ENGINE FUEL METERING & INDUCTION SYSTEMS

A) Reciprocating Engine Fuels

 Aviation Gasoline
 Gasoline Specifications
 Heat Energy Content
 Vapor Pressure
 Critical Pressure and Temperature
 Gasoline Additives
 Gasoline Ratings
 Automobile Gasoline
 Importance of Proper Fuel Grade

1.0 Fuel system

The complete fuel system of an aircraft can be divided into two principal sections:
 the aircraft fuel system and
 the engine fuel system.
The aircraft fuel system consists of the fuel tank or tanks, fuel boost pump, tank strainer (also called a finger
strainer), fuel tank vents, fuel lines (tubing and hoses), fuel control or selector valves, main (or master) strainer, fuel
flow and pressure gauges, and fuel drain valves.
The engine fuel system begins where the fuel is delivered to the engine-driven pump and includes all the fuel
controlling units from this pump through the carburetor or other fuel metering devices.

1.01 FUEL SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS

Improvements in aircraft and engines have increased the demands on the fuel system, making it more
complicated and increasing the installation, adjustment, and maintenance problems
The fuel system must ;
 supply fuel to the carburetor or ,other metering device under all conditions of ground and air operation.
 It must function properly at constantly changing altitudes and in any climate.
 It should be free of tendency to vapor lock, which can result from changes in ground and in-flight
climatic conditions.
 Must function properly under all conditions of engine power, altitude, and aircraft attitude and
throughout all types of flight maneuvers for which the aircraft is certificated or approved.

1.10 Vapor lock.

This is a result of partial or complete interruption of the fuel flow by fuel vapor and air collecting in various
sections of the fuel system.
The three general causes of vapor lock are;
 the lowering of the pressure on the fuel,
 high fuel temperatures, and
 excessive fuel turbulence (or sloshing) of the fuel

To reduce the possibility of vapor lock, fuel lines;

 are kept away from sources of heat;
 sharp bends and steep rises are avoided.
 the volatility of the fuel is controlled in manufacture so that it does not vaporize too readily.
 incorporation of booster pumps in the fuel system.

2.0 AVIATION FUELS

The fuel used for spark-ignition piston engines is a refined petroleum distillate comprised of one of the
hydrocarbon families that consist of approximately 85% carbon and 15% hydrogen.
When mixed with air and burnt, the carbon and hydrogen combine with the oxygen in the air to form
carbon dioxide and water vapour

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2.1 Defn : Gasoline
Gasoline is a liquid hydrocarbon compound obtained by fractional distillation of crude oil.
Its chemical formula is C8H18 it nominally weighs six pounds per gallon, and contains
approximately 20,000 Btu of heat energy per pound.
2.1.1 Heat energy
Heat energy in the gasoline is released by a chemical reaction between the hydrogen and carbon
in the gasoline and the oxygen in the air. When the proper amounts of gasoline and air are
mixed and the temperature of the mixture is raised to its kindling point, the carbon and some of
the oxygen combine to form carbon dioxide, and the hydrogen and the rest of the oxygen
combine to form water. – as shown below

Gasoline and oxygen from the air combine to form carbon dioxide and water,
and in the process, release a large amount of heat
This reaction takes place so rapidly that a great deal of heat is released, and it is this heat that performs
useful work.
In the perfect combination of gasoline and air, two molecules of gasoline (C8H18) and 25 molecules of
oxygen (02) combine to form 16 molecules of carbon dioxide (C02) and 18 molecules of water (H20), plus
a large amount of heat.

2.12 Aviation gasoline (AVGAS)

Aviation gasoline is different from motor vehicle fuel, since;
 it is subject to a more rigid control of quality assurance; and
 it has a much higher resistance to detonation.
Nb: On piston-engine aircraft, it is important to use the correct type of fuel, since using the incorrect
type of fuel can lead to low engine performance, detonation, and engine failure.

2.20 Types of gasoline, grades and colour codes

For civil use, there are at present three basic types of gasoline which are dyed different colours for
identification.
 Grade 80 fuel has a low lead content, is only suitable for low compression engines, and is red
in colour;(replaced 80/87)
 Grade 100 fuel has a high lead content, is used on high compression engines, and is green in
Colour; (replaced 91/96)
 Grade 100LL (Low Lead 100 Octane) fuel is a compromise between the Grade 80 and
Grade 100, contains a medium lead content, and is blue in colour. This fuel is in general use.
replaced (115/145)
Grades IOOLL and I00 represent two avgases which are identical in antiknock quality but differ in
maximum lead content and color

2.2.1 Mogas (Automobile Fuel) fuel

Mogas (Automobile Fuel) fuel has a lower vapour pressure than AVGAS. Therefore, it tends to cause
vapour locks in pipelines at high temperature and altitudes.
Carbureted engines using this fuel are more susceptible to carburetor fuel icing. In addition, it has a
low lead content, which can lead to detonation and pre-ignition.
nb: Before using MOGAS in an aircraft, consider all its disadvantages by first consulting
Airworthiness Notice No. 98 and CM General Aviation Safety Sense leaflet NO.4.

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2.30 Characteristics of Gasoline
Chemically, gasolines are classified as mixtures of hydrocarbon. Two of these hydrocarbons are isooctane and
normal heptane.
Isooctane possesses high antiknock qualities, while normal heptane has low antiknock qualities. This quality,
or value, is expressed as the percentage of isooctane in the mixture.
For example, a reference fuel of 70 octane means a mixture of70 percent isooctane in normal heptane

a) Octane Rating
This is a measure of the fuel’s resistance to detonation; the higher the octane number, the higher its
resistance. The aircraft flight manual or equivalent states the minimum octane rating.
Nb; Never use a fuel with an octane number lower than that recommended.
The octane rating of a fuel is tested in a special engine that compares the performances of the fuel
being tested and of reference fuel, usually a mixture of isooctane and normal heptane.
b) Performance Number
A special performance number used to express anti-knock qualities greater than 100 0ctane
rating or pure isooctane is based on iso-octane to which measured quantities of tetraethyl-lead
(TEL) are added.
For example, isooctane has an octane number of 100; likewise, it has a performance number of 100.
If TEL is added to it, a performance number above 100 is obtained. The performance numbers obtained
by mixing various amounts of TEL with octane are shown in the chart in Fig. 6-4.below

FIGURE 6-4 Chart of performance numbers

Nb: When ordinary gasoline is rated, the octane number is generally used, but since, with the addition of
lead, the rating may run over the fixed 100 rating of isooctane, it is preferable to rate aviation gasoline by
giving it a performance number.
Since the antiknock qualities of a fuel will vary according to the fuel-air (F/ A) ratio, the performance
numbers are expressed with two numbers- one rating for a lean mixture and the other for a rich mixture.
The performance numbers are expressed by first & second numbers as follows:
 100/130, - lean-performance number
 115/145. -the rich-performance number.
2.3.1 Use of Lead in Aviation Fuels
Lead, in the form of TEL, is used in relatively small quantities in aviation gasoline to improve antiknock
qualities. The standard method in this country for expressing the quantity of lead is in terms of milliliters
per gallon.
The maximum lead concentration used is 630 volumes of gasoline to I volume of TEL. This corresponds
to 6 milliliters (mL) of TEL to 1 gal [3 .79 L] of gasoline.

Lead content
i. Lead quantity, or concentration of lead, in avgas is expressed in milliliters 1/1000 per 1 gal [3.79 L] of
avgas. The Standard Specification for Aviation Gasolines, Specification D910-75, developed by ASTM
(American Society for Testing and Materials), established that;
 grade 80 should be red and contain a maximum of 0.5 mL of TEL per 1 gal [3.79 L] of avgas.
 grade lOOLL is blue and contains a maximum of 2.0 mL/gal.
 grade I00 is green and contains a maximum of 3.0 mL/gal.

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ii. Effects of lead
Lead, if added alone to gasoline, will bum to form lead oxide, which is a solid with a very high boiling
point. For this reason the lead remains as a residue in the cylinders to a large extent. To prevent this, a
gasoline-soluble bromine compound is added to the lead. The mixture forms lead bromide which has a
much lower boiling point than lead oxide, and therefore a large portion is expelled from the cylinders
with the exhaust gases.

iii. Tricresyl phosphate (TCP),

Chemical compound, tricresyl phosphate (TCP), is added to leaded fuel to further reduce the effects of
the lead bromide deposits in the cylinder and on spark plug electrodes.
The TCP converts the lead residue to lead phosphate rather than lead bromide. Lead phosphate is
non-conductive and is easier to dispose of than lead bromide.

2.4.0 Aromatic and Alcohol Aviation Fuels

Gasoline, the aromatics, and alcohol are the ideal fuels for internal-combustion engines.
2.4.1The aromatics
The aromatics are hydrocarbon compounds acquired either from coal (as a by-product during the
manufacture of coke) or from oil.
They are also present in straight-run gasoline as a natural product of the fractional-distillation process to
an extent of about 7% or less.
Aromatic fuel is so named because the atomic arrangement of its molecular structure is identical with
that in perfumes.
When two fuels have equal performance numbers, both lean and rich, the fuel not containing aromatics is
somewhat preferable to the fuel containing 15 percent aromatics.
Also, aromatic fuel blends cause trouble with rubber parts and require the use of synthetic rubber for fuel
hoses, pump packings, carburetor diaphragms, etc.

a) Benzol
Benzol is the best known of the aromatic group. It has a high compression point at rich mixtures, and tests
show that it will withstand a compression pressure of 175 psi [1206.63 kPa] within the combustion
chamber of an engine before knocking occurs. But benzoyl has certain undesirable characteristics, among
them a slow burning rate.
It is also a powerful solvent of rubber. This objection to benzol was overcome to some extent by the
development of synthetic rubber fuel lines. However, for various reasons, the amount of benzol in
aviation fuel at present is limited to 5 % by volume.

b) Toluene, xylene, and cumene.

Three other important aromatics are toluene, xylene, and cumene. Some of the characteristics of
toluene, such as;
 low freezing point,
 good volatility, and
 rubber-solvent properties less powerful than those of benzol, make it suitable for blending in
aviation fuel up to 15% by volume.
Xylene also has desirable qualities for blending in aviation fuels.
However, it can be used only in limited quantities owing to its relatively high boiling point.
Cumene is made from benzol. This limits the amount that can be used for blending purposes. Cumene
has an extremely high boiling point, which tends to cause uneven distribution of the fuel-air charge to the
various cylinders of the aircraft engine.

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Since all aromatics are rubber solvents to some extent, the use of aviation fuels containing large amounts
of aromatics requires aromatic-resistant materials in the fuel system.
Parts such as flexible hoses, pump packings, and carburetor diaphragms must be made of special
synthetic rubber.

2.4.2 Jet fuel

There are two basic types of jet fuel: kerosine-type and blended(Jet A & Jet B)
The grade numbers used for reciprocating engine fuels relate to their characteristics, but the identification
numbers or letters used for turbine engine fuels have no relationship to the fuel's characteristics.
Identification
Jet A and A-I are similar to commercial kerosine and have characteristics similar to those of military JP-8.
Their flash points are between 1100P and 150°F. The difference between Jet A and Jet A-I is their
freezing points.Solid crystals begin to form in Jet A at -40oP and at -58°P in Jet A-I. Jet B is called a
wide-cut fuel, because it is a blend of gasoline and kerosine fractions, and it is similar to military JP-4. Jet
B has a freezing pointof around -60oP.
Kerosine has approximately 18,500 Btu of heat energy per pound, and it nominally weighs 6.7 pounds per
gallon. Aviation gasoline has 20,000 Btu per pound, and its nominal weight is 6 pounds per gallon.
Therefore, while kerosine has a lower heat energy per pound, it has a higher heat energy per gallon than
gasoline.

