CP 1341 : Computer Networks Module 1 & 2

Module I: Use of computer networks-applications, network topologies, Network hardware- LAN,

WAN, MAN, VPN, PAN, unicasting, multicasting. Network software connection- oriented,
connectionless, protocol hierarchies, layering and design issues. Internet, mobile phone network,
wireless LAN, RFID and sensor networks. Lightwave. Communication satellites.
Module II: Digital modulation and multiplexing-FDM, TDM, WDM, Mobile system-1G, 2G, 3G,
GSM. Data link Controls : Framing, error control Flow control – feedback based, rate-based, Error
correction and detection –hamming code, parity, checksum, CRC. Stop &wait ARQ, stop &wait,
protocol, Sliding window protocol -Piggybacking, pipelining, Go-back-N, Selective repeat.

Module I:
Uses of Computer Network
There are multiple uses of computer network including:
 Communication: Computer networks enable individuals and organizations to communicate
with each other using various methods such as email, messaging, and video conferencing.
 Resource sharing: Networks allow users to share resources such as printers, scanners, and
files, which can improve efficiency and reduce costs.
 Remote access: Networks enable users to access information and resources from anywhere
in the world, providing greater flexibility and convenience.
 Collaboration: Networks facilitate collaboration by enabling users to work together on
projects, share ideas, and provide feedback in real time.
 E-commerce: Computer networks are used extensively in e-commerce, enabling businesses
to sell products and services online and process payments securely.
 Education: Networks are used in educational institutions to facilitate distance learning,
provide access to educational resources, and enable collaboration among students and
teachers.
 Entertainment: Networks are used for entertainment purposes such as online gaming,
streaming movies and music, and social media.
Applications of Computer Network
There are multiple applications of computer networks including:
 Business applications: Computer networks are widely used in businesses to improve
communication, share resources, and enable remote access.

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 Educational applications: Computer networks are used extensively in educational

institutions to facilitate distance learning, provide access to educational resources, and
enable collaboration among students and teachers.
 Healthcare applications: Computer networks are used in healthcare to store and share
patient information, enabling healthcare professionals to provide more personalized care.
 Entertainment applications: Computer networks are used for entertainment purposes such as
online gaming, streaming movies and music, and social media.
 Military applications: Computer networks are used in military applications to provide
secure communication and information sharing among military personnel.
 Scientific applications: Computer networks are used in scientific research to facilitate
collaboration among researchers and share data and information.
 Transportation applications: Computer networks are used in transportation to manage
traffic, track vehicles, and improve transportation efficiency.
 Banking and finance applications: Computer networks are used in banking and finance to
process transactions, share information, and provide secure access to financial services.
Types of Computer Networks
There are five main types of Computer Networks:
1. LAN (Local Area Network) –
∙ Systems connected in a small network like in a building or a small office ∙ It is
inexpensive
∙ It uses Ethernet or Token-ring technology
∙ Two or more personal computers can be connected through wires or cables acting as
nodes
∙ Transfer of data is fast and is highly score
2. PAN (Personal Area Network) –
∙ The smallest computer network
∙ Devices may be connected through Bluetooth or other infra-red enables devices ∙ It
has a connectivity range of upto 10 metres
∙ It covers an area of upto 30 feet
∙ Personal devices belonging to a single person can be connected to each other using
PAN
3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) –
∙ A network that can be connected within a city, for example, cable TV Connection

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∙ It can be in the form of Ethernet, ATM, Token-ring and FDDI

∙ It has a higher range
∙ This type of network can be used to connect citizens with the various Organisations
4. WAN (Wide Area Network) –
∙ A network which covers over a country or a larger range of people
∙ Telephonic lines are also connected through WAN
∙ Internet is the biggest WAN in the world
∙ Mostly used by Government Organisations to manage data and information
5. VPN (Virtual Private Network): –
∙ A network which is constructed by using public wires to connect to a private network
∙ There are a number of systems which enable you to create networks using the
Internet as a medium for transporting data
∙ These systems use encryptions and other security mechanisms to ensure only
authorised users can access
Unicast
 Unicast is a type of computer network communication in which a single sender distributes
data to a single recipient.
 In unicast communication, the sender sends a copy of the data to a single receiver, and that
recipient is the only one who can receive and process the data.
 In everyday applications such as email, web browsing, and instant messaging, this is the
most common type of communication.
 Connection-oriented or connectionless unicast communication is possible.
 Before data transmission in connection-oriented Unicast, a connection is established
between the sender and the recipient to ensure reliable data delivery. This technology is
often used in applications where data integrity and reliability are important, such as file
transfers and email.
 The sender of connectionless Unicast sends data packets to the recipient without first
establishing a connection. This technology is often used for online browsing and instant
messaging when low latency and fast delivery are more important than data reliability.
Multicast
 Multicast is a computer network communication system in which a single sender sends data
to numerous recipients at the same time.

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 The sender only needs to send a single copy of the data in multicast communication, and the
network copies and sends the data to all of the intended recipients.
 For applications that require one-to-many communication, such as video and audio
streaming, this is the most efficient mode of communication.
 Multicast communication is efficient and scalable because the sender only needs to send the
data once, and the network duplicates and sends the data to all of the intended recipients.
This reduces network congestion and conserves bandwidth, making it suitable for
applications that require high-bandwidth data transfers.
 Connection-oriented or connectionless multicast communication is possible.
 Before data transmission, a connection is established between the sender and the recipients
in connection-oriented multicast, ensuring reliable data delivery. This technology is often
used for applications requiring dependable data transfer, such as video and
teleconferencing.
 The sender is connectionless. Multicast sends data packets to the multicast group address
without first establishing a connection. This approach is commonly used for applications
such as streaming video and audio, where latency and speed are more important than data
reliability.
Difference between Unicast and Multicast
Characteristics Unicast Multicast
Communication model One-to-one One-to-many
Recipients Single recipient Multiple recipients
Network efficiency Less efficient More efficient
Bandwidth Higher bandwidth Lower bandwidth
Reliability Higher reliability Lower reliability
Applications Suitable for applications that Suitable for applications that require high-
require secure and reliable data bandwidth data transfer to multiple recipients,
transfer, such as email and file such as multimedia streaming and online gaming
transfer
Protocols Supported by most networking Supported by the IP multicast protocol
protocols, including TCP and UDP
Addressing Uses the recipient's unique address Uses a multicast group address
or IP address

