CHAPTER 5

THE FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE

History of the development of cell discovery
S.No Year Scientists Work in the field of cell discovery

1. 1665 Robert Hooke Discovered cell in the cork slices with the
help of primitive microscope.

2. 1674 Anton von Discovered free living cells in pond water

Leeuwenhoek

3. 1831 Robert Brown Discovered nucleus in the cell

4. 1839 Purkinje Coined the term “Protoplasm” for the living

substance of the cell.

5. 1838 Schleiden Given cell theory.

1839 Schwann

6. 1855 Rudolf Virchow Expanded the cell theory. He suggested

that all cells arises from pre-existing cells.

7. 1940 Electron microscope was discovered.

COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
 CELL
• Cell is the structural and functional unit of life.
It is called structural unit of life because all the
living organisms are made up of cells. It is also
called functional unit of life because all the
functions that take place inside the organisms
are performed by cells.
• On the basis of the number of the cell ,
organisms are of two types –
▪ Unicellular organism
▪ Multicellular organism
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
Unicellular organism
• Organism made up of single
cell.
• Division of labour is within
the cell because different
cell organelles perform
specific function in the cell.
• They have short life span.
• Ex-Amoeba , Paramecium,
Yeast , Bacteria , etc.
Multicellular organism
• Organism made up of more
than one cell.
• Division of labour is in the
body of organism because
different group of cell
comes together to perform
different function.
• They have longer life span.
• Ex – Plants , Animals and
Human being
 SHAPE AND SIZE OF CELL
• The shape and size of cells are related to the
specific functions they perform.
• Generally cell shape could be more or less
fixed and peculiar. But some cells have
changing shapes like Amoeba , White blood
cell(WBC).
 What is a cell made up of?

• Cell is made up of organelles.

• Cell is able to live and perform all its functions
because of these organelles.
• An organelle is a tiny cellular structure that
performs specific functions within a cell.
Examples – Nucleus, Mitochondria, etc.
What is the structural organization of a
cell?

• Three features are almost common in every cell –

▪ Plasma membrane
▪ Nucleus
▪ Cytoplasm

• All activities inside the cell and interactions of the

cell with its environment are possible due to these
features.
 Plasma membrane or cell membrane
• Definition- It is the limiting layer of the cell that
separates the contents of the cell from its external
environment.

• Features are-
Selectively permeable
Flexible in nature
Made up of organic molecules called phospholipids
and proteins
Living
Why is the plasma membrane called a
selectively permeable membrane?

• It allows or permits the entry and exit of some

materials in and out of the cell.

• It prevents the movement of some other

materials.
 ENDOCYTOSIS
• It enables the cell to engulf in food and other
materials from its external environment. Such
processes are known as endocytosis.
• Amoeba acquires its food through such
processes.
 Functions of plasma membrane
• It protects the contents of the cell from its
external environment.
• It regulates the movement of substances in
and out of the cells because it is selectively
permeable in nature.
• It enables cell to engulf food by endocytosis.
• The process like diffusion and osmosis occur
through plasma membrane.
How does the movement of substances
take place into the cell?
• DIFFUSION – It is spontaneous movement of a
substance from a region of its high
concentration to a region where its
concentration is low.
If cellular waste like CO2 has high
concentration inside the cell , it moves out
to the external environment.
If O2 enters the cell by diffusion process
when the concentration of O2 decreases
inside the cell.
 CONCEPT OF SOLUTION
• Solution consists of two parts-
▪ Solvent – Substance which has ability to dissolve.
▪ Solute – Substance which can dissolve in solvent.
Example – In salt solution- salt is solute and water is
solvent.
• Dilute solution = concentration of solvent (water)
> concentration of solute
• Concentrated solution = concentration of
solvent(water) < concentration of solute
 OSMOSIS
• OSMOSIS – It is the passage of water from a
region of high water concentration(dilute
solution) through a selectively permeable
membrane to a region of low water
concentration(concentrated solution) till
equilibrium is reached.
• It allows only movement of water through
semipermeable membrane.
Osmosis Vs Diffusion
 Difference between
Diffusion Osmosis