2.5.0 FUEL CONTAMINATION

Fig. 2.1
Examine fuel on a regular basis for signs of contamination as listed above fig 2.1. Take a sample of fuel
from the fuel drain points situated at the bottom of each fuel tank, fuel filter, and where applicable, cross
feed lines.
 Globules of water
 More than a trace of sediment
 Cloudiness
 Positive reaction to water-finding paste, paper, or chemical detector
2.5.1 Density of Fuels
Specific gravity (SG), or relative density, is the mass per unit volume of a fuel and is compared
with water at 15.50C. When determining fuel loading, take variation of fuel density into account for
the accuracy of the fuel contents and fuel flow. Temperature also has a marked effect on fuel
density. As temperature increases, the density decreases. AVGAS typically has an SG of 0.72.

2.60 Testing Fuels

The volatility of a gasoline is also important because of its effect on carburetor icing. To determine the
volatility of an aircraft fuel, a fractional distillation test is made.
Carburetor icing
Carburetor icing has been practically eliminated from all aircraft except the small types equipped with float-
type carburetors. This has been done through the use of
 pressure injection and
 fuel injection systems, with the fuel injection occurring in locations not conducive to ice
formation.

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2.6.1 Reid vapor pressure bomb
An instrument known as the Reid vapor pressure bomb is used to determine volatility of a gasoline
In general aviation fuels blends are checked carefully for vaporizing properties.
In this apparatus, shown in Fig. 6-3, a pressure gauge attached to one end of a sealed container registers the amount
of vapor pressure that a given fuel creates at various temperatures

FIG. 6-3 Reid vapor pressure bomb

In this apparatus, shown in a pressure gauge attached to one end of a sealed container registers the amount of
vapor pressure that a given fuel creates at various temperatures

3.00 FUEL/ AIR RATIO

3.10 The mixture proportion of fuel and air by weight is of extreme importance to engine performance. The
characteristics of a given mixture can be measured in terms of flame speed and combustion temperature.
The composition of the fuel/air mixture is described by the mixture ratio.

For example, a mixture with a ratio of 12 to 1 (12:l) is made up of 12 Ibs. of air and 1 Ib. of fuel. The
ratio is expressed in weight because the volume of air varies greatly with temperature and pressure.
The mixture ratio can also be expressed as a decimal. Thus, a fuel/air ratio of 12:l and a fuel/air ratio of
0.083 describe the same mixture ratio.

3.20 Air and gasoline mixtures as rich as 8:l and as lean as 16:l will burn in an engine cylinder. The
engine develops maximum power with a mixture of approximately 12 parts of air and 1 part of
gasoline.

3.30Approximately fifteen pounds of air is needed to provide enough oxygen for complete combination with one
pound of gasoline. This mixture ratio is expressed as an air-fuel ratio of 15:1 or a fuel-air ratio of 0.067 (1:15).
This ratio, which provides the exact and correct number of oxygen molecules to unite with all of hydrocarbon
molecules in the gasoline, is called a chemically correct or stoichiometric mixture and is the theoretical ideal ratio.

3.31 Chemically correct or stoichiometric mixture

With this mixture (given sufficient time and turbulence), all the fuel and all the oxygen in the air will be completely
used in the combustion process. The stoichiometric mixture produces the highest combustion temperatures because
the proportion of heat released to a mass of charge (fuel and air) is the greatest.
The mixture is seldom used because it does not result in either the greatest economy or the greatest power for the
airflow or manifold pressure.
Dissociation
3.10 LEANING/ENRICHING THE MIXTURE
Mixture ratios vary between approximately 8-to-1 and 20-to-1 to cater for various engine
requirements. Eight-to-1(8:1) is a rich mixture, and there is an excessive amount of fuel. Twenty-to-
1 is a lean (weak) mixture, (20:1) and there is an excessive amount of air.
The best power ratio actually occurs at a richer mixture ratio of approximately 12-to-1 and is the

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 mixture ratio that allows the engine to develop maximum power at a particular power setting.
The Stoichiometric mixture (15:1) produces the highest combustion temperature. In rich mixtures, the
excess fuel acts as a coolant (when changing from a liquid to a vapour, heat is extracted).
In lean mixtures, less fuel is being burned (less heat), the burning rate is slower, and the same
measure of air is better able to cool.

Leaning
Mixtures from 0.0725 fuel/air ratio to 0.080 fuel/air ratio are called best power mixtures, since their use
results in the greatest power for a given airflow or manifold pressure. In this fuel/air ratio range, there is
no increase in the total heat released, but the weight of nitrogen and combustion products is augmented
by the vapor formed with the excess fuel; thus, the working mass of the charge is increased
Enriching
Enriching a fuel/air ratio above 0.080 results in the loss of power besides reduction of temperature, as the
cooling effects of excess fuel overtake the favorable factor of increased mass. The reduced temperature
and slower rate of burning lead to an increasing loss of combustion efficiency.

3.4.0 SFC (specific fuel consumption) Is the number of pounds of fuel burned per hour to produce each brake
horsepower,
This is a measure of the economical use of fuel called SFC (specific fuel consumption), which is the Ibs.
of fuel per hr. per hp. Thus, SFC = lbs. fuel/hr./ hp.
By using this ratio, the engine's use of fuel at various power settings can be compared. When leaning
below 0.067 fuel/air ratio with constant airflow, even though the power diminishes, the cost in fuel to
support each horsepower hour (SFC) also is lowered for a while. While the mixture charge is becoming
weaker, this loss of strength occurs at a rate slower than that of the reduction of fuel flow. This favorable
tendency continues until a mixture strength known as best economy is reached. With this fuel/air ratio, the
required hp. is developed with the least fuel flow, or, to put it another -way, a given fuel flow produces
the most power.

The best economy fuel/air

This mixture ratio varies somewhat with r.p.m. and other conditions, but, for cruise powers on most
reciprocating engines, it is sufficiently accurate to define this range of operation as being from 0.060 to
0.065 fuel/air ratios with retard spark, and from 0.055 to 0.061 fuel/air ratios with advance spark. These
are the most commonly used fuel/air ratios on aircraft where manual leaning is practiced.

3.4.2 Mixture Terminology

The two common terms that describe an air/fuel mixture are lean and rich. These terms are relative,
describing variations in mixture.
Lean indicates that air was added or fuel removed from a mixture. For example, an air/fuel mixture ratio of 10:1 is
leaner than 8:1.
Rich indicates that air was removed or fuel added to a mixture; an air/fuel ratio of 8:1 is richer than 10:1.
Nb: For most reciprocating engines, the pilot adjusts the mixture control in the cockpit to obtain the desired fuel/air
mixture.

3.4.3The terms that describes adjustments of the mixture control are;

 full rich,
 idle-cutoff,
 lean best power,
 rich best power, and
 best economy.

Full rich refers to the full forward position of the mixture control, which provides maximum fuel flow from the fuel
metering device. For maintenance purposes, this is the normal position for ground operations, except for high
elevation airports

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Idle-cutoff refers to the full aft position of the mixture control, which completely cuts off fuel flow the engine. The
recommend method of shutting down a reciprocating engine is to move the mixture control to the idle-
cutoff position. The fuel supply is stopped, and all of the fuel in the intake manifold and cylinders is
consumed. This greatly reduces the risk of an inadvertent engine start if the propeller is rotated by hand.

Lean best power and rich best power refer to mixture settings that provide the maximum speed or manifold
pressure for a given throttle position. The same engine performance is provided across the range, with a
lean best power setting using slightly less fuel than a rich best power setting.

Best economy refers to the mixture ratio that develops the greatest amount of engine power for the least amount of
fuel flow. This position is determined differently depending on aircraft instrumentation. The most
common method is to slowly pull the mixture control aft until exhaust gas temperature and engine
speed peak.
Although this setting provides the best fuel economy, it could result in engine overheating if
used for extended periods of time. Most engine manufacturers recommend using the best
power mixture settings for normal operations.
Definitions
i. Fractional distillation. - Procedure used for separating various components from a physical mixture of liquids.
Crude oil is a mixture of many different types of hydrocarbon fuels which can be
separated by carefully raising its temperature. The first products to be released, those
having the lowest boiling points, are some of the gaseous fuels; next are gasoline,
kerosene, diesel fuel, heavy fuel oils, lubricating oils, and finally, tar and asphalt.

ii. fuel-air mixture ratio. -The ratio of the weight of the air to that of the fuel in the mixture fed into the cylinders
of an engine.
iii. Stoichiometric mixture. The fuel-air mixture ratio that, when burned, leaves no uncombined oxygen nor anyfree
carbon. It releases the maximum amount of heat, and therefore produces the highest
exhaust gas temperature. A stoichiometric mixture of gasoline and air contains 15
pounds of air for I pound of gasoline.
iv. Thermal efficiency.- The ratio of the amount of useful work produced by a heat engine to the amount of work
that could be done by the fuel that was burned.
v. British thermal unit (Btu).- The amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of one pound of pure
water from 60°F to 61°F.
vi. Brake horsepower (BHP). -The horsepower actually delivered by a reciprocating engine to its output shaft.
BHP is actually the useful horsepower.

3.5.0 Relationship between fuel/-air mixture ratio, exhaust gas temperature, engine economy, and
engine power

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3.5.1 Exhaust Gas Temperature
Use an EGT gauge to make accurate adjustments to the mixture ratio, since a rich mixture reduces the
engine exhaust gas temperature, whilst a weak mixture increases it. Only carry out mixture adjustments
using the exhaust gas temperature below 75% power and in the cruise.

The dial of a typical exhaust gas temperature indicator (EGT). The actual temperature is not as important as the
trend in the temperature changes as the mixture is changed.

The thermo-couple principle is used to measure EGT, which does not require power to operate. Two dissimilar
metals are welded together at the ends. When heated, the voltage induced is proportional to the temperature
difference between the two ends. The voltage is in millivolts and varies with the metals used. The hot end is fitted
where the temperature is to be sensed; the other end, known as the cold end, is exposed to normal temperature.

4.00 Fuel/air mixture combustion defects (anomalies)

During normal combustion, the fuel/air mixture burns in a controlled and predictable way. The action occurs in a
fraction of a second: a spark plug ignites the mixture and it evenly burns outward until all of the fuel is consumed

a) Flame Rate
This is the rate at which the flame front moves through the fuel and air mixture and is most rapid at the
best power setting, falling off substantially either side of this setting. Too weak a mixture results in a
slow flame rate. Therefore, the mixture is still burning when the inlet valve opens. This ignites the
mixture in the inlet manifold and results in a backfire.

The flame spread across the cylinder should be even and uniform. If the fuel is not sufficiently resistant to
detonation, at a temperature and pressure critical to the fuel, spontaneous combustion occurs with a very
high flame rate of approximately 1000 ft/sec as opposed to the normal flame rate of appr. 60-80 ft/sec. Since
this occurs with such rapidity, there is an audible explosion referred to as knock or pinking, which is not
normally heard inside the aircraft due to engine noise.

b) The anomalies include;

 Detonation
 Pre-ignition
 backfiring
 after-firing
i. Detonation is the uncontrolled, explosive ignition of the fuel/air mixture in a cylinder. Detonation induces high
cylinder temperatures and pressures, which cause the engine to run rough, overheat, and lose power.
Detonation is destructive and causes the failure of pistons, cylinders, and valves. Operating an aircraft an
excessively lean mixture or gasoline with a lower than specified octane rating results in detonation.

ii. Pre-ignition is the early burning of the fuel/air mixture caused by a hot spot in the cylinder, not by the
normal ignition spark.
Common hotspots include;
 carbon particles,
 overheated valve edges,
 silica deposits on a spark plug, or
 faulty spark plug electrodes.
Hot spots typically result from poor engine cooling, dirty induction filters, or improper shutdown

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 procedures. If an engine continues running after the ignition is turned off, preignition might be the cause.