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Network Topologies
• The way in which the nodes are physically interconnected to form a network .
• Major topologies are bus star ring and mesh , ,
1. Bus Topology

• In bus topology all the nodes are connected to a main cable called bus , .
• A small device called a terminator is attached to each end of the bus .
• If a node has to send data to another node it sends data to the bus The signal travels
through , the bus and each node checks the bus and only the intended node will accept
the data When the . signal reaches the end of the bus the terminator absorbs the signal
from the bus.
➢ Characteristics of bus topology
1) . Easy to install
2) . Requires less cable length and hence it is cost effective
3) . Failure of a node does not affect the network
4) . Failure of cable bus or terminator leads to a breakdown of the entire network
5) . Fault diagnosis is difficult
6) Only one node can transmit data at a time
Star Topology

• In star topology each node is directly connected to a hub switch.

• If any node has to send some information to any other node it sends the signal to the
hub/switch.

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• The signal is then broadcasted in the case of a hub to all the nodes but is accepted
only bythe intended node .
• In the case of a switch the signal is sent only to the intended node , ..
Characteristics of star topology
1) . More efficient compared to bus topology
2) . Easy to install
3) . Easy to diagnose faults
4) . Easy to expand depending on the specifications of the central hub switch
5) . Failure of hub switch leads to failure of the entire network
6) . Requires more cable length compared to bus topology
7)
Ring Topology

• In ring topology all nodes are connected using a cable that loops the ring or circle , . • A
ring topology is in the form of a circle .
• Data travels only in one direction in a ring .
• Each node regenerates the signal and passes to the next node until it reaches the intended
node reaches .
Characteristics of ring topology
1) . No signal amplification is required as each node amplifies the signal
2) - . Requires less cable length and hence is cost effective
3) , . If one node fails the entire network will fail
4) . Addition of nodes to the network is difficult

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Mesh Topology

• In mesh topology every node is connected to other nodes , .

• There will be more than one path between two nodes .
• If one path fails the data will take another path and reach the destination , .
Characteristics of mesh topology
1) . Network will not fail even if one path between the nodes fails
2) . Expensive because of the extra cables needed
3) . Very complex and difficult to manage

Connection-oriented service
 It is related to the telephone system.
 It includes connection establishment and connection termination.
 In a connection-oriented service, the Handshake method is used to establish the
connection between sender and receiver.

Connection-less service
 It is related to the postal system.
 It does not include any connection establishment and connection termination.

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 Connection-less Service does not give a guarantee of reliability.

 In this, Packets do not follow the same path to reach their destination.

Difference between Connection-oriented and Connection-less Services:

Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service
Connection-oriented service is related to the Connection-less service is related to the
telephone system. postal system.
Connection-oriented service is preferred by long Connection-less Service is preferred by
and steady communication. bursty communication.
Connection-oriented Service is necessary. Connection-less Service is not compulsory.
Connection-oriented Service is feasible. Connection-less Service is not feasible.
In connection-oriented Service, Congestion is not In connection-less Service, Congestion is
possible. possible.
Connection-oriented Service gives the guarantee of Connection-less Service does not give a
reliability. guarantee of reliability.
In connection-oriented Service, Packets follow the In connection-less Service, Packets do not
same route. follow the same route.
Connection-oriented services require a bandwidth Connection-less Service requires a
of a high range. bandwidth of low range.
Ex: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) Ex: UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
Connection-less Service does not require
Connection-oriented requires authentication.
authentication.

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Internet
 The Internet is the foremost important tool and the prominent resource that is being used by
almost every person across the globe.
 It connects millions of computers, webpages, websites, and servers.
 Internet is a widespread interconnected network of computers and electronic devices(that
support Internet).
 It creates a communication medium to share and get information online. If your device is
connected to the Internet then only you will be able to access all the applications, websites,
social media apps, and many more services.
Internet
History of the Internet
 The Internet came in the year 1960 with the creation of the first working model
called ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency).
 It allowed multiple computers to work on a single network which was their biggest
achievement at that time.
 ARPANET uses packet switching to communicate multiple computer systems under a
single network.
Uses of the Internet
Some of the important usages of the internet are:
 Online Businesses (E-commerce): Online shopping websites have made our life easier, e-
commerce sites like Amazon, Flipkart, and Myntra are providing very spectacular services
with just one click and this is a great use of the Internet.
 Cashless Transactions: All the merchandising companies are offering services to their
customers to pay the bills of the products online via various digital payment apps like
Paytm, Google Pay, etc. UPI payment gateway is also increasing day by day. Digital
payment industries are growing at a rate of 50% every year too because of the INTERNET.
 Education: It is the internet facility that provides a whole bunch of educational material to
everyone through any server across the web. Those who are unable to attend physical
classes can choose any course from the internet and can have point-to-point knowledge of it
just by sitting at home. High-class faculties are teaching online on digital platforms and
providing quality education to students with the help of the Internet.
 Social Networking: The purpose of social networking sites and apps is to connect people