• It involves movement of solute • It involves movement of solvent

molecules.
• Solute molecule moves from • Solvent/water molecules move
high concentration to lower
concentration.
• It does not require
semi-permeable membrane.
• Example – Spreading of ink
when a drop of it is put in a
glass of water.
molecules.
from high solvent /water
concentration to low solvent
/water concentration.
• It occurs only across
semi-permeable membrane.
• Example – Shrinking of raisins
when placed in concentrated salt
solution.
 Types of solution
• The movement of water across the plasma
membrane is affected by the amount of
substance dissolved in water.
• Three types of solution –
Hypotonic solution
Isotonic solution
Hypertonic solution
 Hypotonic solution
• If the medium surrounding the cell has a higher
water concentration than the cell, meaning that the
outside solution is very dilute , the cell will gain
water by osmosis. Such a solution is called hypotonic
solution.
• Concentration of solute < Concentration of water
molecules (in outside medium of cell)
• Movement of water in both directions but the net
result is that water enters the cell. The cell is likely to
swell up.
 Isotonic solution
• If the medium has exactly the same water
concentration as the cell, there will be no net
movement of water across the cell membrane.
Such a solution is called isotonic solution.
• Concentration of solute = concentration of
water molecules
• Same amount of water move across the
membrane, so there is no overall movement
of water . The cell will stay in the same size.
 Hypertonic solution
• If the medium has a lower concentration of water
than the cell, meaning that the outside solution is
concentrated solution , the cell will loose water
by osmosis. Such a solution is called hypertonic
solution.
• Concentration of solute > Concentration of water
molecules (in outside medium of cell)
• Water crosses the membrane in both directions,
but the net result is that the cell loses water and
the shrinkage of cell occurs.
Effect of different
types of solution on
RBC of the blood
cell
 Importance of osmosis

• Unicellular freshwater organisms like amoeba,

paramecium etc. and most plant cells tend to
gain water through osmosis.

• Absorption of water by plant roots .

 Importance of diffusion

• Exchange of gases like CO2 and O2 and water in

the life of a cell.(in lungs)
• Cell obtain nutrition from its surrounding (in
intestine)
• Different molecules move in and out of the
cell through a type of transport requiring use
of energy (active transport).(in kidney)
 Cell Wall
• Occurrence - It is the outermost layer in the addition to the
plasma membrane in plant cell, fungi and bacteria.
• Features –
▪ Rigid and dead in nature.
▪ Freely permeable membrane
• Structure – It is mainly made up of cellulose. Cellulose is a
complex substance and provides structural strength to
plants.
• Functions –
▪ It provides structural strength to the plant cell.
▪ It permits the cells of plants, fungi and bacteria to withstand
very dilute (hypotonic) external media without bursting.
Difference between cell membrane and
cell wall
Cell membrane
• It is the limiting layer present
in all cells.
• It is selectively permeable
membrane.
• It is composed of proteins and
lipids.
• Living and thin.
• They are flexible.
• Function – Allow entry and
exit of only selective
substances.
Cell wall
• It is the outermost layer
present in plant, bacterial and
fungal cell.
• It is freely permeable.
• It is made up of cellulose.
• Non living and thick.
• They are rigid.
• Function- Protection and
strength to the plant.
 PLASMOLYSIS
• When a living plant cell is placed in the hypertonic solution, it
loses water through osmosis which causes shrinkage or
contraction of the contents of the cell away from the cell wall.
This phenomenon is known as plasmolysis.
 What will happen to the plant cell, when it is placed in
the hypotonic solution?

