ENERGY

Electrochemical Energy
Nuclear Chemistry
Fuels

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LEARNING OUTCOMES
◼ At the end of the discussion, the students should be
able to:
◼ discuss the meaning of a fuel, its classification,
characteristics, and applications; and
◼ calculate the net and gross calorific values of fuels.

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 FUELS
◼ Fuel may be defined as
◼ any combustible substance that contains carbon as a main
constituent, which on proper burning gives a large amount of
useful heat for domestic and industrial purposes
◼ Examples
◼ Wood, charcoal, coal, kerosene, petrol, diesel, producer gas, oil
gas, etc.
◼ During the complete combustion of fuels, carbon is
converted to CO2 and hydrogen is converted to H2O.
◼ These compounds have large negative enthalpies of
formation.
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 FUELS cont.
◼ Note
◼ The greater the amounts of carbon and hydrogen in a fuel, the higher the
fuel value.
◼ Combustion
◼ the process of oxidation that provides heat energy
◼ Every combustion is an oxidation but every oxidation is not combustion.

◼ Example
◼ Combustion of wood, Petrol and kerosene gives heat energy.

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 FUELS cont.
◼ Characteristics of a good fuel
1. The fuel should be easily available.
2. It should be dry and should have less moisture content.
Dry fuel increases its calorific value.
3. It should be cheap, easily transportable and has high
calorific value.
4. It must have moderate ignition temperature and should
leave less ash after combustion.
5. The combustion speed of a good fuel should be moderate.
6. It should not burn spontaneously to avoid fire hazards.
7. Its handling should be easy and should not give poisonous
gases after combustion.
8. The combustion of a good fuel should not be explosive.
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 FUELS cont.
◼ Classification of Fuels
◼ A. occurrence (and preparation)
◼ B. physical state

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 FUELS cont.
◼ A. Occurrence
◼ On the basis of occurrence, the fuels are further divided into
two types:
◼ 1. natural or primary fuels
◼ found in nature
◼ used either without processing or after being processed to a certain
extent, which does not alter the chemical composition of the fuel
◼ also known as fossil fuels such as wood, peat, lignite, coal, petroleum,
natural gas, etc.

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 FUELS cont.
◼ 2. artificial or secondary fuels
◼ derived from the primary fuels by further processing such as charcoal, coke, kerosene,
producer gas, water gas, etc.

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 FUELS cont.
◼ B. Physical State

◼ The second classification is based on the physical state.

◼ 1. Solid fuels

◼ 2. Liquid fuels

◼ 3. Gaseous fuels

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Summary

10
Electricity Supply in the Philippines, 2016
◼

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 Total Power Generation of the Philippines, 2016
◼ The Philippines had a significant growth in power generation
at 10% from 82,413,213 MW in 2015 to 90,797,891 MW in
2016.
◼ Of this total generation, 48% comes from coal, 22% comes
from natural gas and 6% comes from oil-based generation.
The remaining 24% or about one-fourth of the total power
generation comes from renewable energy (RE) – based
generating facilities.

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FUELS cont.

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FUELS cont.

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 FUELS cont.
Characteristic Property Solid Fuels Liquid Fuels Gaseous Fuels
S. No. of a Fuel
1 Example Coal Crude oil Coal gas

2 Cost Cheap Costlier than solid Costly

fuels

Closed containers Storage space

3 Storage should be used for required is huge and
Easy to store storing should be leak proof

Very high, since these

4 Risk towards fire hazards Less More fuels are highly
inflammable

Combustion rate It is a slow Fast process Very rapid and

5 process efficient

Cannot be
Controlled by
6 Combustion control Cannot be controlled or
controlled regulating the supply
stopped when
of air
necessary

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 FUELS cont.
High, since Low, since the Low, similar to
labor is fuel can be liquid fuels, these
7 Handling cost required in transported can be
their storage & through transported
transport Pipes through pipes