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all over the world. With the help of social networking sites, we can talk, and share videos,
and images with our loved ones when they are far away from us. Also, we can create groups
for discussion or for meetings.
 Entertainment: The Internet is also used for entertainment. There are numerous
entertainment options available on the internet like watching movies, playing games,
listening to music, etc. You can also download movies, games, songs, TV Serial, etc., easily
from the internet.
Security and the Internet
 Very huge amount of data is managed across the Internet almost the time, which leads to the
risk of data breaching and many other security issues.
 Both Hackers and Crackers can lead to disrupting the network and can steal important
information like Login Credentials, Banking Credentials, etc.
Steps to Protect the Online Privacy
 Install Antivirus or Antimalware.
 Create random and difficult passwords, so that it becomes difficult to guess.
 Use a private browsing window or VPN for using the Internet.
 Try to use HTTPS only for better protection.
 Try to make your Social Media Account Private.
 If you are not using any application, which requires GPS, then you can turn GPS off.
 Do not simply close the tab, first log out from that account, then close the tab.
 Try to avoid accessing public Wifi or hotspots.
 Try to avoid opening or downloading content from unknown sources.
Advantages of the Internet
 Online Banking and Transaction: The Internet allows us to transfer money online through
the net banking system. Money can be credited or debited from one account to the other.
 Education, Online Jobs, Freelancing: Through the Internet, we are able to get more jobs
via online platforms like Linkedin and to reach more job providers. Freelancing on the other
hand has helped the youth to earn a side income and the best part is all this can be done via
the INTERNET.
 Entertainment: There are numerous options for entertainment online we can listen to
music, play games can watch movies, and web series, and listen to podcasts, youtube itself
is a hub of knowledge as well as entertainment.

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 New Job Roles: The Internet has given us access to social media, and digital products so
we are having numerous new job opportunities like digital marketing and social media
marketing online businesses are earning huge amounts of money just because the Internet is
the medium to help us to do so.
 Best Communication Medium: The communication barrier has been removed from the
Internet. You can send messages via email, Whatsapp, and Facebook. Voice chatting and
video conferencing are also available to help you to do important meetings online.
 Comfort to humans: Without putting any physical effort you can do so many things like
shopping online it can be anything from stationeries to clothes, books to personal items, etc.
You can books train and plane tickets online.
 GPS Tracking and google maps: Yet another advantage of the internet is that you are able
to find any road in any direction, and areas with less traffic with the help of GPS on your
mobile.
Disadvantages of the Internet
 Time Wastage: Wasting too much time on the internet surfing social media apps and doing
nothing decreases your productivity rather than wasting time on scrolling social media apps
one should utilize that time in doing something skillful and even more productive.
 Bad Impacts on Health: Spending too much time on the internet causes bad impacts on
your health physical body needs some outdoor games exercise and many more things.
Looking at the screen for a longer duration causes serious impacts on the eyes.
 Cyber Crimes: Cyberbullying, spam, viruses, hacking, and stealing data are some of the
crimes which are on the verge these days. Your system which contains all the confidential
data can be easily hacked by cybercriminals.
 Effects on Children: Small children are heavily addicted to the Internet watching movies,
and games all the time is not good for their overall personality as well as social
development.
 Bullying and Spreading Negativity: The Internet has given a free tool in the form of social
media apps to all those people who always try to spread negativity with very revolting and
shameful messages and try to bully each other which is wrong.

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Cellular wireless networks

Cellular wireless networks are a type of communication network that uses radio waves to
enable mobile devices to communicate with each other and with a central hub known as a cell
tower or base station. These networks are a fundamental part of modern telecommunications,
providing voice and data services to mobile phones, tablets, and other wireless devices. Here
are some key aspects of cellular wireless networks:

Cell Towers/Base Stations:

● Cellular networks consist of a series of cell towers or base stations

strategically located to provide coverage over a specific geographic area.
● Each cell tower serves a particular cell or coverage area, and neighboring
cells collectively create a network that covers a larger area.
Frequency Bands:

● Cellular networks use specific frequency bands allocated by regulatory

authorities to prevent interference between different communication
systems.
● Different generations of cellular networks (e.g., 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G) operate on
different frequency bands, and each generation typically brings
improvements in speed, capacity, and functionality.
Mobile Devices:

● Mobile devices, such as smartphones, tablets, and IoT devices, connect to the
cellular network using radio signals.
● These devices have built-in transceivers that allow them to communicate
with the nearest cell tower.
Handover and Roaming:

● Handover is the process by which a mobile device switches from one cell to
another as it moves within the network.

● Roaming allows a mobile device to connect to a different network when it

is outside the coverage area of its home network.

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Generations of Cellular Networks:

● 2G (2nd Generation): Introduced digital voice communication.

● 3G (3rd Generation): Brought faster data transfer rates and the ability to
use data services such as video calling.
● 4G (4th Generation): Provided even faster data speeds, enabling high-
quality video streaming and other data-intensive applications.
● 5G (5th Generation): Introduces significantly faster data speeds, lower
latency, and support for a massive number of connected devices.
Cellular Network Architecture:

● Cellular networks have a hierarchical architecture that includes core

network elements (such as the Mobile Switching Center and Home
Location Register) and radio access network elements (such as base
stations and antennas).
Security and Encryption:

● Cellular networks use various security measures, including encryption, to

protect the privacy and integrity of communications.
Data Plans and Billing:

● Cellular service providers offer various data plans to users, which may
include limits on data usage, voice minutes, and text messages.
Evolution and Future Developments:

● Cellular networks are continually evolving, with ongoing research and

development to enhance speed, capacity, and capabilities. 5G is the latest
major advancement, and there are ongoing discussions about future
generations of cellular technology.
Cellular wireless networks play a crucial role in modern communication, providing reliable and
widespread connectivity for mobile devices and enabling a wide range of applications and services.