Nb: Detonation and pre-ignition can occur simultaneously, and one may even cause the other. Operationally, it is
difficult to distinguish between the two; both are destructive to an engine.

iii. Backfiring describes the fuel/air mixture burning in the induction system. An extremely lean fuel/air mixture can
burn slowly. With a slow-burning fuel/air mixture, it is possible for the fuel mixture to remain burning when the intake
valve opens for the next cycle. As the next fuel/air charge enters the cylinder, it is ignited before the intake valve closes
and the fuel burns within the induction manifold fuel metering unit, and induction air filter.

iv. After-firing is the burning of fuel in the exhaust system. In most cases, afterfiring is the result of an excessively rich
fuel/air mixture. The relative lack of oxygen causes the mixture to burn slowly; unburned fuel mixes with air in the
exhaust system and ignites. This may cause flames to appear out of the exhaust stacks.

B) Reciprocating Engine Fuel Metering Systems

Float Carburetors
 Main metering system
 Main air bleed
 Airflow regulation
 Idling system
 Acceleration system
 Mixture control system
 Power enrichment or economizer system
 Service and maintenance of float carburetors
 Run-up and idle adjustment
1.00 Purpose
The basic purpose of a fuel metering system is to measure the amount of air entering the engine and
to meter into this air the correct amount of fuel for the type of operation being conducted. The liquid
gasoline must then be vaporized, mixed with the air, and uniformly distributed to the various
cylinders.

1.1 Functions
An aircraft reciprocating engine fuel metering system must perform a number of functions vital to the operation
of the engine. Some of these functions are:
• Measure the amount of air entering the engine.
• Meter into this air the correct amount of atomized liquid gasoline.
• Convert the liquid gasoline into gasoline vapors and distribute them uniformly to all cylinders.
• Provide a constant fuel-air mixture ratio with changes in air density and volume.
• Provide an overly rich mixture when the engine is operating at peak power to remove some of the
excessive heat.
• Provide a temporarily rich mixture when the engine is rapidly accelerated.
• Provide for effective fuel metering when the engine is idling and the airflow through the carburetor is not
sufficient for normal metering.

2.00 Carburetors - Carburetors are classified as;

 updraft
 side-draft or
 downdraft
depending on the direction air flows through the device. Most carburetors are the updraft type. All carburetors
meter fuel and atomize it into the air to make a combustible mixture.
In theory, the fuel/air mixture reaching each cylinder is identical in volume and composition. In reality, both the
volume and composition vary because of the different distances traveled through the induction manifold and
pressures exerted by the exhaust system.

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2.1.0 Carburetor venturi principles
All carburetors depend on the differential pressure created by a venturi to meter the proper amount of fuel for a
volume of air.
Operation
When air flows through a venturi, its speed increases while both pressure and temperature decrease. To control the
volume of air that passes through a venturi, all carburetors are equipped with a throttle valve. The throttle valve
(or butterfly valve) is a pilot-controllable restrictor plate installed between the venturi and the engine.
When the throttle valve is fully opened (parallel to the airflow), the maximum volume of air and fuel enter the
engine. In this case, the only component that limits the volume of air entering the engine is the venturi. However, as
the throttle valve is moved to its closed position (perpendicular to the airflow) less air is admitted and engine power
is reduced.

When the throttle valve is parallel to the airflow, the maximum volume of air and fuel enters the engine. When
the throttle valve is near perpendicular to the airflow, less air and fuel enter the engine.

The venturi
The size and shape of the venturi is designed for the requirements of the engine. Carburetors on similar engines might
appear to be identical, but the size of the venturi could be different. Always ensure that you are installing the correct
device on an engine.

2.00 Float-Type Carburetors

The float-type carburetor is named after the component used to regulate the fuel that enters the carburetor.
Float carburetors are essentially fuel metering devices that utilize a float actuated needle valve to maintain a
fuel supply level slightly below the edge of a fuel discharge nozzle

The examples used are;

 the Marvel-Schebler MA4-5 carburetor used on engines in the 200 horsepower range, and
 the Bendix NAS-3 carburetor used on engines up to about 100 horsepower.
 The Marvel-Schebler carburetor has both a main and a boost venturi, and the smaller Bendix carburetor has
only a single main venturi.
Operation
Fuel is stored in a float chamber, the amount controlled by a float-operated needle valve installed in the fuel inlet.
As fuel enters the chamber, the float rises and the needle valve begins to close. After the fuel reaches an established
level, the position of the float completely closes the needle valve and the flow of fuel stops. As the volume of fuel
changes in a float chamber, the volume of air also changes. A vent maintains ambient pressure in the float chamber
as the fuel level rises and falls. All float chambers are vented to ambient pressure.

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Float carburetors store a quantity of fuel in a float chamber. The amount of fuel in the float chamber is
controlled by a float-actuated needle valve.

The carburetor float is typically constructed of brass or a composite material. Brass floats are hollow, and the air sealed
inside provides buoyancy. A composite float can be hollow or solid. When the float solid, air trapped in the pores of the
composite material provides buoyancy.

2.20 Simple float carburetor

The constituent parts of a simple float carburetor are the float chamber, main jet, venturi (also referred to as the choke),
and throttle valve

2.21Essential Parts of a Carburetor

The carburetor consists essentially of a main air passage through which the engine draws its supply of air,
mechanisms to control the quantity of fuel discharged in relation to the flow of air, and a means for regulating
the quantity of F/A mixture delivered to the engine cylinders.

The essential parts of a float-type carburetor are ;

a. the float mechanism and its chamber,
b. the strainer,
c. the main metering system,
d. the idling system,
e. the economizer (or power enrichment) system,
f. the accelerating system, and
g. the mixture control system.

12
 Float and needle valve mechanism in a carburetor

In the float-type carburetor, atmospheric pressure in the fuel chamber forces fuel from the discharge nozzle when the
pressure is reduced at the venturi tube. The intake stroke of the piston reduces the pressure in the engine cylinder,
thus causing air to flow through the intake manifold to the cylinder.
Thus flow of air passes through the venturi of the carburetor and causes the reduction of pressure in the venturi
which, in turn, causes the fuel to be sprayed from the discharge nozzle.

Throttle valve.
Float Mechanism
the float in a carburetor is designed to control the level of fuel in the float chamber. This fuel level must be
maintained slightly below the discharge-nozzle outlet holes to provide the correct amount of fuel flow and to prevent
leakage of fuel from the nozzle when the engine is not running.

The arrangement of a float mechanism in relation to the discharge nozzle is shown above. Note that the float is
attached to a lever which is pivoted and that one end of the lever is engaged with the float needle valve. When the
float rises, the needle valve closes and stops the flow of fuel into the chamber. At this point, the fuel level is correct
for proper operation of the carburetor, provided that the needle
valve seat is at the correct level.
A needle and a seat
The float valve mechanism includes a needle and a seat. The needle valve is constructed of hardened steel, or it
may have a synthetic-rubber section which fits the seat. The needle seat is usually made of bronze.
There must be a good fit between the needle and seat to prevent fuel leakage and overflow from the discharge
nozzle.
During operation of the carburetor, the float assumes a position slightly below its highest level, to allow a valve
opening sufficient for replacement of the fuel as it is drawn out through the discharge nozzle.
If the fuel level in the float chamber is too high, the mixture will be rich; if the fuel is too low, the mixture will
be lean.
To adjust the fuel level for the carburetor shown in above; washers are placed under the float needle seat. If the
fuel level (float level) needs to be raised, washers are removed from under the seat. If the level needs to be lowered,
washers are added. The specifications for the float level are given in the manufacturer's overhaul manual.
Nb: For some carburetors, the float level is adjusted by bending the float arm.

13
Fuel Strainer
In most carburetors, the fuel supply must first enter a strainer chamber, where it passes through a strainer screen.
The strainer consists of a fine wire mesh or other type of filtering device, cone-shaped or cylindrically shaped,
located so that it will intercept any dirt particles which might clog the needle valve opening or, later, the metering
jets. The strainer is usually removable so that it can be taken out and thoroughly drained and flushed.
A typical strainer is shown below

Carburetor fuel strainer.

2.30 CARBURETOR SYSTEMS
To provide an engine with the necessary fuel for proper operation under various engine load speeds, and air densities, most
carburetors include the following five systems:
 Main metering
 Idling
 Idle cut off
 Mixture control
 Accelerating
 Power enrichment or economizer
The construction and principle of operation of each of these systems varies depending on the type of carburetor.
The following topics describe each system in relation to its use in float-type and pressure-injection carburetors.

2.31 Main Metering System

The main metering system supplies fuel to the engine at all speeds above idling and consists of:
a) A venturi.
b) A main metering jet.
c) A main discharge nozzle.
d) A passage leading to the idling system.
e) The throttle valve.

Since the throttle valve controls the mass airflow through the carburetor venturi it must be considered a major unit
in the main metering system as well as in other carburetor systems. A typical main metering system is illustrated in
below

Main metering system.

14
2.32 Functions - The three functions of the main metering system are to;
a) proportion the F/A mixture,
b) decrease the pressure at the discharge nozzle, and
c) control the airflow at full throttle.

2.33 Carburetor venturi - The venturi performs three functions:

a) Proportions the fuel/air mixture,
b) decreases the pressure at the discharge nozzle, and
c) limits the airflow at full throttle.
Discharge nozzle
The fuel discharge nozzle is located in the carburetor barrel so that its open end is in the throat or narrowest part of the
venturi.

Metering orifice, or jet

A main metering orifice, or jet, is placed in the fuel passage between the float chamber and the discharge nozzle to limit
the fuel flow when the throttle valve is wide open.

2.33 Operation
The airflow through an opening of fixed size and the fuel flow through an air-bleed jet system respond to variations
of pressure in approximately equal proportions. If the discharge nozzle of the air-bleed system is located in the center
of the venturi, so that both the air-bleed nozzle and the venturi are exposed to the suction of the engine in the same degree,
it is possible to maintain an approximately uniform mixture of fuel and air throughout the power range of engine
operations.

The primary components of the main metering system of a float carburetor include one or more venturi tubes,
a metering jet and discharge nozzle, and a throttle valve
Main metering system in a carburetor.
2.34 Fuel metering
Fuel metering begins at the venturi. In some carburetors, a single venturi is insufficient to create an adequate pressure drop
to meter fuel. In this case, a boost venturi is installed forward of the primary venturi.
The discharge nozzle delivers fuel from the float chamber to the intake air. For an engine at rest, the fuel in the discharge
nozzle is even with the level in the float chamber.
In most cases, the fuel level is approximately 1/8 inch below the opening of the discharge nozzle. This distance is referred
to as the fuel metering head and is designed to prevent fuel from leaking from the carburetor when the engine is not
operating.
The discharge nozzle transfers fuel based on the differential pressure between air in the venture and float chamber.
For example, when no air flows through the venturi, the pressure in the float chamber and venturi are the same. However,
when air flows through the venturi, pressure decreases. Differential air pressure causes fuel to flow through the discharge
nozzle into the airstream.
The size of the pressure differential determines the amount of fuel transferred.However, the maximum amount of fuel that
can flow through the discharge nozzle is limited by the size of the main metering jet.
A pressure differential of at least 0.5 in. Hg. is typically required to raise the fuel past the fuel metering head. At
high power settings, the pressure differential is sufficient to ensure a continuous flow of fuel. However, at low
power settings, the pressure differential is marginal and surface tension may hinder fuel delivery. Surface tension is
a physical property of fluids created by molecular cohesion.