Ash is produced
8 Ash and its disposal
also possess No problem of ash No problem of ash
problems

Clean, but liquids

Produce associated with
Smoke Smoke is not
9 smoke high carbon and produced
invariably aromatic fuels
produce smoke

10 Calorific value Least High Highest

11 Heat efficiency Least High Highest efficiency

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 FUELS cont.
◼ Solid Fuels
◼ The main solid fuels are wood, peat, lignite, coal and charcoal.
◼ Coal
◼ a fossil fuel which occurs in layers in the earth’s crust
It is formed by the partial decay of plant and animal materials
accumulated millions of years ago and further altered by
action of heat and pressure.
◼ Conversion of wood into coal
◼ Wood ⟶ Peat ⟶ Lignite ⟶ Bituminous Coal ⟶ Anthracite

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 FUELS cont.
Peat
➢ a brown-fibrous jelly like mass
Lignite
➢ soft, brown colored, lowest rank type of coals
Anthracite
➢ a class of highest rank coal
Bituminous coal
➢ pitch black to dark grey coal

Coal: peat, lignite, bituminous, anthracite (from left to right, top to bottom)
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FUELS cont.

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 Liquid Fuels
◼ Liquid fuels are the important commercial and domestic
fuels used these days.
◼ Most of these fuels are obtained from the naturally
occurring petroleum or crude oil.

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 Liquid Fuels cont.
◼ Primary Petroleum
◼ Petroleum or crude oil is a dark greenish brown,
viscous oil found deep in the earth crust.
◼ Crude oil is a source of many liquid fuels that are in
current use.
◼ Approximate composition of crude petroleum
C = 80-85% H = 10-14%
S = 0.1-3.5% N = 0.1-0.5%

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 Liquid Fuels cont.
◼ The crude oil obtained from the mine contains a lot of soluble and
insoluble impurities which must be removed.
◼ Purification of crude oil is a must. Before it is being done by simple
fractional distillation, further treatment is needed by refining.
◼ Refining
◼ a process by which petroleum is made free of impurities

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 Liquid Fuels cont.
◼ Petroleum is divided into different fractions with
different boiling points and further treatments to
impart specific properties.
◼ Stages in the refining of petroleum
◼ 1) removal of solid impurities
◼ 2) removal of water
◼ 3) removal of harmful impurities
◼ 4) fractional distillation
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Refining Process of Petroleum

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 FUELS cont.
◼ CRACKING
◼ decomposition of larger hydrocarbon molecules to smaller
molecules
Example
◼ C10H22 C5H12 + C5H10
Decane Pentane Pentene

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 Natural Gas
◼ Natural gas
◼ obtained from the wells dug in the earth during mining
of petroleum
◼ mainly composed of methane and small quantities of
ethane along with other hydrocarbons
◼ Dry gas or lean gas
◼ lower hydrocarbons are present
◼ Rich or wet gas
◼ hydrocarbons having higher molecules are present

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 Gaseous Fuels
◼ Average composition of natural gas
◼ Methane – 88.5%
◼ Ethane – 5.5%
◼ Propane – 3.7%
◼ Butane – 1.8%
◼ Pentane, hydrogen and higher hydrocarbons – 0.5%
◼ The calorific value of natural gas varies from 8000-14000
kcal/m3.
◼ It is an excellent domestic fuel and industrial fuel.
◼ It is also used as raw material for the manufacture of carbon-
black, methanol, formaldehyde etc.
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 LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas)
➢ obtained from natural gas or as a byproduct in refineries
during cracking of heavy petroleum products
◼ Main components
◼ n-butane
◼ isobutane
◼ butylene
◼ propane (traces of propene and ethane)
◼ The hydrocarbons are in gaseous state at room
temperature and 1 atmospheric pressure but can be
liquefied under higher pressure.