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Introduction to Mobile Phone Technology/Mobile Computing:

Mobile computing
Mobile computing is a technology that has computing capability and can transmit/ receive data
while in motion. Mobile computing requires portable computing devices like laptops,
tablets, smart

phones, etc., wireless communication networks and connectivity to the Internet. The demand
for mobile computing initiated the growth and development of mobile communication
technology.
Mobile communication
 The term ‘Mobile’ has completely revolutionised communication by opening up
innovative ways for exchanging information.
 Mobile communication networks do not depend on any physical connection to
communicate between two devices.
 The mobile phone was introduced in the year 1946. In the initial stage, growth in
mobile communication was very slow. With the increase in the number of users,
accommodating them within the limited available frequency spectrum became a
major problem. To solve this problem, the concept of cellular communication was
evolved.The cellular concept was developed in the 1960’s at Bell Laboratories.
However, in the late 1990’s, when the Government of India offered spectrum
licenses for mobile communication, cellular technology became a common
standard in our country.
 The different generations in mobile communication are given below:
a. First Generation networks

Firsts Generation (1G) network refers to the first-generation of wireless telephone technology
(mobile telecommunications) developed around 1980. 1G mobile phones were based on the
analog system and provided basic voice facility only.
b. Second Generation networks

 Second Generation (2G) networks follow the digital system for communication.
This improved the audio quality in transmission.
 In 2G networks, phone conversations are digitally encrypted.These networks
provided far greater mobile phone coverage. 2G networks also introduced data

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services for mobile. Picture messages and Multimedia Messaging Service(MMS)

were introduced.
 The two popular standards introduced by 2G systems are Global System for
Mobiles (GSM) and Code Division Multiplew Access (CDMA).
i. Global System for Mobile

 Global System for Mobile (GSM) is a globally accepted standard for digital
cellular communication. It is a digital, circuit-switched network for voice
telephony.

 The frequency band for GSM is 900 MHz to 1800 MHz. GSM follows a
uniform international standard that made it possible to use a mobile device around
the world.
 The network is identified using the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). Users can
select a handset of their choice. GSM is the most successful family of cellular
standards.
 The different technologies that are used to enhance data communication features to
GSM are GPRS and EDGE.
GPRS and EDGE

 2G network was expanded later to include improved data communication features

using GPRS (General Packet Radio Services) and EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for
GSM Evolution).
 GPRS is a packet oriented mobile data service on GSM. When compared to
conventional GSM, users of GPRS benefited from shorter access time and higher
data rates. GPRS allows billing based on the volume of data transferred. Although
GPRS is a data only technology, it helps to improve GSMís voice quality.
 EDGE is a digital mobile phone technology that allows improved data transmission
rates for GSM. EDGE is a superset to GPRS and can function on any network with
GPRS deployed on it. It provides nearly three times faster speeds than the GPRS
system. Both the phone and the network must support EDGE, otherwise the phone
will revert automatically to GPRS.
ii. Code Division Multiple Access

 In Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) system, several transmitters

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can send information simultaneously over a single communication channel.

 CDMA provides wider coverage than GSM and provides better reception even in
low signal strength conditions.
 The voice quality in CDMA is better than GSM. It has a signal with wider
bandwidth and increased resistance to interference.
 CDMA technology provides better security to the mobile network when compared to
GSM.

c. Third Generation networks

 Third Generation (3G) wireless network technology provides high data transfer
rates for handheld devices.
 The high data transfer rates allow 3G networks to offer multimedia services
combining voice and data.
 3G is also referred to as wireless broadband as it has the facility to send and
receive large amounts of data using a mobile phone.

 The access part in 3G networks uses Wideband Code Division Multiple Access
(WCDMA).

 It requires upgrading the base stations (mobile towers) and mobile phones. Besides,
the base stations need to be close to each other.
d. Fourth Generation networks

 Fourth Generation (4G) system, also called Long Term Evolution (L.T.E.),
provides mobile ultra-broadband Internet access to mobile devices.
 4G networks offer very high speeds and provides excellent performance for
bandwidth intensive applications such as high quality streaming video.
 One of the key requirements for 4G is a wireless IP-based access system.

 The access part in 4G networks uses Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple

Access( OFDMA). 4G provides good quality images and videos than TV.
e. Fifth Generation networks

 Fifth Generation (5G) is the next step in the evolution of mobile communication.

 It will offer faster, more number of connections, more energy-efficient and

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costeffective data communication than its predecessors.

 5G will be a key component that will help to realise the vision of unlimited access
to information and sharing of data anywhere and anytime.
 5G will also provide wireless connectivity for a wide range of new applications in
wearable devices, smart homes, traffic safety/control, industry applications, etc.
 By 2020, it is thought that 5,000 crore to 1,00,000 crore devices will be connected
to the Internet. 5G will be a wireless access solution which is aimed at addressing
the demands and requirements of mobile communication beyond 2020.

Mobile communication services

Mobile communication industry uses a number of acronyms for the various technologies that
are being developed. Popular mobile communication technologies like SMS, MMS, GPS and
smart cards.
a. Short Message Service

 Short Message Service (SMS) is a text messaging service in mobile communication

systems that allows exchanging short text messages.
 SMS is the most widely used data application by mobile phone users. The GSM
standard allows sending a message containing upto 160 characters.
 When a message is sent, it reaches a Short Message Service Center (SMSC), which
provides a ‘store and forwardíng’ mechanism. SMSC attempts to send messages to
the recipients. If a recipient is not reachable, the SMSC waits and then retries later.

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 Some SMSCís also provide a ‘forward and forget’ option where transmission is
tried only once and if it fails, the message is not sent again.
 SMS messages are exchanged using the protocol called Signalling System No. 7 (SS7).

b. Multimedia Messaging Service

 Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) is a standard way to send and receive

messages that consists of multimedia content using mobile phones.
 It is an extension of the capability of SMS to send text messages.