• When the plant cell is placed in hypotonic

solution, the cell tends to take up water by
osmosis which leads the cell to swell and
building up pressure against the cell wall. The
cell wall exerts an equal pressure against the
swollen cell. In this way, due to the cell wall
plant cell withstand much greater changes in
the surrounding medium.
When the plant cell is placed in the
different concentration of solution.
NUCLEUS
 Nucleus
• Occurrence- It is present at the central region of the
animal cell the peripheral region of the plant cell.
• Structure -
▪ Nucleus has a double layered covering called nuclear
membrane.
▪ Nuclear membrane has nuclear pores which allow the
transfer of materials from inside the nucleus to its outside,
that is to the cytoplasm.
▪ Nucleolus – It is a dense structure present inside nucleus.
It helps in the formation of proteins.
▪ Chromatin- It is the substance within a chromosome
consisting of DNA and protein which appears as entangled
mass of thread like structure.
 Chromosome
• Nucleus contain chromosomes, which are visible as
rod-shaped structures only when the cell is about to
divide.
• Chromosomes contain information for the inheritance of
features from parents to next generation in the form of
DNA molecules.
• Chromosome are composed of DNA (Deoxyribose nucleic
acid) and protein.
• DNA molecules contain the information necessary for
constructing and organizing cells.
• Functional
NUCLEUS –segments
CHROMATINof DNA are called
- CHROMOSOMES genes.
- DNA
(Entangled (Rod-shaped)
mass of thread
like structure)
 Functions of nucleus
• It plays central role in cellular reproduction, the
process by which a single cell divides and forms
two new cells.

• It helps to determine the way the cell will develop

and what form it will exhibit at maturity, by
directing the chemical activities of the cell.

• It controls the heredity characteristics of an

organisms.
 Cytoplasm
• It is the fluid content inside the plasma
membrane.
• It contains many specialized cell organelles which
performs a specific function for the cell.
• When we stain any cell while mounting it takes up
very little stain.
• Significance of membranes can be illustrated with
the help of viruses. Viruses lack any membrane
and hence do not show characteristics of life until
they enter a living body and use its cell machinery
to multiply.
 Difference between
PROKARYOTIC CELL
• It’s cell size is generally
small ( 1-10 micrometer).
• It contain undefined nuclear
region containing only
nucleic acids is called
nucleoid.
• It contain only one
chromosome.
• Membrane bound cell
organelles are absent.
EUKARYOTIC CELL
• It’s cell size is generally large
(5 – 100 micrometer).
• It contain well defined
nuclear region and
surrounded by a nuclear
membrane.
• It contain more than one
chromosome.`
• Membrane bound cell
organelles are present.
 Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
• Prokaryotes – Such organisms whose cells lack a nuclear
membrane, are called prokaryotes. Example – Bacteria
• Eukaryotes – Organisms with cells having a nuclear
membrane are called eukaryotes. Example – plants, animals,
etc.
 Eukaryotic Cell
• Basic components of cell • Cell organelles
▪ Plasma membrane ▪ Endoplasmic reticulum
▪ Nucleus ▪ Golgi apparatus
▪ Cytoplasm ▪ Lysosomes
▪ Mitochondria
▪ Plastids
▪ Vacuoles
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Occurrence Structure
• It occurs in all • It is a large network of
eukaryotic cells except membrane-bound tubes
RBCs. and sheets.
Discovery • It looks like long tubules
• It was discovered in or round or oblong bags.