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 Gaseous Fuels

LPG is kept in metallic cylinder attached with

burner through pipe.
It has two stoppers, one at the cylinder and the
other at burner.
LPG has special odor due to the presence of
organic sulfides which are added for safety
purposes.

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 Characteristics of LPG
◼ 1. It has high calorific value (27,800 kcal/m3).
◼ 2. It gives less CO and least unburnt hydrocarbons. It causes
least pollution.
◼ 3. It gives moderate heat which is very good for cooking.
◼ 4. Its storage is simple. It is colorless.
◼ 5. It has tendency to mix with air easily.
◼ 6. Its burning gives no toxic gases though it is highly toxic.
◼ 7. It neither gives smoke nor ash content.
◼ 8. It is cheaper than gasoline and used as fuel in auto vehicles.
◼ 9. It is dangerous when leakage is there.
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 Applications
◼ 1. LPG is widely used in the food industry like hotels,
restaurants, bakeries, canteens etc. Low sulfur content
and controllable temperature make LPG the most
preferred fuel in the food industry.
◼ 2. The use of a clean fuel like LPG enhances the
product quality thereby reducing technical problems
related to the manufacturing activity of glass and
ceramic products.

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 Applications cont.
◼ 3. LPG being a premium gaseous fuel makes it ideal for usage
in the Cement manufacturing process.
◼ 4. In automotive industry, the main advantage of using
automotive LPG is, it is free of lead, very low in sulfur, other
metals, aromatics and other contaminants.
◼ 5. LPG can be used for the following: drying of crops, cereal
drying, curing of tobacco and rubber, soil conditioning,
horticulture, etc.
◼ 6. LPG is used in metal industry, aerosol industry, textile
industry and it can also be used in steam rising.

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 CNG (Compressed Natural Gas)

◼ Natural gas contains mainly methane, CH4.

◼ When natural gas is compressed at high pressure
(1000 atm) or cooled to -160oC, it is converted to
CNG.
◼ It is stored in cylinder made of steel and is now
replacing gasoline as it releases less pollutant during
its combustion.

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CNG or Compressed Natural Gas

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 Characteristics of CNG
◼ 1. Natural gas being lead or sulfur free, its use
substantially reduces harmful engine emissions.
◼ 2. Natural gas being lighter than air, will rise
above ground level and disperse in the
atmosphere, in case of a leakage.
◼ 3. Natural gas is in the gaseous state, and is
colorless.
◼ 4. Predominantly methane is available in the lean
gas, hence CNG contains mostly methane.
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 Applications
◼ 1. It is used to generate electricity, heat buildings, fuel
vehicles, power industrial furnaces and air conditioners.
◼ 2. Natural gas is also consumed in homes for space
heating and for water heating.
◼ 3. It is used in stoves, ovens, clothes dryers and other
appliances.
◼ 4. In some of the metro cities, CNG vehicles are used to
reduce pollution.

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 Combustion
◼ defined as the exothermic chemical reaction, which
is accompanied by heat and light
◼ the union of an element or a compound with
oxygen
◼ Example
◼ C(s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 97 kcal
◼ In common fuels, it involves the burning of carbon and
hydrogen in air and also to a much smaller extent of sulfur.

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 Combustion cont.
◼ The presence of moisture in coal is undesirable, because it causes
waste of heat; moisture may be present in coal naturally or by adding,
i.e., moistening the coal before use.
◼ The presence of some sort of moisture in coal helps to keep the
temperature of the fire bars low and prevents the formation of clinkers.
◼ The excess presence of moisture leads to heavy smoking and leads to
slow starting of combustion process.
◼ Optimum free moisture content is 7 to 9% when coal has minimum
density.
◼ The presence of moisture in combustion makes the combustion process
successful.
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 Calorific Value
◼ The prime property of a fuel is its capacity to supply heat.
◼ Fuels essentially consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and some
hydrocarbons and the heat that a particular fuel can give is due to
the oxidation of carbon and hydrogen.
◼ Normally when a combustible substance burns the total heat
depends upon the quantity of fuel burnt, its nature, air supplied for
combustion and certain other conditions governing the
combustion.
◼ The heat produced is different for different fuels.