 Unlike SMS, MMS does not specify a maximum size for a multimedia message.
MMS supports contents such as text, graphics, music, video clips and more.
 An MMS server is responsible for storing and handling incoming and outgoing
messages. Associated with the MMS server is the MMS proxy relay, which is
responsible for transferring messages between different messaging systems.
c. Global Positioning System

 The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite based navigation system that is
used to locate a geographical position anywhere on earth, using its longitude and
latitude.
 GPS is designed and operated by the U.S. Department of Defence and it consists of
satellites, control and monitoring stations, and receivers.
 The basis of the GPS is a group of satellites that are continuously orbiting the
earth. These satellites transmit radio signals that contain their exact location, time,
and other information.
 The radio signals from the satellites, which are monitored and corrected by control
stations, are picked up by the GPS receiver.
 GPS receivers take the information transmitted from the satellites to calculate a
userís exact location on earth. A GPS receiver needs only three satellites to plot a
2D position, which will not be very accurate. Ideally, four or more satellites are
needed to plot a 3D position, which is much more accurate.

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 GPS is used for vehicle fleet tracking by transporting companies to track the
movement of their trucks. Vehicle navigation systems will direct the driver to his or
her destination through the best route. In commercial aviation GPS is used for
aircraft navigation. GPS is also used in oil exploration, farming, atmospheric
studies, etc. GPS receivers are now integrated in many mobile phones for
implementing various tracking applications.

d. Smart cards

 A smart card is a plastic card embedded with a computer chip / memory that stores
and transacts data.
 The advantages of using smart cards is that it is secure (data is protected),
intelligent (it can store and process data) and that it is convenient (it is easy to
carry). That is why business firms and other organisations use smart cards for
authentication and storing data.
 In mobile communication, the smart card technology is used in Subscriber Identity
Modules (SIM) for GSM phone systems. The smart card is inserted or integrated
into the mobile handset. The card stores personal subscriber information and
preferences. SIM cards help to identify a subscriber, roam across networks and
provide security to value added services like Internet browsing, mobile commerce,
mobile banking, etc.
 Smart cards also work as credit cards, ATM cards, fuel cards, authorisation cards
for television receiver, high-security identification cards, etc.

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Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)

 Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology can be used to identify, track, sort or
detect a wide variety of objects in logistics.
 RFID hardware consists of a RFID tag and a reader.
 The RFID tag consists of a combination of transmitter and responder. This tag contains a
microchip for storing data and a sending and receiving antenna for data exchange with the
RFID reader. These thin tags are inserted or pasted on product containers or products.
 Each RFID tag contains identifiable information about a product.
 In RFID, communication takes place between a reader and an RFID tag.
 The advantage of RFID tag is that the tag need not be in a straight line with the reader.
Also, the reader can read the contents of a tag from a distance of several meters.
 Tags can either be active, i.e., powered by battery, or passive, i.e., powered by the reader.
Apart from logistics, RFID is gaining popularity in large supermarkets, payments in
highway toll booths, etc. as an alternative to bar codes.
 RFID tags are also fixed on animals like tigers, lions, etc. in the forests, which makes their
census easier.
 RFID gives transportation and logistics operations increased visibility into product
movement and business processes.
 It increases efficiency by providing real-time data that gives up-to-date information about
the products.
 RFID based business logistic softwares help to lower the operating costs, increase
productivity in the distribution centers, maximize on-time deliveries and improve customer
service and satisfaction.
WLAN
 stands for Wireless Local Area Network.
 WLAN is a local area network that uses radio communication to provide mobility to
the network users while maintaining the connectivity to the wired network.
 A WLAN basically, extends a wired local area network. WLAN’s are built by
attaching a device called the access point(AP) to the edge of the wired network.
 The performance of WLAN is high compared to other wireless networks.
 The coverage of WLAN is within a campus or building or that tech park.

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 It is used in the mobile propagation of wired networks.

 The standards of WLAN are HiperLAN, Wi-Fi, and IEEE 802.11. It offers service to
the desktop laptop, mobile application, and all the devices that work on the Internet.
 WLAN is an affordable method and can be set up in 24 hours.
 WLAN gives users the mobility to move around within a local coverage area and still
be connected to the network.
 Most latest brands are based on IEE 802.11 standards, which are the WI-FI brand
name.
WLAN Architecture
Components in Wireless LAN architecture as per IEEE standards are as follows:
1. Stations: Stations consist of all the equipment that is used to connect all wireless
LANs. Each station has a wireless network controller.
2. Base Service Set(BSS): It is a group of stations communicating at the physical layer.
3. Extended Service Set(ESS): It is a group of connected Base Service Set(BSS).
4. Distribution Service (DS): It connects all Extended Service Set(ESS).
Types of WLANs
As per IEEE standard WLAN is categorized into two basic modes, which are as follows:
1. Infrastructure: In Infrastructure mode, all the endpoints are connected to a base
station and communicate through that; and this can also enable internet access. A
WLAN infrastructure can be set up with: a wireless router (base station) and an
endpoint (computer, mobile phone, etc). An office or home WiFi connection is an
example of Infrastructure mode.
2. Ad Hoc: In Ad Hoc mode WLAN connects devices without a base station, like a
computer workstation. An Ad Hoc WLAN is easy to set up it provides peer-to-peer
communication. It requires two or more endpoints with built-in radio transmission.
Working of WLAN
WLAN transmits data over radio signals and the data is sent in the form of a packet. Each
packet consists of layers, labels, and instructions with unique MAC addresses assigned to
endpoints. This enables routing data packets to correct locations.
Characteristics of WLAN
1. Seamless operation.
2. Low power for battery use.

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3. Simple management, easy to use for everyone.