15
 Location of air-bleed system and main discharge
Fig. 6-27
This is illustrated in Fig. 6-27, which shows the air-bleed principle and the fuel level of the float chamber in a typical
carburetor. If the main air bleed of a carburetor should become restricted or clogged, the F/A mixture would be excessively
rich because more of the available suction

Main air-bleed system

In a carburetor, a small air bleed is led into the fuel nozzle slightly below the fuel level. The open end of the air
bleed is in the space behind the venturi wall, where the air is relatively motionless and approximately at atmospheric
pressure.
The low pressure at the tip of the nozzle not only draws fuel from the float chamber but also draws air from behind
the venturi.
Air bled into the main metering fuel system decreases the fuel density and destroys surface tension. This results in
better vaporization and control of fuel discharge, especially at lower engine speeds.

Operation
An air bleed serves more functions than just maintaining a constant fuel-air mixture ratio above high idle.
The air introduced as bubbles into the fuel upstream of the discharge nozzle outlet decreases the density
of the fuel and makes it easier for the low pressure to pull fuel from the nozzle.
This decrease allows a more realistic venturi pressure drop to initiate fuel flow by the time the idle system
is phasing out. The fuel-air emulsion provides a large fuel surface area for rapid vaporization.

Throttle, or butterfly valve

The throttle, or butterfly valve, is located in the carburetor barrel near one end of the venturi. It provides a means of
controlling engine speed or power output by regulating the airflow to the engine.
This valve is a disk which can rotate on an axis, so that it can be turned to open or close the carburetor air passage.
Where more than one throttle valve is necessary, they may be attached to the same throttle shaft or to separate shafts
In the latter case, it is necessary to check the uniformity of opening or synchronization.

Idling System

With the throttle valve closed at idling speeds, air velocity through the venturi is so low that it cannot draw enough
fuel from the main discharge nozzle; in fact, the spray of fuel may stop altogether. However, low pressure (piston
suction) exists on the engine side of the throttle valve. In order to allow the engine to idle, a fuel passageway is
incorporated to discharge fuel from an opening in the low pressure area near the edge of the throttle valve.
This opening is called the idling jet. With the throttle open enough so that the main discharge nozzle is operating,
fuel does not flow out of the idling jet.
As soon as the throttle is closed far enough to stop the spray from the main discharge nozzle, fuel flows out the
idling jet.

16
Function
This idling system delivers fuel only when the throttle valve is nearly closed and the engine is running slowly. An idle
cutoff valve stops the flow of fuel through this idling system on some carburetors, and this is used for stopping the
engine.
The idle air bleed
A separate air bleed, known as the idle air bleed, is included as part of the idling system. It functions the same as
the main air bleed.
An idle mixture adjusting device is also incorporated. A typical idling system is illustrated in Fig.below

Idling system.

Controls for adjusting the idle RPM and mixture on a typical float carburetor.

2.40 Acceleration System

When a throttle valve opens rapidly, airflow through the carburetor increases before the discharge nozzle provides
the necessary corresponding increase in fuel flow. This delay causes a sudden, momentary leaning of the fuel/air
mixture, which results in the engine hesitating before accelerating. Acceleration system to prevents this.
A quick, supplemental charge of fuel is provided to the carburetor until the discharge nozzle can deliver fuel at a rate
proportional to the airflow.

17
2.41 Types of acceleration systems
Two commonly used acceleration systems are;
 the acceleration well and
 the accelerator pump.
Acceleration Well
The simplest acceleration system has an annular chamber around the main discharge nozzle. If an engine is
running at a steady speed, a small volume of fuel is stored in this acceleration well.
When the throttle valve is opened rapidly, the fuel from the well is drawn into the venturi to provide sufficient
fuel for smooth operation until the main metering system can meet demand. [Fig. 7-30] below

An acceleration well consists of an annular chamber that stores a charge of fuel around the main discharge nozzle. With this
type of system, when the throttle is advanced rapidly, the fuel in the acceleration well is discharged into the airstream,
temporarily enriching the mixture.

Accelerator Pump
The accelerator pump consists of a piston (typically a leather packing and a spring) in a fuel-filled chamber.
The pump is linked to the throttle control. When the throttle valve is closed, the movement of the accelerator pump
causes the pump chamber to fill with fuel. When the throttle valve opens rapidly,the piston forces fuel past a
check valve, discharging it into the airstream. [Fig. 7-31]

Fig. 7-31. On carburetors equipped with an accelerator pump, rapid throttle advance causes an accelerator pump piston
to force stored fuel into the airstream through a dedicated discharge nozzle

2.50 Mixture Control

The mixture control system provides the pilot with a method of adjusting the mixture supplied to an engine. Inside
of a carburetor the fuel available to the main metering jet can be controlled with a variable orifice or by back suction
Some carburetors also include an automatic mixture control.

Types

18
The three types of mixture control are commonly employed in carburetors
 Needle type
 Back suction
 Airport type mixture controls
Variable Orifice Mixture Control
In a variable orifice mixture control system, the mixture control is attached to a valve in the float chamber to control
the size of a passage between the float chamber and the main metering jet.
Some carburetors use a needle valve while others use a step-cut rotary valve. In either case, the valve is installed in
series with the main fuel metering jet. (Fig. 7-28)

When the mixture control valve is in the idle-cutoff position, no fuel flows to the main metering jet. When the valve
is in the full rich position, the amount of fuel available to the engine is restricted only by the main metering jet.
Between those positions, the valve controls the amount of fuel that can flow to the discharge nozzle

Back Suction Mixture Control

In a back suction mixture control system, differential pressure controls fuel delivered to the discharge nozzle. The
mixture control is attached to a valve in the carburetor that changes how and where the fuel float chamber is vented.
[Fig. 7-29] below

[Fig. 7-29] Back suction mixture control

A back-suction mixture control varies the mixture ratio by controlling the pressure of air above the fuel in the float
bowl.
Operation
Depending on the position of the valve, the float chamber is vented to either the atmosphere or a low pressure area
in the venturi, or a combination of the two.
When the mixture control is in the full rich position, the float chamber is fully vented to the atmosphere. This
venting creates the largest possible pressure differential between the float chamber and discharge nozzle, which
permits the greatest flow of fuel to flow to the discharge nozzle.
When the mixture control is placed in the idle cutoff position, the float chamber is vented to low pressure air in the
venturi. This venting eliminates any pressure differential between the float chamber and the discharge nozzle, which

19
stops fuel flow. When the mixture control is placed in an intermediate position, the float chamber is vented to a
combination of the atmospheric and venture air.
The differential of the resultant air pressure to pressure in the venturi controls the amount of fuel through the
discharge nozzle.

Needle-type mixture control system

With the needle-type system, manual control is provided by a needle valve in the base of the float chamber (fig. 311)
This can be raised or lowered by adjusting a control in the cockpit. Moving the control to "rich" opens the needle
valve wide, which permits the fuel to flow unrestricted to the nozzle. Moving the control to "lean" closes the valve
part way and restricts the flow of fuel to the nozzle.

(fig. 3-11). Needle-type mixture control system

Automatic Mixture Control
An automatic mixture control system(AMC) is a system that continuously adjusts the fuel/air mixture during flight.
With this system, the mixture is leaned as the aircraft climbs, enriched as the aircraft descends, and otherwise
adjusted for normal changes in atmospheric pressure during flight.
An automatic mixture control (AMC) system uses a sealed bellows (beryllium copper) to actuate a variable orifice
or back-suction valve. As atmospheric pressure decreases (such as during a climb), the bellows expands, which
leans the fuel/air mixture. When atmospheric pressure increases (such as during a descent), the bellows contracts,
which richens the fuel/air mixture.

AMC systems may be operated on the back-suction principle and the needle valve principle or by throttling the air
intake to the carburetor through a system of mechanical linkage. In the latter type of AMC, the control regulates
power output within certain limits in addition to exercising its function as a mixture control.

ln AMC systems operating on the back-suction and needle valve principles, the control may be directly operated by
the expansion and contraction of a pressure-sensitive evacuated bellows through a system of mechanical linkage.
This is the simplest form of AMC and is generally found to be accurate, reliable, and easy to maintain. Some
mixture control valves, such as the one illustrated in Fig. 6,

AMC in operation - fig 6

20
 AMC mechanism
Are operated by a sealed bellows in a compartment vented to the atmosphere; therefore, the fuel flow is proportional
to the atmospheric pressure. Fig. 6 shows the bellows type of mixture control valve installed on a carburetor as a back-
suction control device.

AMC Operation
As atmospheric pressure decreases, the bellows will expand and begin to close the opening into the fuel chamber.
This will cause a reduction of pressure in the chamber, resulting in a decreased flow of fuel from the discharge
nozzle. In some systems equipped with external superchargers (not illustrated here), both the fuel chamber and the
bellows may be vented to the carburetor intake to obtain the correct mixtures of fuel and air.
Automatic controls often have more than one setting in order to obtain the correct mixtures for cruising and high
speed operation. In addition to the automatic control feature, there is usually a provision for manual control if the
automatic control fails.

Idle Cutoff
The term "idle cutoff" describes the position of certain mixture controls in which the control is enabled to stop the
flow of fuel into the intake airstream.
Some float-type carburetors and the majority of pressure-type carburetors incorporate the IDLE CUTOFF position
in the mixture control system.

Operation
Essentially, the idle cutoff system stops the flow of fuel from the discharge nozzle and is therefore used to stop the
engine. This provides an important safety factor, because it eliminates the combustible mixture in the intake
manifold and prevents the engine from firing as a result of a hot spot in one or more cylinders. In some cases,
engines which have been stopped by turning off the ignition switch have kicked over after stopping, thus creating a
hazard to someone who may move the propeller.
In an engine equipped with the idle cutoff feature, the engine ignition switch is turned off after the engine is first
stopped by means of moving the mixture control to the idle cutoff position.
This procedure also eliminates the possibility of unburned fuel entering the cylinder and washing the oil film from
the cylinder walls.

2.60 Economizer System

This system, like the accelerating system, is operated by the throttle control.
An economizer, or power enrichment system, is essentially a valve which is closed at low engine and cruising
speeds (below appr. 60 to 70% of rated power) but is opened at high speeds to provide an enriched mixture to
reduce burning temperatures and prevent detonation.
In other words, this system supplies and regulates the additional fuel required for all speeds above the cruising range
An economizer is also a device for enriching the mixture at increased throttle settings.

Nb: i. It is important, however, that the economizer close properly at cruising speed: otherwise, the engine may
operate satisfactorily at full throttle but will "load up" at and below cruising speed because of the extra fuel being
fed into the system. The extra-rich condition is indicated by rough running and by black smoke emanating from the
exhaust
ii. For an engine to develop maximum power at full throttle, the fuel mixture must be richer than for cruise. The
additional fuel is used for cooling the engine to prevent detonation

Types of economizers
The three types of economizers for float-type carburetors are the;
a) needle valve type,
b) piston type, and
c) MAP operated type.

a) Needle valve economizer

A typical economizer system, as shown in fig. 3-4, consists of a needle valve which begins to open when the throttle
valve reaches a predetermined point near the wide-open position. As the throttle continues to open, the needle valve

21
is opened further and additional fuel flows through it. This additional fuel supplements the flow from the main
metering jet direct to the main discharge nozzle

Needle valve economizer

This mechanism utilizes a needle valve which is opened by the throttle linkage at a predetermined throttle position

b) Piston type economizer

Pressure-operated economizer
A pressure-operated economizer system is shown in fig. 3-1. This type has a sealed bellows located in an enclosed
compartment. The compartment is vented to engine manifold pressure. When the manifold pressure reaches a certain
value, the bellows is compressed and opens a valve in a carburetor fuel passage, supplementing the normal quantity
of fuel being discharged through the main nozzle

fig. 3-1 Pressure-operated economizer system

Back-suction economizer
Another type of economizer is the back-suction system shown in fig. 3-16. Fuel economy in cruising is provided by
reducing the effective pressure acting on the fuel level in the float compartment.
With the throttle valve in cruising position, suction is applied to the float chamber through an economizer hole and
back-suction economizer channel and jet.