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 Calorific Value cont.
◼ the total quantity of heat liberated when a unit mass (or
volume) of a fuel is burnt completely in air or oxygen
◼ the amount of heat liberated by the complete combustion of a
unit weight of the fuel and usually expressed as cal g-1 or kcal
kg-1 or B.T.U.

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 Combustion cont.
◼ Different units for measuring the quantity of
heat
◼ calorie
◼ the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of 1
gram of water one degree centigrade
◼ kilocalorie
◼ the unit of heat in metric system, and is defined as the quantity
of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of
water one degree centigrade
1 kcal = 1000 cal
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 Combustion cont.
◼ British thermal unit (B.T.U.)
◼ the unit of heat in English system
◼ defined as “the quantity of heat required to increase the temperature of one
pound of water through of one degree of Fahrenheit
where
1 B.T.U. = 252 cal = 0.252 kcal
◼ Centigrade heat unit (C.H.U.)
◼ the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water
one degree centigrade
where
1 kcal = 3.968 B.T.U. = 2.2 C.H.U.
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 Combustion cont.
Conversion of various units of heat
◼ 1 kg = 2.2 lb
◼ 1oC = 1.8oF
◼ 1 kcal = 1000 cal = 3.968 B.T.U. = 2.2 C.H.U.
◼ 1 B.T.U. = 252 cal

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 Combustion cont.
◼ Units of calorific value
◼ For solid or liquid fuels
◼ cal/g or kcal/kg
◼ B.T.U./lb
◼ For gaseous fuels
◼ kcal/m3
◼ B.T.U./ft3

44
 Combustion cont.
◼ Relation between various units

◼ 1 kcal/kg = 1.8 B.T.U./lb = 1 cal/g

◼ 1 kcal/m3 = 0.1077 B.T.U./ft3

◼ 1 B.T.U./ft3 = 9.3 kcal/m3

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 Gross Calorific Value (GCV)
or Higher Calorific Value (HCV)
◼ the total amount of heat liberated when a unit quantity (mass or
volume) of fuel is completely burnt and the products of combustion
are cooled down to room temperature
◼ This heat includes the latent heat of condensation of water.

◼ When a fuel containing hydrogen is burnt, the hydrogen

present is converted to steam.

◼ As the products of combustion are cooled to room temperature, the
steam gets condensed into water and the latent heat is evolved.
◼ Thus, the latent heat of condensation of steam, so liberated, is

included in the gross calorific value.

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 Combustion cont.
◼ Principle of Calorimetry

◼ Heat liberated by burning of fuel = Heat absorbed by water and

calorimeter
◼ m x HCV = (W + w) (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) x specific heat of water
W+w g [ T 2 −T 1 ℃] 1 cal
HCV = x
m (in g) g.℃
Note
cal kcal
HCV is in =
g kg
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 Combustion cont.
◼ where
◼ m = mass fuel taken into calorimeter, g
◼ W = mass of water taken into calorimeter, g
◼ w = water equivalent of calorimeter bomb, thermometer, stirrer etc., g
◼ T1 = initial temperature of water in calorimeter, °C
◼ T2 = final temperature of water in calorimeter, °C

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 Net Calorific Value (NCV)
or Lower Calorific Value (LCV)
◼ defined as the net heat produced, when unit mass or unit
volume of the fuel is burnt completely and the combustion
products are allowed to escape

◼ Net calorific value

◼ the gross calorific value excluding the latent heat of condensation of
water (the weight of water formed is nine times the weight of
hydrogen in the fuel)

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 Combustion cont.
◼ LCV or NCV = HCV – Latent heat of water vapor formed

◼ Net calorific value = GCV – (mass of hydrogen per

weight of fuel burnt x 9 x latent heat of vaporization of
water)

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 Combustion cont.
◼ Latent heat of steam = 587 kcal/kg

◼ Net calorific value = Gross calorific value – 52.83 x %H

where % H = percentage of hydrogen
◼ Note
◼ The gross and net calorific values of coal can be calculated
by a bomb calorimeter.