1945 by Porter and • The membranes of the ER
Thompson. are continuous with the
outer nuclear membrane.
 Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum
Rough Endoplasmic Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum (RER) Reticulum (SER)
• RER looks rough under a • Ribosomes are absent
microscope because in it.
ribosomes are attached
to its surface. • It helps in the
• It helps in the manufacture of fat
manufacture of proteins molecules or lipids.
due to the ribosomes.
 Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• Proteins and lipids synthesized in the ER help in building
the cell membrane. This process is called BIOGENESIS.
• Some proteins and lipids functions as enzymes and
hormones.
• It serve as channels for the transport of materials
(especially proteins) between various regions of the
cytoplasm or between the cytoplasm and the nucleus.
• It functions as a cytoplasmic framework providing a
surface for some of the biochemical activities of the cell.
• SER plays a crucial role in detoxifying many poisons and
drugs.
Golgi apparatus
 Golgi apparatus
Occurrence
▪ It is absent in prokaryotic cells
like bacteria, blue- green
algae.
▪ It is present in all eukaryotic
cells except few plant cells and
RBC of mammals, mature
sperms.
▪ Golgi bodies are usually called
dictyosomes in plants.
Discovery
It was first discovered 1898 by
Camillo Golgi.
Structure
• It consists of a system of
membrane-bound vesicles
arranged approximately
parallel to each other in stacks
called cisternae.
• It is located in the cytoplasm
next to the endoplasmic
reticulum and near the cell
nucleus.
 Functions of Golgi apparatus
• Its functions include the storage, modification
and packaging of products in vesicles that
synthesized near ER and dispatched to various
targets inside and outside the cell.
• Complex sugars may be made from simple
sugar in the golgi bodies.
• It is involved in the formation of lysosomes.
Lysosomes
 Lysosomes
Occurrence Structure
• With the exception of • Lysosomes are membrane
mammalian RBC, the bound sacs filled with
lysosomes have been digestive enzymes.
reported practically from • These enzymes are made
all the animal cells. by RER.
Discovery
• Christian de Duve,
discovered lysosomes in
1955.
 Functions of lysosomes
• Lysosomes are a kind of waste disposal system
of the cell.
• It help to keep the cell clean by digesting any
foreign material as well as worn-out cell
organelles due to the presence of powerful
digestive enzymes.
• It is known as suicide bags of a cell because it
burst and the enzymes digest their own cell,
during any disturbance in cellular metabolism
takes place.
Mitochondria
 Mitochondria
Occurrence Structure
• Found in the cells of • It is covered by a double
nearly every eukaryotic membrane.
organisms, including • Outer membrane is very porous
plants and animals. Red and the inner membrane is
blood cells lack deeply folded, which is called
mitochondria entirely. Cristae.
Discovery • These folds create a large
• In 1890, Richard Altman surface area for ATP (Adenosine
established them as Triphosphate) molecule
“bioblasts”. Later the synthesis.
term “mitochondria” was • Mitochondria have their own
coined by Carl Benda in DNA and Ribosomes which
1898. enable to make their own
proteins.
 Functions of Mitochondria
• Mitochondria is known as the powerhouse of
the cell because the energy required for
various chemical activities needed for life is
released by mitochondria in the form of ATP
molecules. ATP is known as the energy
currency of the cell.
Plastids (Chloroplast)
 Plastids
Occurrence Structure