22
The suction thus applied to the float chamber opposes the nozzle suction applied by the venturi. Fuel flow is
reduced, thus leaning the mixture for cruising economy.

fig. 3-16 back-suction system

Pressure Carburetors - Bendix PS Pressure Carburetors
 Main Metering System
 Idling System
 Acceleration System
 Mixture Control System
 Power-Enrichment System
 Pressure Carburetor Installation and Maintenance
 Run-up and Idle Adjustment

1.10 PRESSURE INJECTION CARBURETORS

Pressure injection carburetors are distinctly different from float-type carburetors, as they do not incorporate a
vented float chamber or suction pickup from a discharge nozzle located in the venturi tube.
Instead, they provide a pressurized fuel system that is closed from the engine fuel pump to the discharge nozzle.
The venturi serves only to create pressure differentials for controlling the quantity of fuel to the metering jet in
proportion to airflow to the engine.
1.10 Principle of the pressure injection carburetor
The basic principle of the pressure injection carburetor can be explained briefly by stating that mass airflow is
utilized to regulate the pressure of fuel to a metering system which in turn governs the fuel flow.
The carburetor therefore increases fuel flow in proportion to mass airflow and maintains a correct F/A ratio in
accordance with the throttle and mixture settings of the carburetor.

23
 Fig. 6 Simplified diagram of a pressure injection carburetor.
1.20 Operation
The fundamental operation of pressure injection carburetor may be illustrated by simplified diagram in Fig. 6 above.
When air passes through the carburetor to the engine, the pressure on the right of the diaphragm is lowered because
of the drop in pressure at the venturi throat. As a result, the diaphragm moves to the right, opening the fuel valve.
Pressure from the engine-driven pump then forces fuel through the open valve to the discharge nozzle, where it
sprays into the airstream. The distance the fuel valve opens is determined by the difference between the two
pressures acting on the diaphragm. This difference in pressure is proportional to the airflow through the carburetor.
Thus, the volume of airflow determines the rate of fuel discharge.
1.30 Typical Injection Carburetor
The injection carburetor is a hydro-mechanical device employing a closed feed system from the fuel pump to the
discharge nozzle. It meters fuel through fixed jets according to the mass airflow through the throttle body and
discharges it under a positive pressure.

The pressure injection carburetor is an assembly of the following units::

a) Throttle body.
b) Automatic mixture control.
c) Regulator unit.
d) Fuel control unit; some are equipped with an adapter.
a) Throttle Body - The throttle body contains the ;
 throttle valves,
 main venturi,
 boost venturi, and
 the impact tubes.
All air entering the cylinders must flow throttle body; therefore, it is the air control and measuring device. The
airflow is measured by volume and by weight so that the proper amount of fuel can be added to meet the engine
demands under all conditions
Operation
As air flows through the venturis, its velocity is increased and its pressure is decreased (Bernoulli's principle) This
low pressure is vented to the low pressure side of the air diaphragm (chamber B, fig. 3-18), in the regulator assembly.
The impact tubes sense carburetor inlet air pressure and direct it to the automatic mixture control, which measures
the air density. From the automatic mixture control the air is directed to the high-pressure side of the air diaphragm
(chamber A).
The pressure differential of the two chambers acting upon the air diaphragm is known as the air metering force
which opens the fuel poppet valve.
The throttle body controls the airflow with the throttle valves. The throttle valves may be either rectangular or disk
shaped, depending on the design of the carburetor. The valves are mounted on a shaft which is connected by linkage

24
to the idle valve and to the throttle control in the cockpit. A throttle stop limits the travel of the throttle valve and
has an adjustment which sets engine idle speed
b) The regulator unit
The purpose of the regulator unit is to regulate the fuel pressure to the inlet side of the metering jets in the fuel control
unit. This pressure is automatically regulated according to the mass airflow to the engine

Fig. 3-18 Regulator Unit

The regulator (fig. 3-18) is a diaphragm-controlled unit which is divided into five chambers and contains two
regulating diaphragms and a poppet valve assembly
Regulator Chambers
 Chamber A is regulated air-inlet pressure from the air intake.
 Chamber B is boost venturi pressure.
 Chamber C contains metered fuel pressure controlled by the discharge nozzle or fuel feed valve.
 Chamber D contains unmetered fuel pressure controlled by the opening of the poppet valve.
 Chamber E is fuel pump pressure, controlled by the fuel pump pressure relief valve.

The poppet valve assembly is connected by a stem to the two main control diaphragms.The carburetor fuel strainer,
located in the inlet to chamber E, is a fine mesh screen through which all the fuel must pass as it enters chamber D. The
strainer must be removed and cleaned at scheduled intervals.

Operation
Referring to fig. 3-18, assume that for a given airflow in Ibs./hr. through the throttle body and venturi, a negative
pressure of one-fourth p.s.i. is established in chamber B. This tends to move the diaphragm assembly and the poppet
valve in a direction to open the poppet valve, permitting more fuel to enter chamber D.
The pressure in chamber C is held constant at 5 p.s.i. (10 p.s.i. on some installations) by the discharge nozzle or
impeller fuel feed valve. Therefore, the diaphragm assembly and poppet valve will move in the open direction until
the pressure in chamber D is 5-1/4 p.s.i. Under these pressures, there is a balanced condition of the diaphragm
assembly with a pressure drop of one fourth p.s.i. across the jets in the fuel control unit (auto-rich or auto-lean) .

c) Fuel Control Unit

The fuel control unit (fig. 3-19) is attached to the regulator assembly and contains all metering jets and valves. The idle
and power enrichment valves, together with the mixture control plates, select the jet combinations for the various settings,
i.e., auto-rich, auto-lean, and idle cutoff.

If nozzle pressure (chamber C pressure) rises to 5-1/2 p.s.i., the diaphragm assembly balance will be upset, and the
diaphragm assembly will move to open the poppet valve to establish the necessary 5-3/4 p.s.i. pressure in chamber D.
Thus, the one fourth p.s.i. differential between chamber C and chamber D is re-established, and the pressure drop
across the metering jets will remain the same.
If the fuel inlet pressure is increased or decreased, the fuel flow into chamber D will tend to increase or decrease with the
pressure change, causing the chamber D pressure to do likewise. This will upset the balanced condition previously
established, and the poppet valve and diaphragm assembly will respond by moving to increase or decrease the flow to re-
establish the pressure at the one-fourth p.s.i. differential.
When the mixture control plates are moved from auto-lean to auto-rich or vice versa, thereby selecting a different set of
jets or cutting one or two in or out of the system, the fuel flow changes.

25
However, when the mixture position is altered, the diaphragm and poppet valve assembly will reposition to maintain the
established pressure differential of one-fourth p.s.i. between chambers C and D, maintaining the established differential
across the jets.
Under low-power settings (low airflows), the difference in pressure created by the boost venturi is not sufficient to
accomplish consistent regulation of the fuel. Therefore, an idle spring, shown in figure 3-18, is incorporated in the
regulator. As the poppet valve moves toward the closed position, it contacts the idle spring. The spring holds the poppet
valve off its seat far enough to provide more fuel than is needed for idling. This potentially over-rich mixture is regulated
by the idle valve. At idling speed the idle valve restricts the fuel flow to the proper amount. At higher speeds it is
withdrawn from the fuel passage and has no metering effect.
Vapor vent systems are provided in these carbu

Simplified x-section diagram of a pressure injection carburetor

1.40 Types of Pressure Injection Carburetors

A number of different types of pressure injection carburetors have been manufactured, the majority
having been developed by the Energy Controls Division of the Bendix Corporation. Models have been
manufactured for almost all sizes of reciprocating engines.

 The carburetor for small engines has a single venturi in a single barrel and is designated by the
letters PS, meaning a pressure-type single-barrel carburetor.
 A pressure carburetor for larger engines has a double barrel with boost venturis and is
designated by the letters PD (for pressure-type, double-barrel).
 The triple-barrel carburetor is designated by the letters PT, and the rectangular-barrel
carburetor is designated PR.
2.00 Anti-detonation Injection Systems ATER INJECTION
Water injection systems (also called anti-detonation injection or ADI) were common on large reciprocating engines with
pressure-injection carburetors.
The system enabled an engine to produce maximum power without detonation or preignition. With a typical ADI system,
water and alcohol were injected into the carburetor to modify the fuel/air mixture to prevent detonation.

On these large reciprocating engines, the carburetor is normally adjusted to provide a somewhat rich fuel/air mixture for
high power operations. The extra fuel helps cool the engine and reduce the potential for detonation. The richer fuel/air
mixture does not enable an engine to produce its maximum power. When an ADI system is installed, the fuel/air mixture
can be leaned to enable an engine to produce maximum power.

Water injection, also called anti-detonant injection (ADI), is the use of water. With the F/A mixture to provide
cooling for the mixture and the cylinders so that additional power can be drawn from the engine without danger of
detonation.

26
Constituents
Instead of using pure water for the ADI system, it is necessary to use a water-alcohol mixture (methanol) with a
small amount of water-soluble oil added.
Water-alcohol mixture (methanol
The alcohol prevents freezing of the water during cold weather and at high altitudes.
Water-soluble oil
The water-soluble oil is added to prevent the corrosion which would occur in the units of the system if they lacked
oil.
The water-alcohol-oil mixture is called anti-detonant injection fluid, or simply ADI fluid. In servicing the ADI
system, the technician must be sure that the correct mixture of fluid components is used. This information is
contained in the manufacturer's service instructions.
Advantages of anti-detonant injection

It is often necessary to use the maximum power which an engine can produce, such as for taking off from short fields and
for go-arounds. A "dry" engine-that is, one without water injection-is limited in its power output by the detonation which
results when operating limits are exceeded.
The injection of water into the F/A mixture has the same effect as the addition of antiknock compounds in that it permits
the engine to deliver greater power without danger of detonation.

The average engine operating without water injection requires a rich mixture of approximately 10 parts air to 1 part
fuel by weight (F/A ratio of 0.10). With this mixture, a portion of the fuel is unburned and acts as a cooling agent.
The additional unburned fuel subtracts from the power of the engine. But when water is added to the F/A mixture in
proper quantities, the power of the engine can be increased.
The water cools the F/A mixture, thus permitting a higher manifold pressure to be used. In addition, the F/A ratio can be
reduced to the rich best-power mixture, thus deriving greater power from the fuel consumed. When water injection
is employed, the F/A ratio can be reduced to approximately 0.08, which is a much more efficient mixture than the 0.10
ratio required otherwise. The use of water injection permits an increase of 8-15 % in takeoff horsepower

The equipment required for water injection includes a;

 storage tank,
 a pump,
 a water regulator,
 a derichment valve, and
 necessary circuits and controls.

FIG.58 Schematic diagram of water-alcohol (ADI) regulator

27
Principles of Operation

The water-alcohol (W/A) regulator is the unit which makes possible the injection of ADI fluid into the fuel at the
fuel feed valve in a quantity which ensures a correct volume of the W I A mixture.
If too much of the ADI fluid was injected, the cooling effect would reduce the power of the engine. If insufficient
ADI fluid were injected, the engine would overheat and detonation would occur. Fig.58 represents one particular
type of WIA regulator,

This regulator includes three diaphragm-operated valves.