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 Combustion cont.
◼ Dulong’s Formula
kcal cal
◼ Gross Calorific Value (HCV), or
kg g
1 %O
GCV=HCV = 8080 ∗ %C + 34,500 %H − + 2,240 ∗ %S
100 8
kcal cal
◼ Net Calorific Value (LCV), or
kg g
NCV = LCV = HCV − 0.09 ∗ %H x ∗ 587

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 Combustion cont.
◼ Air quantity required for complete combustion of fuel
◼ The amount of volume of air required theoretically for combustion of
1 kg of fuel is given by the equation
100 32 O
xC+8 H− + S , kg
21 12 8
or
32 O
xC+8 H− + S , kg
12 8
◼ where C, H, O, and S are masses of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
sulfur, respectively
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 Combustion cont.
◼ Net amount of O2 required = Total amount of O2 required
– O2 already present in the fuel

◼ Air contains 21 % of O2 by volume

23 % of O2 by weight

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 Combustion cont.
◼ Examples
1. The following data are obtained
in a Bomb Calorimeter experiment:
◼ Weight of coal burnt = 0.95 g

◼ Weight of water taken = 700 g

◼ Water equivalent of calorimeter = 2000 g

◼ Increase in temperature = 2.48 C

o

◼ Latent heat of condensation = 587 cal/g

Calculate the GCV and NCV of the fuel if the fuel contains
92% C, 5% H and 3% ash.
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 Combustion cont.
◼ Solution

𝐖+𝐰 g [ 𝐓𝟐 −𝐓𝟏 ℃] 𝟏 𝐜𝐚𝐥

◼ 𝐇𝐂𝐕 = 𝐱
𝐦 (𝐢𝐧 g) 𝐠.℃

𝟕𝟎𝟎+𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 g [ 𝟐.𝟒𝟖 ℃] 𝟏 𝐜𝐚𝐥

◼ 𝐇𝐂𝐕 = 𝐱
𝟎.𝟗𝟓 g 𝐠.℃

cal kcal
◼ 𝐇𝐂𝐕 = 7048.4 = 7048.4 Answer
g kg
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 Combustion cont.
kcal cal
◼ NCV = GCV – (0.09*%H*587), or
kg g
◼ NCV = 7048.4 – 0.09 × 5 × 587
kcal cal
◼ NCV = 6784.25 = 6784.25 Answer
kg g

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 Combustion cont.
2. Calculate the gross and net calorific values of a coal sample
having the following composition:
◼ C = 80%; H = 7%;O = 3%; S = 3.5%; N = 2.5% and ash

4.4%
◼ Solution

1 %O kcal cal
◼ GCV = 8080∗%C + 34500 %H − + 2240∗%S , or
100 8 kg g
1 3
GCV = 8080∗80 + 34500 7 − + 2240∗3.5
100 8
kcal cal
◼ GCV = 8828 = 8828 Answer
kg g
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 Combustion cont.
kcal cal
◼ NCV = GCV – (0.09*%H*587), or
kg g
= 8828 – (0.09)(7)(587)
kcal cal
◼ NCV = 8458.2 = 8458.2 Answer
kg g