4. Protection of investment in wired networks.
5. Robust transmission technology.
Advantages of WLAN
1. Installation speed and simplicity.
2. Installation flexibility.
3. Reduced cost of ownership.
4. Reliability.
5. Mobility.
6. Robustness.
Disadvantages of WLAN
1. Slower bandwidth.
2. Security for wireless LANs is the prime concern.
3. Less capacity.
4. Wireless networks cost four times more than wired network cards.
5. Wireless devices emit low levels of RF which can be harmful to our health.

Module II:

Digital Modulation and Multiplexing

 Digital modulation is the process of converting a digital bit stream into an analog carrier
wave for transmission via a communication channel.

 Digital modulation is broadly divided into two categories

− Bandpass Modulation as in baseband transmission: Here, the bits are converted

directly into signals.
− Passband Modulation as in passband transmission: Here, the amplitude, phase or
frequency of the carrier signal is regulated totransmit the bits.

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Multiplexing

 Multiplexing is a technique used to transmit multiple signals over a single

communication channel.

 It allows multiple signals to be combined and transmitted at the same time, using
techniques such as frequency division multiplexing (FDM) or time division
multiplexing (TDM) or wavelength divisionMultiplexing.

 Multiplexing can be used to increase the capacity of a communication system by

allowing multiple signals to share the same channel.

 It is commonly used in telecommunication systems and networks to transmit multiple

voice or data signals over a single physical link.

Why Multiplexing?

 The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to receiver. The medium
can only have one signal at a time.
 If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be divided in
such a way that each signal is given some portion of the availablebandwidth.
 For example: If there are 10 signals and bandwidth of medium is100 units, then the 10
unit is shared by each signal.

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 When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of collision.
Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.
 Transmission services are very expensive.

Working concept

 The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer combines
the signals to form a composite signal.

 The composite signal is passed through a De-multiplexer and de-multiplexer

separates a signal to component signals and transfers them to their respective
destinations.

Advantages of Multiplexing:
 More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.
 The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.

Multiplexing Techniques

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Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)

 It is an analog technique.

 Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available bandwidth of a

single transmission medium is subdivided into several channels.

 The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using modulation techniques, and
they are combined by a multiplexer to form a composite signal.

 The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into different frequency
channels and allocate them to different devices.

 Using the modulation technique, the input signals are transmitted into frequency bands and
then combined to form a composite signal.

 The carriers which are used for modulating the signals are known as sub-carriers. They are
represented as f1,f2..fn.

 FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.

Advantages Of FDM:

 FDM is used for analog signals.

 FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.

 A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.

 It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.

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Disadvantages Of FDM:

 FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required. It suffers the
problem of crosstalk.

 A Large number of modulators are required.It requires a high bandwidth channel.

Applications Of FDM:

 FDM is commonly used in TV networks.

 It is used in FM and AM broadcasting. Each FM radio station has different frequencies, and
they are multiplexed to form a composite signal. The multiplexed signal is transmitted in
the air.
Wavelength-division Multiplexing (WDM)

 Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical signals are
transmitted through the fibre optic cable.

 WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a single fibre. It is used to
utilize the high data rate capability of fibre optic cable.
 It is an analog multiplexing technique.

 Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider bandof light with the
help of multiplexer.

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 At the receiving end, de-multiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to their
respective destinations.

 Multiplexing and De-multiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.

 Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the various opticalsignals to form
a composite signal, and the composite signal is transmitted through a fibre optical cable.

 Prism also performs a reverse operation, i.e., de-multiplexing the signal.

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Time-division Multiplexing (TDM)

 It is a digital technique.

 In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the same time
with different frequency, but in case of Time Division Multiplexing technique, all
signals operate at the same frequency with different time.

 In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the channel is
distributed among different users. Therefore, each user is allocated with different time
interval known as a Time slot at which data isto be transmitted by the sender.

 A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.

 In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted

simultaneously rather the data is transmitted one-by-one.

 In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain acycle of time
slots in which each frame contains one or more slots dedicated to each user.

 It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to multiplex
digital signals.

 TDM is commonly used in telecommunications networks to increase the capacity of

the channel and to allow multiple devices to share the same link. It is also used in
other types of networks, such as local area networks (LANs) and storage area
networks (SANs).

 TDM has several advantages, including high efficiency, low cost, and the ability to
support a variety of data rates.

 However, it also has some limitations, such as the need for precise synchronization of
the time slotsand the inability to handle bursty traffic.

 The types of TDM includes:

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Synchronous TDM
 A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassignedto every device.

 In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective of the
fact that the device contains the data or not.

 If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.

 In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time slots are organized
in the form of frames. If a device does not have data for a particular time slot, then the
empty slot will be transmitted.

 The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN multiplexing,
and SONET multiplexing.

 If there are n devices, then there are n slots.

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Disadvantages Of Synchronous TDM:

 The capacity of the channel is not fully utilized as the empty slots are also transmitted
which is having no data. In the above figure, the first frame is completely filled, but in
the last two frames, some slots are empty. Therefore, we can say that the capacity ofthe
channel is not utilized efficiently.

 The speed of the transmission medium should be greater than the total speed of the
input lines. An alternative approach to the Synchronous TDM is Asynchronous Time
Division Multiplexing.

Asynchronous TDM

 An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.

 An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed as in the case of
Synchronous TDM. Time slots are allocated to only those devices which have the data
to send. Therefore, we can say that Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor transmits
only the data from active workstations.

 An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time slotsto the devices.

 In Asynchronous TDM, total speed of the input lines can be greaterthan the capacity
of the channel.

 Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor accepts the incoming data streams and
creates a frame that contains only data with no emptyslots.

 In Asynchronous TDM, each slot contains an address part that identifies the
source of the data.