• Present only in • Each chloroplast consists of a double

plant cells. membrane envelope and a matrix called
STROMA.
• Lamellae is present along the inner
Discovery membrane of plastids and at certain regions,
they are thickened and appear like pile of
• Plastids were coins called GRANA.
discovered and • Each granum consists of disc shaped
named by membranous sacs called thylakoids.
• Inside the grana, the chlorophyll is located.
Ernest Haeckel. • They have their own DNA and ribosomes
that make proteins.
 Types of Plastids and its functions
• Chloroplasts – These are green coloured plastids
which posses the photosynthetic pigment
chlorophyll.
• Chromoplasts– These are yellow or reddish in
colour due to the presence of pigments other than
chlorophyll. Chromoplasts provide colour to many
flowers and fruits.
• Leucoplasts – These are colourless plastids which
store food in the form of starch, lipids and
proteins.
 Vacuoles
• Vacuoles are the
storage sacs for solids or
liquids.
•They are small sized in
animal cells while plant
cells have very large
vacuoles.
•The central vacuole of
some plant cells may
occupy 50-90% of the
cell volume.
 Function of vacuoles
• It helps to provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell
due to the presence of cell sap.
• Many substances like amino acids, sugars, organic
acids and proteins are stored in vacuoles.
• In single-celled organisms like Amoeba, the food
vacuole contains the food items that the amoeba
has consumed.
• In some unicellular organisms, it help in expelling
excess water and some wastes from the cell.
 CELL THEORY
• First proposed by Schleiden and Schwann.
• Further extended by Rudolf Virchow.
• Postulates of cell theory are-
All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
The cell is the basic unit of structure, function and
organization in all organisms.
All cells come from preexisting, living cells.
 Difference between Plant cell and Animal cell
Plant Cell
• Plant cell has an outer rigid
cell wall which is made up of
cellulose.
• Generally rectangular in shape
and larger than animal cell.
• Nucleus lies on one side of the
cell and usually elliptical.
• Lysosomes rarely present in
the plant cell.
• Plastids are present.
• Single or a few large vacuole
that is centrally located.
• Reserve food is generally
starch and fats.
• Cytokinesis is by cell plate
method.
Animal Cell
• Animal cell lacks a cell wall.
• Generally round in shape and
smaller than plant cell.
• Nucleus lies in the center of
the cell and usually round.
• Lysosomes generally present
in the animal cell.
• Plastids are absent.
• Presence of numerous and
small vacuoles.
• Reserve food is generally
glycogen and fats.
• Cytokinesis is by cell furrow
method.
Diagram of plant cell and animal cell
Plant cell Animal cell
 Cell Division
• The process by which new cells are made, is
called cell division.
• Cell division occurs in organisms in order to
grow, to replace old, dead and injured cells
and to form gametes required for
reproduction.
• Two main types of cell division –
▪ Mitosis
▪ Meiosis
 Cell division
Mitosis
• The process of cell division
in which cell divides for
growth and repair of
injured tissue, is called
mitosis.
• It is a multiplicative cell
division.
• In this division, mother cell
divides to form two
identical daughter cells.
• The daughter cells have the
same number of
chromosomes as mother
cell.
Meiosis
• The process of cell division
which occur in specific cells of
reproductive organs in animals
and plants to produce gametes,
which after fertilization give rise
to offspring.
• It is a reductional division.
• In this division, mother cell
divides to form four daughter
cells.
• The daughter cells have half
number of chromosomes as the
mother have.
Mitosis and Meiosis
Chapter 5 Cell

Exercise questions
(Pg.no.59)
Q1. Who discovered cells, and how?
Ans -In 1665, Robert Hooke discovered cells while examining a
thin slice of cork through a self-designed microscope. He
observed that the cork resembled the structure of a
honeycomb consisting of numerous tiny compartments. The
minuscule boxes are referred to as cells.

Q2. Why is the cell called the structural and functional unit of
life?
Ans - Cells form the structure of an entity. A group of cells form a
tissue, further an organ and ultimately an organ system. They
perform fundamental functions and life processes such as
respiration, digestion, excretion etc in both unicellular and
multicellular entities. They perform all the activities
independently. Hence, cells are referred to as structural and
fundamental units of life.
Page: 61

Q1. How do substances like CO2 and water move in and out of
the cell? Discuss.
Ans - CO2 moves by diffusion – These cellular waste accumulates
in high concentrations in the cell, whereas the concentration
of CO2 in the external surroundings is comparatively lower.
This difference in the concentration level inside and out of the
cell causes the CO2 to diffuse from a region of higher(within
the cell) to a lower concentration.
H2O diffuses by osmosis through the cell membrane. It moves
from a region of higher concentration to a lower concentrated
region through a selectively permeable membrane until
equilibrium is reached.
Q2. Why is the plasma membrane called a selectively
permeable membrane?
Ans -The plasma membrane is called as a selectively permeable
membrane as it permits the movement of only a certain
molecules in and out of the cells. Not all molecules are free to
diffuse.
Page: 65
Q1. Can you name the two organelles we have studied that contain
their own genetic material?
Ans - The two organelles which have their own genetic material are:
1. Mitochondria
2. Plastids
Q2. If the organization of a cell is destroyed due to some physical or
chemical influence, what will happen?
Ans -If the organization of a cell gets destroyed due to any reason, then
lysis of the whole cell will occur due to the enzymes released by
lysosomes.
Q3. Why are lysosomes known as suicide bags?
Ans - When there is damage to the cell and when revival is not possible,
lysosomes may burst, and the enzymes digest their own cell.
Consequently, lysosomes are known as suicide bags.
Q 4. Where are proteins synthesized inside the cell?
Ans - Protein synthesis in cells takes place in ribosomes. Hence,
ribosomes are also referred to as protein factories. Ribosomes are
particles that are found attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
 Exercise Page: 67