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 Combustion cont.
3. A sample of coal was found to have the following percentage
composition: C = 75%, H = 5.2%, O = 12%, N = 3.2% and
ash = 4.5%. Calculate the minimum air required for complete
combustion of 1 kg of coal.
◼ Solution
◼ Combustion reactions
C + O2 O2
H2 + ½ O2 H2O
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 Combustion cont.
◼ weight of O2 required for combustion of 12 g of C = 32
◼ weight of O2 required for combustion of 2 g of H = 16
◼ 1 kg of coal contains
◼ 75%C = 750 g
◼ 5.2%H = 52 g
◼ 12% O = 120 g
◼ 3.2% N = 32 g
◼ 4.5% ash = 45 g
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 Combustion cont.
◼ Net weight of O2 required for complete combustion
32 16
= (750) + (52) - oxygen present in 1 kg of coal
12 2
= 2000 + 416 – 120 = 2296 g
◼ Since air contains 23% oxygen, the weight of air required
100
for complete combustion of 1 kg of coal = 2296 ×
23
= 9982.61 g

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 Combustion cont.
◼ 4. Calculate the minimum amount of air required for
the complete combustion of 50 kgs of coal containing
C = 75 %, H2 = 10 %, O2 = 2 %, S = 5 %, and
the rest nitrogen by weight.
Solution
◼ 1 kg of coal contains
◼ 75%C = 0.75 kg 2% O = 0.02 kg
◼ 10%H = 0.10 kg 5% S = 0.05 kg
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 Combustion cont.
◼ Combustion reactions
C + O2 O2 12 kg of carbon requires 32 kg of O2
12 kg 32 kg
32(0.75)
∴ 0.75 kg of C requires = 2 kg of O2
12
H2 + ½ O2 H2O 2 kg of hydrogen requires 16 kg of O2
2 kg 16 kg
16(0.10)
∴ 0.10 kg of H2 requires = 0.80 kg of O2
2

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 Combustion cont.
◼ S + O2 SO2
32 kg 32 kg

32 kg of sulfur requires 32 kg of oxygen

32(0.05)
∴ 0.05 kg of S requires = 0.05 kg of O2
32
Total amount of O2 required = 2 + 0.80 + 0.05
= 2.85 kg
Amount of O2 already present in the fuel = 0.02 kg
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 Combustion cont.
◼ ∴ Net amount O2 required = Total amount of O2 required - O2 already
present in the fuel
= 2.85 – 0.02 = 2.83 kg
23 kg of O2 is supplied by 100 kg of air
2.83(100)
∴ 2.83 kg of O2 is supplied by = 12.30 kg of air
23
Amount of air required for 1 kg of coal = 12.30 kg
∴ Amount of air required for 50 kg of coal = 12.30 × 50 kg = 615 kg
Amount of air required for complete combustion of 50 kgs of
the coal = 615 kg
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 Combustion cont.
◼ Problems
◼ 1. On burning 0.72 g of a solid fuel in a Bomb calorimeter,

the temperature of 250 g of water is increased from 27.3°C

to 29.1°C. If the water equivalent is 150 g, calculate the
HCV of the fuel.
◼ 2. Calculate the minimum amount of air required for the

complete combustion of 150 kgs of fuel containing 70 %

Carbon, 15 % hydrogen, 5 % sulfur and the rest nitrogen
by weight.
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 Combustion cont.
◼ 3. In an experiment in a Bomb calorimeter, a solid
fuel of 0.90 g is burnt. It is observed that increase of
temperature is 3.8°C of 4000 g of water. The fuel
contains 1% of H. Calculate the HCV and LCV values
(equivalent weight of water = 385 g and latent heat
of steam = 587 cal/g).
◼ 4. Calculate the gross and net calorific value of a coal
which analyses: 74% C, 6% H, 1% N, 9% O, 0.8% S,
2.2% moisture and 8% ash.

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◼ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265602602_Fuels_and_Combustion_CHAPTE
R__4_FUELS_AND_COMBUSTION_41_Introduction_42_Requirements_of_a_Good_Fuel
◼ https://www.doe.gov.ph/electric-power/2016-philippine-power-situation-report
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=X&ved=0ahUK EwjOl-
qTiNbcAhXCzmEKHQ_QB40Q_AUICigB&biw=911&bih=423#imgrc=wDAI9E1KKNisVM
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