 The difference between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is that many slots
in Synchronous TDM are unutilized, but in Asynchronous TDM, slots are fully utilized.
This leads to the smaller transmission time and efficient utilization of the capacityof the
channel. In Synchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are n time

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slots. In Asynchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are m time slots
where m is less than n (m<n). The number of slots in a frame depends on the statistical
analysisof the number of input lines.

 In the above diagram, there are 4 devices, but only two devices are sending the data,
i.e., A and C. Therefore, the data of A and C are only transmitted through the
transmission line.Frame of above diagram can be represented as:

FRAMING
 Framing is a Data Link layer function whereby the packets from the Network Layer are
encapsulated into frames.

 The data frames can be of fixed length or variable length.

 In variable - length framing, the size of each frame to be transmitted may be different. So,
a pattern of bits is used as a delimiter to mark the end of one frame and the beginning of
the next frame.

 Frames can be of fixed or variable size.

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Fixed size framing:

o In fixed-size framing, there is no need for defining the boundaries of the frames;
the size itself can be used as a delimiter.

o An example of this type of framing is the ATM wide-area network, which uses
frames of fixed size called cells.

Variable-Size Framing:

o In variable-size framing, we need to define the end of the frame and the
beginning of the next.

o There are two approaches which are used for this purpose: A character-oriented
approach and A bit-oriented approach.

o The two types of variable - sized framing are −

Character-oriented framing

Bit - oriented framing

Character - Oriented Framing/Byte oriented

 In character - oriented framing, data is transmitted as a sequence of

bytes, from an 8-bit coding system like ASCII.

 The parts of a frame in a character - oriented framing are −

 Frame Header − It contains the source and the destination

addresses of the frame in form of bytes.

 Payload field − It contains the message to be delivered. It is a

variable sequence of data bytes.

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 Trailer − It contains the bytes for error detection and error

correction.

 Flags − Flags are the frame delimiters signalling the start and end
of the frame. It is of 1- byte denoting a protocol - dependent
special character.

Bit-oriented framing
 In bit-oriented framing, data is transmitted as a sequence of bits that can
be interpreted in the upper layers both as text as well as multimedia
data.
 The parts of a frame in a character - oriented framing are −
 Frame Header − It contains bits denoting the source and the
destination addresses of the frame.
 Payload field − It contains the message to be delivered. It is a
variable sequence of bits.
 Trailer − It contains the error detection and error correction
bits.
 Flags − Flags are a bit pattern that act as the frame delimiters
signalling the start and end of the frame. It is generally of 8-
bits and comprises of six or more consecutive 1s. Most
protocols use the 8-bit pattern 01111110 as flag.
Error
 A condition when the receiver’s information does not match with the sender’s
information.

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 During transmission, digital signals suffer from noise that can introduce errors in the
binary bits travelling from sender to receiver. That means a 0 bit may change to 1 or a 1
bit may change to 0.
Error Detection & Correction
 There are many reasons such as noise, cross-talk etc., which may help data to get
corrupted during transmission.
 The upper layers work on some generalized view of network architecture and are not
aware of actual hardware data processing. Hence, the upper layers expect error-free
transmission between the systems.
 Most of the applications would not function expectedly if they receive erroneous data.
Applications such as voice and video may not be that affected and with some errors they
may still function well.
 Data-link layer uses some error control mechanism to ensure that frames (data bit
streams) are transmitted with certain level of accuracy. But to understand how errors is
controlled, it is essential to know what types of errors may occur.

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Error control mechanism may involve two possible ways:

⮚Error detection
⮚Error correction
Error Detection
 Errors in the received frames are detected by means of Parity Check and Cyclic
Redundancy Check (CRC).
 In both cases, few extra bits are sent along with actual data to confirm that bits received
at other end are same as they were sent. If the counter-check at receiver’ end fails, the
bits are considered corrupted.

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

 CRC is a different approach to detect if the received frame contains valid data. This
technique involves binary division of the data bits being sent.
 The divisor is generated using polynomials.
 The sender performs a division operation on the bits being sent and calculates the
remainder. Before sending the actual bits, the sender adds the remainder at the end of the
actual bits.
 Actual data bits plus the remainder is called a codeword. The sender transmits data bits as
codewords.

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 At the other end, the receiver performs division operation on codewords using the same
CRC divisor. If the remainder contains all zeros the data bits are accepted, otherwise it is
considered as there some data corruption occurred in transit.
Error Correction
In the digital world, error correction can be done in two ways:
▪ Backward Error Correction When the receiver detects an error in the data received, it
requests back the sender to retransmit the data unit.

▪ Forward Error Correction When the receiver detects some error in the data received, it
executes error-correcting code, which helps it to auto-recover and to correct some kinds of
errors.
The first one, Backward Error Correction, is simple and can only be efficiently used where
retransmitting is not expensive.
Hamming Code
 Hamming code is a block code that is capable of detecting up to two simultaneous bit
errors and correcting single-bit errors.
 It was developed by R.W. Hamming for error correction.

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 In this coding method, the source encodes the message by inserting redundant bits within
the message. These redundant bits are extra bits that are generated and inserted at specific
positions in the message itself to enable error detection and correction.
 When the destination receives this message, it performs recalculations to detect errors
and find the bit position that has error.
 Encoding a message by Hamming Code
The procedure used by the sender to encode the message encompasses the following
steps −
Step 1 − Calculation of the number of redundant bits.
Step 2 − Positioning the redundant bits.
Step 3 − Calculating the values of each redundant bit.
Once the redundant bits are embedded within the message, this is sent to the user.
Flow Control
 Flow control in computer networks is defined as the process of managing the rate of data
transmission between two systems(nodes), this mechanism ensures that the rate of data
(transmitted by the sender) is within the receiving capacity of the receiver node.
 Flow control mechanisms can be classified by whether or not the receiving node sends
feedback to the sending node.
 Flow control is important because it is possible for a sending computer to transmit
information at a faster rate than the destination computer can receive and process it.
 This can happen if the receiving computers have a heavy traffic load in comparison to the
sending computer, or if the receiving computer has less processing power than the
sending computer.