Q1. Make a comparison and write down ways in which

plant cells are different from animal cells.
Ans – Refer notes
Q2.How is prokaryotic cell different from a eukaryotic
cell?
Ans – Refer notes
Q3. What would happen if the plasma membrane
ruptures or breaks down?
Ans -The plasma membrane acts as a mechanical
barrier to the protoplasm which regulates transport
of materials into and out of cell maintaining the
identity of the cell. In case of rupturing of the plasma
membrane, the protoplasmic contents will get
dispersed in the surrounding medium and thus, cell
will disintegrate.
 Exercise Page: 67
Q4. What would happen to the life of a cell if there was no Golgi
apparatus?
Ans - The Golgi apparatus consists of stacks of membrane-bound vesicles
whose functions are as follows:
▪ storage of substances
▪ packaging of substances
▪ manufacture of substances
Without the Golgi apparatus, the cells will be disabled from packing
and dispatching materials that were produced by the cells. The Golgi
apparatus is also involved in the formation of lysosomes. Hence, in the
absence of Golgi apparatus, lysosomes will not be produced.
Q5. Which organelle is known as the powerhouse of the cell? Why?
Ans - Mitochondria are known as the powerhouse of the cell. It is because
it releases the energy required for different activities of life.
Mitochondria releases energy in the form of ATP(Adenosine
Triphosphate) molecules, essential for numerous chemical activities of
life. Hence ATP is often referred to as ‘energy currency of the cell’.
Q6. Where do the lipids and proteins constituting the cell membrane get
synthesized?
Ans - Lipids and proteins are synthesized in the ER [Endoplasmic
Reticulum].
 Exercise Page: 67
Q7. How does an Amoeba obtain its food?
Ans - Through the process of endocytosis, an Amoeba obtains its food. As its cell
membrane is flexible enough, food particles are engulfed forming a food
vacuole by the pseudopodia. Amoeba secretes digestive enzymes to bring
about digestion of the engulfed particle, once food is trapped.
Exercise Page: 67

Q8. What is osmosis?

Ans - The process of movement of a water molecule from a region of
higher concentration to a region of lower concentration through a
semipermeable membrane is known as osmosis.

Q10. Which type of cell division is required for growth and repair of
body and which type is involved in formation of gametes?
Ans - There are two ways in which a cell divides:
• Mitosis
• Meiosis
Mitosis is the type of cell division that is involved in the growth and
repair of body whereas meiosis is a type of cell division which results
in the formation of gametes.
 Exercise Page: 67
Q9. Carry out the following osmosis experiment:
Take four peeled potato halves and scoop each one out to make potato cups. One of these potato
cups should be made from a boiled potato. Put each potato cup in a trough containing water.
Now,
(a) Keep cup A empty
(b) Put one teaspoon sugar in cup B
(c) Put one teaspoon salt in cup C
(d) Put one teaspoon sugar in the boiled potato cup D.
Keep these for two hours. Then observe the four potato cups and answer the following:
(i) Explain why water gathers in the hollowed portion of B and C.
(ii) Why is potato A necessary for this experiment?
(iii) Explain why water does not gather in the hollowed out portions of A and D.
Ans -
(i) Water accumulates in the hollowed portions of B and C as a difference in the water
concentration is observed. Thereby, endosmosis occurs as the cells act as a semipermeable
membrane.
(ii) Potato A is essential in this experiment as it is significant to compare different scenarios seen in
potato cups B, C and D. The potato A in this experiment acts as control.
(iii) Cup in A does not show any change in the water flow concentration for osmosis to occur, which
requires the concentration to be higher than the other. Cells in cup D are dead, thus there is no
existence of a semipermeable membrane for water flow. Consequently, osmosis does not occur.