 These are the metering pressure control valve,
 the check valve, and
 the WIA enrichment valve.
The metering pressure control valve is operated by application of chamber D (unmetered) fuel pressure from the
carburetor to one side of the diaphragm and WI A pump pressure to the opposite side. When the pilot turns on the
ADI switch in the cockpit, ADI fluid flows from the pump to the regulator. The metering pressure control valve will
be open because of the unmetered fuel pressure applied to the valve diaphragm. When pump pressure builds up to
the level of unmetered fuel pressure, the valve will begin to close.
The check valve is normally closed when the system is not operating; however, it will begin to open slowly when
pump pressure is applied to the diaphragm. The valve cannot open immediately because of the delay bleed. The
delay bleed provides time for the de-richment valve to close before the ADI fluid starts to discharge into the fuel
feed valve.

When the system is not operating, the fuel backs up into the WI A feed line. Therefore, when the system
is turned on, fuel will be the first substance injected into the fuel feed valve.

If the carburetor is set for takeoff at FULL RICH or EMERGENCY RICH and additional fuel is injected
from the WIA line, the over-rich mixture will cause the engine to lose power and there will be a definite
hesitation in the operation of the engine. The use of delay bleeds with the check valve prevents this
situation because the derichment valve closes and leans the mixture before the extra fuel is injected from
the WIA feed line.
Because of the leaner mixture caused by the derichment valve, the extra fuel injected from the WIA line
does not enrich the FIA mixture sufficiently to cause engine hesitation.
The W/A enrichment valve modifies the flow of ADI fluid in connection with the main WIA jet. This
valve is closed when the system is not operating. The operation of the ADI system is initiated when the
pilot turns on the ADI control switch in the cockpit. This switch is in series with a pressure switch
operated by engine oil pressure or MAP; the engine must therefore be operating at a comparatively high
power setting before the electric power can be directed to the ADI pump. When the system is operating, a
water pressure transmitter connected to the regulator sends electric signals to the water pressure indicator
in the cockpit. Water pressure from the regulator is also directed to a pressure warning switch which
controls the water pressure warning light in the cockpit. The light is on while the system is operating.
If the ADI fluid supply should become exhausted while the system is operating, the pressure switch will
open and the warning light in the cockpit will turn off. At the same time, the derichment valve will open
and permit enrichment fuel to flow through the fuel control unit, thus providing the necessary
cooling to avoid detonation.

The ADI system is particularly advantageous under conditions of high humidity. The water vapor in
humid air displaces oxygen, so that a particular F/ A ratio will increase in richness as humidity increases.
Therefore, when an aircraft taking off is using the emergency rich mixture, high humidity will further
enrich the mixture and cause a substantial loss of power. When an aircraft takes off wet (with ADI), the
F/A ratio is set for best power and the enrichment caused by high humidity is not great enough to cause an
appreciable loss of power. The water injected into the fuel does not have an appreciable effect on the F/A
ratio because the water does not displace the oxygen in the air.

28
C - Fuel Injection Systems -- Teledyne-Continental Fuel Injection Systems
 Precision Airmotive RSA Fuel Injection System
 Main Metering System
 Idling System
 Mixture Control System
 Power-Enrichment System
 Flow Divider
 Nozzles
 Installation and Maintenance of RSA Fuel Injection Systems
 Run-up and Idle Adjustment
Teledyne-Continental Fuel-Continental, or TCM, fuel in
1.00 Fuel injection is the introduction of fuel or a fuel-air (F/A) mixture into the induction system of an
engine or into the combustion chamber of each cylinder by means of a pressure source other than the
pressure differential created by airflow through the venturi of a carburetor.
The usual pressure source is an injection pump, which comes in several types.
A fuel injection carburetor discharges the fuel into the airstream at or near the carburetor.
A fuel injection system discharges the fuel into the intake port of each cylinder just ahead of the intake
valve or directly into the combustion chamber of each cylinder.

1.20 Advantages: - Fuel injection systems have a number of advantages:

a) Freedom from vaporization icing, thus making it unnecessary to use carburetor heat except under the
most severe atmospheric conditions
b) More uniform delivery of fuel/air mixture to each cylinder
c) Improved control of fuel/air ratio
d) Reduction of maintenance problems
e) Instant acceleration of engine after idling, with no tendency to stall
f) Increased engine efficiency

1.30 Direct fuel injection system

Instead of atomizing fuel in the manifold, a fuel injection system atomizes fuel directly in each cylinder
assembly.
When fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber, the injection system is referred to as a
direct fuel injection system.
The typical direct fuel injection system is similar to a large pressure carburetor that meters the correct
amount of fuel into two multi-cylindered piston pumps.
These pumps force the metered fuel directly into the combustion chambers of the individual cylinders in
timed, high-pressure spurts. Although the system worked well, close manufacturing tolerances and
complex components made it impractical for widespread use on aircraft.

1.40 Indirect fuel injection system

A continuous-flow fuel injection system is the most common type of fuel injection system in
reciprocating aircraft engines. Instead of mixing the fuel and air in the combustion chamber, fuel is
continuously injected into each intake port.
This ensures fuel is vaporized and well-mixed with air before being drawn into the cylinder when the
intake valve opens. ·

Indirect fuel injection is often employed on aircraft piston engines, but is of the low-pressure,
continuous-flow type. In the low-pressure, continuous-flow method, fuel is sprayed continuously
into the induction pipe as close to the inlet valve as possible.

29
1.4.1Advantages of low-pressure, continuous-flow system(Indirect fuel injection)
The advantages claimed for the method are;
 low operating pressure,
 good fuel distribution,
 freedom from icing problems and
 the ability to use a pump which does not have to be timed to the operating cycle.
In the indirect injection system, the air throttle metering valve varies the pressure of fuel
according to engine speed.

Mixture strength is varied by a manually operated mixture control valve which adjusts the fuel pressure
for altitude or operating conditions as necessary. Because of the method of operation of the injector, no
special idling arrangements are required and a separate priming system for engine starting is unnecessary

The main components in the system are a; fuel pump, a fuel I air control unit, a fuel manifold
(distribution) valve, and discharge nozzles for each cylinder
In addition, a normal throttle valve controls airflow to the engine, and a fuel pressure gauge
is fitted to enable mixture adjustments to be made. The system is illustrated in Figure 10.1

a) The Fuel Pumps

The pump supplies more fuel than is required by the engine, and a recirculation path is provided.
Two pumps are provided, arranged in parallel, so that when the mechanical pump is not
operating, fuel under positive pressure from the electrical pump can by-pass the mechanical
pump, so allowing the electrical pump to be used for engine priming and starting and in an
emergency.

b) The Fuel I Air Control Unit.

This unit is mounted on the intake manifold and contains three control elements,
i. the air throttle assembly (throttle valve),
ii. the throttle metering valve (metering fuel valve) and
iii. the mixture control valve.

The air throttle assembly contains the air throttle valve, which is connected to the pilot's throttle
lever and controls airflow to the engine
The intake manifold has no Venturi or other restrictions to airflow

30
c) The fuel control unit is attached to the air throttle assembly, and controls fuel flow to the engine
by means of two valves.

One valve, the metering fuel valve, is connected to the air throttle and controls fuel flow to the
fuel manifold valve according to the position of the air throttle, thus fuel flow is proportioned to
air flow and provides the correct air/ fuel ratio

The second valve, the mixture control valve, is connected to the pilot's mixture control lever, and
bleeds off fuel pressure applied to the metering valve. Thus the air/fuel ratio can be varied from the basic
setting of the metering valve, as required by operating conditions.
A fuel pressure gauge in the system indicates metered fuel pressure, and, by suitable calibration, enables
the mixture to be adjusted according to altitude and power setting.

d) The Fuel Manifold Valve.

This valve is located on the engine crankcase, and is the central point for distributing metered fuel to the
engine. When the engine is stopped, all the outlet ports are closed, and no fuel can flow to the engine. As
fuel pressure builds up (as a result of engine rotation or booster pump operation) all the ports to the
discharge nozzles open simultaneously. A ball valve ensures that the ports are fully open before fuel starts
to flow.
e) The Discharge Nozzle
A fuel discharge nozzle is located in each cylinder head, with its outlet directed into the inlet port.
Nozzles are calibrated in several ranges, and are fitted to individual engines as a set, each nozzle
in a set having the same calibration

2.00 Typical Fuel Injection Systems

The fuel injection systems used on modern aircraft engines are not direct injection systems, but are
continuous-flow systems that deliver a low pressure continuous flow of fuel to nozzles installed in the
intake valve chambers of the cylinders, just outside the valve
Two types of continuous-flow fuel injection systems used on modern engines are the Precision
Airmotive, formerly Bendix, RSA system, and the Teledyne-Continental system
 Precision Airmotive RSA system, and
 Teledyne Continental Motors system

[Fig. 7-48]
Precision Airmotive supports two fuel metering systems (the RS and RSA system) for use in certified
airplanes.

31
The more advanced RSA system is described in this section. The RSA fuel injection system consists of
five primary components:
 a venturi housing,
 a fuel metering unit,
 a fuel regulator,
 a flow divider, and
 fuel nozzles.
Pressurized fuel flows to the fuel metering unit. The positions of the idle lever and mixture control meter
fuel to the regulator. Inside the regulator, the combination of air metering force and fuel metering force
regulates how much fuel is sent to the flow divider based on the volume of air through the
throttle body. [Fig. 7-48]

Continental Continuous-Flow Injection System

The Continental fuel injection system is a multi-nozzle, continuous-flow type which controls fuel flow to
match engine airflow. The fuel is discharged into the intake pmt of each cylinder.
Any change in air throttle position or engine speed, or a combination of both, causes changes in fuel flow
in the correct relation to engine airflow.
A manual mixture control and a pressure gauge, indicating metered fuel pressure, are provided for
precise leaning at any combination of altitude and power.
Since fuel flow is directly proportional to metered fuel pressure, the settings can be predetermined and the
fuel consumption accurately predicted. The continuous-flow system permits the use of a typical rotary-
vane fuel pump in place of a much more complex and expensive plunger-type pump. There is no need
for a timing mechanism because each cylinder draws fuel from the discharge nozzle in the intake port as
the intake valve opens.
The Continental fuel injection system consists of four basic units: the fuel injection pump, the fuel-air
control unit, the fuel manifold valve, and the fuel discharge nozzle.

Fig. 7-1 Units of the Continental fuel injection system. (Continental Motors.)
Teledyne-Continental Fuel Injection System
 Injector Pump
 Fuel-Air Control Unit
 Fuel Manifold Valve
 Injector Nozzles
 Installation and Maintenance of TCM Fuel Injection Systems
 Adjusting High and Low Unmetered Fuel Pressure
 Study Questions:
 Antidetonation Injection Systems

32
The Teledyne-Continental Fuel Injection (TCM) system has four basic components:
 the engine-driven injector pump,
 the fuel-air control unit,
 the fuel manifold valve, and
 the nozzles.
.
a) Injector Pump
The engine-driven injector pump is the heart of the TCM system. This is a vane-type constant-displacement pump
with some unique features that allow it to accomplish these functions:
• Provides fuel flow that increases with engine speed. This increase in output is modified to furnish enough fuel
when the pump turns at idling speed, yet not move too much fuel when it turns at takeoff speed.
• Removes vapors from the fuel and sends them to one of the fuel tanks.
• Incorporates a bypass valve that allows fuel from the auxiliary pump to flow to the engine for starting and for
operation should the engine-driven pump malfunction.
• Provides a regulated low pressure when the engine is idling.
• Provides a regulated high pressure when the engine is operating at high speed.

Fig. 4-28 is a simplified diagram of the TCM fuel injector pump for a naturally aspirated engine. Fuel from the
auxiliary pump enters the vapor separator tower in a swirl that spins vapors out of the liquid fuel. Vapors rise
to the top of the chamber, and then return to one of the fuel tanks.

