspur also had a Muslim majority. By
awarding it to India, the Indians now had a border with Kashmir and future disputes between
India and Pakistan became inevitable.

Jinnah told the people of Pakistan that the awards were 'wrong, unjust and perverse'. However,
partition had taken place two days earlier and there was little to be done. Besides, there were
many other problems which were more pressing for the new country.

113