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 In the above diagram, we can see that there are two protocols, Stop & Wait and a sliding
window.
 The basic difference between them is that, in stop & wait the sender node sends one
frame and then waits for the feedback from the receiver node.
 On the other hand, in the sliding window protocol, the sender node keeps on sending
frames to the receiver node without waiting for any feedback and it re-sends the frame
which is/are damaged or suspected.
 Talking about the efficiency, the efficiency of stop &wait protocol is less, while the
efficiency of the sliding window protocol is more than stop & wait protocol. And, in stop
& wait protocol sorting is not necessary, but in sliding window protocol, sorting may be
or may not be necessary.
 The stop & wait protocol is half-duplex whereas sliding window protocol is full-duplex.

 Stop & Wait Protocol performs better for LANs than WANs because the efficiency of the
protocol is inversely proportional to the distance between the sender & receiver node and
as we all know that the distance is less in LANs as compared to WANs.
 But this protocol has some issues, one such issue is the probability of occurrence of
deadlock, which is very high due to loss in a data packet or loss in feedback which can

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lead to infinite waiting, where the sender will keep on sending the data packet if the
feedback is lost.

Sliding Window Protocol

 The sliding window is a technique for sending multiple frames at a time.

 It controls the data packets between the two devices where reliable and gradual delivery
of data frames is needed.
 It is also used in TCP (Transmission Control Protocol).
 In this technique, each frame has sent from the sequence number. The sequence numbers
are used to find the missing data in the receiver end. The purpose of the sliding window
technique is to avoid duplicate data, so it uses the sequence number.

Stop & Wait ARQ

 Stop & Wait ARQ is a sliding window protocol for flow control and it overcomes the
limitations of Stop & Wait, we can say that it is the improved or modified version of Stop
& Wait protocol.
 Stop & Wait ARQ assumes that the communication channel is noisy (previously Stop &
Wait assumed that the communication channel is not noisy).
 Stop & Wait ARQ also assumes that errors may occur in the data while transmission.
 Working of Stop & Wait ARQ is almost like Stop & Wait protocol, the only difference is
that it includes some additional components, which are:
• Time out timer

• Sequence numbers for data packets

• Sequence numbers for feedbacks

Go-Back-N ARQ

 Go-Back-N ARQ protocol is also known as Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request.

 It is a data link layer protocol that uses a sliding window method.
 In this, if any frame is corrupted or lost, all subsequent frames have to be sent again.

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 The size of the sender window is N in this protocol.

 For example, Go-Back-8, the size of the sender window, will be 8. The receiver window
size is always 1.
 If the receiver receives a corrupted frame, it cancels it. The receiver does not accept a
corrupted frame. When the timer expires, the sender sends the correct frame again.

Selective Repeat ARQ

 Selective Repeat ARQ is also known as the Selective Repeat Automatic Repeat Request.
 It is a data link layer protocol that uses a sliding window method.
 The Go-back-N ARQ protocol works well if it has fewer errors. But if there is a lot of
error in the frame, lots of bandwidth loss in sending the frames again. So, we use the
Selective Repeat ARQ protocol.
 In this protocol, the size of the sender window is always equal to the size of the receiver
window. The size of the sliding window is always greater than 1.
 If the receiver receives a corrupt frame, it does not directly discard it. It sends a negative
acknowledgment to the sender. The sender sends that frame again as soon as on the

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receiving negative acknowledgment. There is no waiting for any time-out to send that
frame.

Go-Back-N ARQ Selective Repeat ARQ

If a frame is corrupted or lost in it,all In this, only the frame is sent again, which is corrupted or
subsequent frames have to be sent again. lost.
If it has a high error rate,it wastes a lot of There is a loss of low bandwidth.
bandwidth.
It is less complex. It is more complex because it has to do sorting and
searching as well. And it also requires more storage.
It does not require sorting. In this, sorting is done to get the frames in the correct
order.
It does not require searching. The search operation is performed in it.
It is used more. It is used less because it is more complex.
Piggybacking
 Half of all data transmission comprise of transmission of acknowledgments. So, a
solution that provides better utilization of bandwidth is piggybacking.
 Here, sending of acknowledgment is delayed until the next data frame is available for
transmission.
 The acknowledgment is then hooked onto the outgoing data frame. The data frame
consists of an ack field.

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 The size of the ack field is only a few bits, while an acknowledgment frame comprises of
several bytes. Thus, a substantial gain is obtained in reducing bandwidth requirement.
 The major advantage of piggybacking is better use of available channel bandwidth.
 The major disadvantage of piggybacking Additional complexity and If the data link layer
waits too long before transmitting the acknowledgement, then re-transmission of frame
would take place.

Pipelining
 Pipelining is a process of sending multiple data packets serially without waiting for the
previous acknowledgement.
 This technique is beneficial when the amount of data to be transferred is very large, and
we send the data by dividing them into various parts.
 These data parts can be pipelined and sent to the receiver over the channel.
 In pipelining, we do not wait for the acknowledgement of sent data packets. We keep on
sending the data packets continuously without bothering about the acknowledgements.
 Pipelining is a continuous and overlapped technique.

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 All the data packets are continuously transmitted after one other. Also, it may happen that
at a time one process will be going on one packet, and the other process on some other
data packet in an overlapped manner.
 Hence, pipelining ensures the efficient and better utilization of network resources.
 It also enhances the speed of delivery of data packets, ensuring the timely transmission
of data

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