Reciprocating Engine Induction Systems

 Naturally Aspirated Engine Induction Systems
 Alternate Air System
 Superchargers
 Internal Superchargers
 Turbosuperchargers and Turbochargers
 Turbocharger Controls
 Adjustable Bypass Restrictor
 Manually-Controlled Waste Gate
 Automatic Turbocharger Control Systems
 Teledyne-Continental Motors (TCM) System
 Textron-Lycoming Engine Turbocharger Controls

33
Reciprocating Engine Induction Systems
1.00 Reciprocating engines are classified according to their induction systems in two ways:
 naturally aspirated and
 supercharged.

1.10 Naturally Aspirated Engine Induction Systems

The induction system of a naturally aspirated, or non-supercharged, engine consists of;
 an air scoop,
 induction air filter,
 alternate air valve with a source of heat,
 fuel metering device, and
 induction pipes to the cylinders.
The air scoop is used to convert some ram air pressure from the forward motion of the aircraft into a pressure that
forces the fuel-air mixture into the cylinders. A well-designed air scoop can increase the power of an engine by
as much as 5%.CRIPTION
The complete induction system for an aircraft engine includes three principal sections:
a) the air scoop and ducting leading to the carburetor;
b) the carburetor, or air control section, of an injection system; and
c) the intake manifold and pipes.
These sections constitute the passages and controlling elements for all the air which must be supplied to
the engine. A very basic induction system is shown in Fig. 5-1.

Fig. 5-1 Basic Induction System Components

a) Air Scoop and Ducting

The ducting system for a non-supercharged (naturally aspirated) engine comprises four principal parts;
 air scoop,
 air filter,
 alternate air valve, and
 carburetor air heater, or heater muff.

A typical air scoop is simply an opening facing into the airstream. This scoop receives ram air, usually
augmented by the propeller slipstream. The effect of the air velocity is to "supercharge" (compress) the
air a small amount, thus adding to the total weight of air received by the engine.
The power increase may be as much as 5 percent. The design of the air scoop has a substantial effect on
the amount of increased power provided by ram air pressure. Ducting is made from either solid molded
parts or flexible hose used to seal and direct the intake air through the various components of the
induction system.

34
Air Filters
The induction air filter is installed at or near the air scoop, as shown in Fig. 5-l, for the purpose of removing dirt,
abrasive particles, sand, and even larger foreign materials before they are carried into the engine. Although the air
filter reduces air pressure to the carburetor to some extent, thus reducing the power output, it prevents harmful dirt
from entering the engine.
There are basically three types of induction air filters: wetted-type mesh filters, dry paper filters, and polyurethane
foam filters.

The wetted mesh filter usually consists of a mat of metal filaments encased in a frame and dipped
into oil. The oil film on the metal mesh filaments catches and holds dust and sand particles.
The dry paper-type filter is similar to an automotive air filter. It is made of a pleated layer of paper
filter elements through which the air must pass. The edges are sealed to prevent foreign material from
entering the engine.
The paper filter is usually replaced on a time-in-service basis, but if it becomes damaged or clogged,
it should be replaced immediately. A new foam-type filter has been developed for aircraft use and utilizes
polyurethane and a wetting agent.
Alternate Air Valve
The alternate air valve is designed to allow air to flow to the engine if the air filter or other parts of the induction
system should become clogged. This valve can be manually controlled from the cockpit or be automatic in its
operation.
The alternate air source used may be unfiltered warm air or outside unfiltered air.If the induction system
becomes blocked or clogged, the alternate air source is then used. The alternate air valve source is also
useful when the aircraft is flying through heavy rain; the protected air from the nacelle, being free of rain,
enables the engine to continue operation in a normal manner. Figure 5-2 shows an alternate air valve
allowing air to enter the engine.

In some cases, the alternate air valve is labeled and serves as a carburetor heat valve which allows warm
air to enter the engine's induction system to prevent carburetor ice build-up

Carburetor Heat Valve and Heater Muff

The carburetor heat air valve, shown in Fig. 5-l, is operated by means of the carburetor heat control in the
cockpit.
The valve is simply a gate which closes the main air duct and opens the duct to the heater muff when the
control is turned on. During normal operation, the gate closes the passage to the heater muff and opens the
main air duct.
The gate is often provided with a spring which tends to keep it in the normal position.
The heater muff is a shroud placed around a section of the exhaust pipe. The shroud is open at the ends to
permit air to flow into the space between the exhaust pipe and the wall of the shroud. A duct is connected
from the muff to the main air duct.

35
During operation of the carburetor air heater system, protected air within the engine compartment flows
into the space around the exhaust pipe where it is heated before being carried to the main air duct.
Note that carburetor air heat should be applied only if necessary to prevent ice formation and to keep rain
out of the carburetor. Since it is less dense than cool air, heated air results in a loss of power. For
maximum power, therefore, it is desirable that a free flow of unheated air be provided for the engine. The
use of heated air during periods of high-power operation is likely to cause detonation and will definitely
cause a reduction in engine power output.

Intake Manifolds
The typical opposed-type (or flat-type) aircraft engine has an induction system with an individual pipe
leading to each cylinder. On some models of this type, one end of each pipe is bolted to the cylinder by a
flange, and the other end fits into a slip joint in the manifold. On other models of this type, the pipes are
connected to the manifold by short sections of rubber (or synthetic rubber) hose held by clamps. In still
other models of this type, the carburetor is mounted on the oil sump and the fuel-air mixture flows from
the carburetor through passages in the oil sump and then out through each of the individual pipes leading
to the engine cylinders. As the mixture of fuel and air flows through the passages in the oil sump, heat is
transferred from the oil to the fuel-air mixture.
This arrangement accomplishes two things:
a) it cools the oil slightly, and
b) it increases the temperature of the fuel air mixture slightly for better vaporization of the fuel.

An arrangement whereby heat is applied to the fuel-air mixture by means of heated oil or through
proximity to the exhaust manifold is usually termed a hot spot.
The type of induction system used on a radial-type engine principally depends on the horsepower output
desired from the engine. On a small radial engine of low output, the air is drawn through the carburetor,
mixed with fuel in the carburetor, and then carried to the cylinders through individual intake pipes. In
some engines, an intake manifold section is made a part of the main engine structure. The fuel-air mixture
is carried from the outer edge of the manifold section to the separate engine cylinders by individual pipes,
which are connected to the engine by a slip joint.

The purpose of the slip joint is to prevent damage which would otherwise result from the expansion and
contraction caused by changes in temperature.
Importance of Gastight Seal
The portion of the intake system of an engine between the carburetor and the cylinders must be installed
gastight for proper engine operation. When the manifold absolute pressure (MAP) is below atmospheric
pressure, which is always the case with un-supercharged (naturally aspirated) engines, an air leak in the
manifold system will allow air to enter and thin the fuel-air mixture. This can cause overheating of the
engine, detonation, backfiring, or complete stoppage. Small induction system leaks will have the most
noticeable effect at low rpm because the pressure differential between the atmosphere and the inside of
the intake manifold increases as rpm decreases.

Induction System for Six-Cylinder

Opposed Engine
The principal assemblies of an induction system for a Continental engine are shown in Fig. 5-3. With this
system, ram air enters the air box at the right rear engine baffle and is

36
Induction System Icing
Induction system icing is an operating hazard because it can cut off the flow of the fuel-air charge or vary
the fuel-air ratio.
Ice can form in the induction system while an aircraft is flying in clouds, fog, rain, sleet, snow, or even
clear air that has a high moisture content (high humidity).
Types
Induction system icing is generally classified in three types:
a) impact ice, which forms on the air filters and bends in the induction system.
b) fuel evaporation ice, and
c) throttle ice.

Refrigeration ice (carburetor icing, fuel evaporation ice) which forms in float type carburetors as a
result of the low temperatures caused by fuel vaporisation and low pressure acting on moisture
in the atmosphere
Fuel icing which is caused by moisture in the fuel coming out of suspension and being frozen by the low
temperatures in the carburetor. This tends to stick to the inlet manifold around the comers and reduce air I
fuel flow into the engine

Indications of carburetor icing

The indications of icing to the pilot of an aircraft fitted with a carburetor, if he has failed to anticipate the
problem, would be a gradual drop in R.P.M. which may be accompanied by engine rough running and
vibration.
In aircraft fitted with a constant speed propeller it would be indicated by a drop in manifold pressure or
reduction of airspeed in level flight

Ice formation
Ice can form anywhere from the inlet of the induction system (air scoop) to the intake manifold between
the carburetor and the intake port of the cylinder.
The nature of the ice formation depends on;
 atmospheric temperature and humidity and
 the operating conditions of the engine.
An aircraft which may be operated in icing conditions should be equipped with a carburetor air
temperature (CAT) gauge. This instrument reads the temperature of the air as it enters the carburetor and

37
makes it possible to detect the existence of icing conditions. If the CAT is below 32°F [0°C) and there is a
loss of engine power, it can be assumed that icing exists and that carburetor heat should be applied.

Fig 9.2. shows the buildup of icing in the induction system.

Fig 9.2 Induction system

Prevention
The formation of ice in an induction system is prevented by the use of carburetor heat. (With some older
installations for large engines, alcohol was sprayed into the air inlet duct to reduce the formations of ice;
the system consisted of an alcohol reservoir, an electric pump, a spray nozzle, and controls arranged in a
system to be used by the pilot as needed.)
For small aircraft, the air is often heated by means of a muff around the exhaust manifold; the heat of the
exhaust raises the temperature of the air before it flows to the carburetor

Action to be taken if engine icing is suspected

When icing is suspected, the carburetor heat control should be selected to fully hot and left in the hot position for a
sufficient length of time to clear the ice. This could take up to 1 minute, or longer depending on the severity

Partial heat should not be used unless the aircraft is equipped with a carburetor air temperature gauge. The
carburetor heat control provides heated air from around the exhaust pipe into the induction system which will melt
the ice and which then passes through the engine as water.
Engine roughness and further power loss may occur as the water passes into the cylinders and pilots should not be
tempted to return the heat control to OFF (cold), thinking that the situation has become worse since applying heat.

Effect of Induction System Icing on engine performance

Recognition of carburetor icing and the weather conditions associated with icing is very important. One or
more of the following can indicate carburetor icing:
 Lower than normal cylinder head temperature
 Rough running engine
 Loss of power
 Loss of altitude
 Loss of airspeed
The enriching effect causes cylinder head temperature reduction and is followed by rough running and
power loss or even a complete power loss in the most serious cases. A drop in engine speed indicates this
power loss with fixed pitch propellers, whilst with constant speed propellers, a drop in manifold pressure,
with the rpm remaining constant, indicates a reduction in power.
The normal procedures to prevent icing are:
~ Check the carburetors hot air system before take-off
~ Select carburetor heat during descent
~ Select heat whenever icing conditions are suspected

38
Superchargers
Power output therefore, decreases with altitude, although some of the loss is recovered in better
scavenging of the cylinders as a result of reduced back pressure on the exhaust. In order to increase
engine power for take-off and initial climb, and I or to maintain engine power at high altitude, the
manifold pressure must be raised artificially, and this is done by supercharging
Supercharging
A supercharging system usually consists of a centrifugal compressor connected to the air intake of the engine,
as shown in Fig. 5-5.

Fig. 5-5.

A supercharger is an engine-driven air pump that increases manifold pressure. The higher the manifold
pressure, the denser the fuel/air mixture is and the more power the engine can produce.
A typical supercharger is capable of boosting manifold pressure above 30 inches of mercury while
producing a volumetric efficiency that exceeds 100 percent.

Driving
Superchargers can be driven either by gearing from the crankshaft or by exhaust gases.
At high altitudes, a supercharged engine can compensate for the reduced air density by increasing the airflow to the
engine

Ground Boosted Supercharger

Where a supercharger is used to increase sea level power, rather than to maintain normal power up to a
high altitude, the engine will need to be strengthened in order to resist the higher combustion pressure.
This is called a Ground Boosted Supercharger

Altitude Boosted Superchargers

For superchargers capable of maintaining sea level values of power up to high altitude, a control
system is necessary to prevent excessive pressure being generated within the engine at low altitude. These
are called Altitude Boosted Superchargers

Centrifugal Compressors are used in superchargers on aircraft engines and may be driven by either
internal or external means, in some installations a combination of both may be used

a) Externally driven superchargers known as turbo-superchargers or turbo-chargers, are driven by a

turbine which is rotated by the exhaust gases and compress the air

Internally driven superchargers are driven by gearing from the engine crankshaft and compress the
mixture.

39
 A Centrifugal Impeller and the Diffuser Section of a Compressor

Centrifugal compressors are used because;

 they are comparatively light,
 are able to run at high speed,
 will handle large quantities of air, and
 are robust and reliable.

A centrifugal compressor is made up of two components,

 the impeller which is rotated and accelerates the air and the
 Diffuser which collects and directs the air into the manifold

Operation
Air is drawn into the impeller as it is rotated. The air is accelerated as it flows outwards between the
vanes (converting mechanical energy into kinetic energy) and, as the cross-section of its path increases,
some of this energy is converted into pressure energy

The proportion of pressure gained in the impeller depends on the impeller's diameter, speed of rotation
and the shape of the vanes
The air leaves the impeller with considerable tangential and radial velocity and passed into the diffuser,
which consists of a number of vanes fixed between the walls of the supercharger casing.
The diffuser vanes form divergent passages, which decrease the velocity and increase the pressure of the
air passing through them.

The action of compressing the air rapidly increases its temperature, and reduces some of the increase in
density which results from the increased pressure, this loss of density may be partially recovered either by
passing the air through a Inter-Cooler or by spraying the fuel into the eye of the impeller so that
vaporization will reduce air temperature.

At a particular speed of rotation a centrifugal supercharger increases the pressure of air passing through
the impeller in a definite ratio. Physical constraints limit the speed of rotation and size of an impeller, and
so limit the pressure rise or Pressure Ratio and consequently, the power output or maximum operating
altitude of the engine to which it is fitted.
Pressure ratios up to 3: 1 are generally obtainable, and any further compression necessary would have to
be obtained by fitting two compressors in series

40
Manifold Pressure
. The weight of the fuel-air mixture entering the engine cylinders is measured by MAP and the temperature of the
mixture. In a normally aspirated engine, MAP is less than outside atmospheric pressure because of the air friction
losses in the air induction system
Any engine with a supercharger will also be equipped with a variable pitch propeller controlled by a
constant speed unit.
The RPM of the engine is therefore controlled by the propeller pitch lever. To properly set the power and
prevent the engine being Over-boosted the pilot must have an indication of the amount of pressure he/she
is allowing into the cylinder with the throttle.
This is known as manifold pressure (between the throttle valve and the inlet valve) and is indicated to
the pilot on one of two gauges

a) Boost Pressure. The pressure in the induction system relative to sea level standard pressure is called
boost pressure, and is indicated by a gauge in the cockpit.
The gauge is calibrated in pounds per square inch above or below standard sea level atmospheric pressure
which is marked zero.
Thus if the boost gauge is indicating -3 lb of boost the absolute pressure in the induction system would be
14. 7 lb minus 3 lb which is equal to 11. 7 lb. Similarly if there is +4 lb of boost indicated then the
absolute pressure would equal 18.7 lb.

Manifold Absolute Pressure. Manifold absolute pressure (MAP) is the pressure in the intake manifold of the
engine
American practice is to use the term Manifold Absolute Pressure (M.A.P.) for measuring the pressure in
the induction system.
The manifold gauge indicates the absolute pressure in inches of mercury (Hg). When the atmospheric
pressure is 14.7 lb it will support a column of Hg 29.92 inches high, therefore, a boost pressure of 0 lb is
the equivalent of manifold pressure of 29.92 inches Hg
To make a comparison between boost pressure and manifold absolute pressure it may be assumed
that two inches of Hg is approximately equal to one pound of boost

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It must be pointed out that MAP is of prime importance in high-performance engines equipped with constant-speed
propellers. If MAP is too high, detonation and overheating will occur. These conditions will damage the engine
and cause engine failure if permitted to exist for an appreciable amount of time.
During operation of a supercharged engine, strict attention must be paid to the power settings (rpm and MAP) of the
engines.
Another factor governing the MAP to be used with an engine is the octane rating or performance number of the
fuel. If a fuel has very high anti-detonation characteristics, the maximum MAP may be higher than it would be with
a fuel having a lower antiknock rating

Purposes of Supercharging
The main purpose of supercharging an aircraft engine is to increase MAP above the pressure of the atmosphere to
provide high power output for takeoff and to sustain maximum power at high altitudes.

Increased MAP increases the power output in two ways:

a) It increases the weight of the fuel-air mixture (charge) delivered to the cylinders of the engine.
b) It increases the compression pressure.

1. It increases the weight of the fuel-air mixture (charge)

delivered to the cylinders of the engine. At a constant temperature, the weight of the fuel-air mixture that can be contained
in a given volume is dependent on the pressure of the mixture. If the pressure on any given volume of gas is increased, the
weight of that gas is increased because the density is increased.
2. It increases the compression pressure. The compression ratio for any given engine is constant; therefore, the greater
the pressure of the fuel-air mixture at the beginning of the compression stroke, the greater will be the compression
pressure, the latter being the pressure of the mixture at the end of the compression stroke. Higher compression pressure
causes a higher mean effective pressure (mep) and consequently higher engine output.

Classification of superchargers
 Means of driving –exhaust gases/gearing
 Stage - Nos of impellers
 Speed ratio–engine/supercharger

Internal and External Superchargers

Most superchargers used on conventional airplanes are alike in that an impeller (blower) rotating at high
speed is used to compress either the air before it is mixed with the fuel in the carburetor or the fuel-air
mixture which leaves the carburetor.
It is therefore possible to classify any supercharger, according to its location in the induction system of
the airplane, as either an internal or external type.

When the supercharger is located between the carburetor and the cylinder intake ports, it is an internal-
type supercharger,
as shown in Fig. 5-14.

FIG. 5-14 Location of an internal-type supercharger

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Air enters the carburetor at atmospheric pressure and is mixed with the fuel. The fuel/air mixture leaves the
carburetor at near-atmospheric pressure, is compressed in the supercharger to a pressure greater

FIG. 5-14 Location of an internal-type supercharger. than atmospheric, and then enters the engine cylinders.
The power required to drive the supercharger impeller is transmitted from the engine crankshaft by a gear train.
Because of the high gear ratio, the impeller rotates much faster than the crankshaft. If the gear ratio is adjustable for
two different speeds, the supercharger is described as a two-speed supercharger.
In general, the internal-type, supercharger may be used with an engine which is not expected to operate at very high
altitudes or, in any event, where it is not necessary for air to be delivered under pressure to the carburetor intake.

An external-type supercharger delivers compressed air to the carburetor intake, as shown in Fig. 5-15. The air is
compressed in the supercharger and then delivered through an air cooler to the carburetor, where it is mixed with the
fuel.
Since the power required to drive the ordinary type of external supercharger is obtained from the action of the
engine exhaust gases against a bucket wheel, or turbine, the external type is also called a turbo-supercharger or
turbocharger, depending on whether it supercharges the air or merely maintains sea level pressure. The speed of the
impeller depends only on the quantity and pressure of the exhaust gases directed against
the bucket wheel; therefore, the turbo-supercharger is also aessed in the supercharger to a pressure greater multispeed
supercharger. The volume of exhaust directed through the turbine is determined by the position of the waste gate.
The waste gate is operated by a control in the cockpit.

FIG. 5-15 Location of an external-type supercharger

Stages
A stage is an increase in pressure. Superchargers can be classified as single-stage, two-stage, or multistage,
according to the number of times an increase of pressure is accomplished.
The single-stage supercharging system may include a single- or two-speed internal supercharger. Even though the
two-speed internal supercharger has two definite speeds at which the impeller can rotate, only one stage (boost in
pressure) can be accomplished at any time; therefore, it is still a single-stage system. A single-stage internal
supercharger system is shown in Fig. 5-14.

THE TURBOCHARGER
Externally driven superchargers are powered by the energy of the engine exhaust gases and are
generally known as turbo -superchargers or turbo-chargers.

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A turbo-charger consists of a turbine wheel and an impeller fitted on a common rotor shaft, the bearings
are lubricated by oil from the engine. The turbine is connected to the exhaust system and the
compressor is connected to the intake system
The turbo-charger is not necessarily an integral part of the engine, but may be mounted on the engine
or on the fire-proof bulkhead, and shielded from combustible fluid lines in the engine bay. Exhaust gases
pass through nozzles and are guided onto vanes on the turbine wheel, causing it to rotate, the gases
then pass between the vanes and are exhausted overboard. The more exhaust is passed over the
turbine the faster it will go therefore the faster the impeller will go and the greater will be the pressure
ratio of the compressor

The exhaust gases are usually diverted from the main

exhaust stack by means of a waste gate. The waste gate is
closed to direct the exhaust gases through the turbine. The
degree of closing determines the amount of air pressure
boost obtained from the supercharger.
The general arrangement of a turbosupercharger system
is shown in Fig. 5-18. A turbosupercharger system can be
used to maintain a given MAP to the design altitude of the
system. Above this altitude, called the critical altitude, MAP
will begin to fall off as the altitude is increased. We may
therefore define critical altitude as the altitude above which
a particular engine-supercharger combination will no longer
deliver full power.

THE WASTE GATE

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For any particular power output the turbo-charger must deliver a constant mass of air to the engine in a
given time, and, since the density of air decreases with altitude, the impeller rotates faster as the
aircraft climbs to compensate for the reduction in density and maintain a selected manifold pressure.

Some form of control over compressor output must be provided, and this is done by varying the
quantity of exhaust gas passing to the turbine to vary its speed and that of the compressor

A turbine by-pass, in the form of an alternative exhaust duct, is fitted with a valve (known as a waste
gate) which regulates the degree of opening through the by-pass.

When the waste gate is fully open nearly all the exhaust gases pass directly to atmosphere, but as the
waste gate closes gases are directed to the turbine, and the maximum rotor speed is achieved when the
waste gate is fully closed, this will happen at what is termed the critical altitude for that engine and that
turbo-charger (the height above which maximum boost or manifold pressure can no longer be
maintained)

The waste gate may be controlled manually by the pilot, but in most turbo-charger systems automatic
controls are fitted to prevent over-boosting the engine.

In an automatic control system, the waste gate is mechanically connected to a single acting actuator, the
position of which depends on the opposing forces of spring and engine oil pressure

Spring force tends to open the waste gate and oil pressure tends to close it. Thus oil pressure in the
actuator regulates the position of the waste gate according to engine requirements. Various types of
controllers may be used to vary the waste gate actuator oil pressure:

a) Absolute Pressure Controller (APC)

b) Variable Pressure Controller (VPC)
c) Density Controller (DC)
d) Differential Pressure Controller (DPC),
e) Rate of Change Controller (ROC)
f) Pressure Ratio Controller (PRC)

We will concentrate on the Absolute pressure Controller (APC) to begin with and then consider
the others.

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Turbosupercharging Systems for
Continental Engines

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FIGURE 5-29 Variable orifice open to bypass excess fuel. (Continental Motors.)

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