1. **Spinal cord.

Brain:**

- The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue and support cells that extends from the base of
the brain down through the vertebral column.

- It serves as the main pathway for transmitting nerve impulses between the brain and the rest of the body.

- The brain, on the other hand, is the control center of the central nervous system. It processes information
received from the sensory organs and sends instructions to the muscles and other organs.

2. **Class fish. Internal organs of fishes:**

- "Class fish" refers to the taxonomic classification of organisms known as fish. Fish belong to the class
"Actinopterygii" or "Chondrichthyes," depending on the type of fish (bony fish or cartilaginous fish).

- Fish are vertebrates with gills, fins, and scales, adapted for living in water.

- The internal organs of fishes include structures such as the heart, liver, intestines, kidneys, and reproductive
organs. These organs perform various functions, including circulation, digestion, excretion, and reproduction.

3. **Unicellular animals or protozoa:**

- Protozoa are single-celled eukaryotic organisms that belong to the kingdom Protista.

- They are often found in aquatic environments, soil, and as parasites in other organisms.

- Protozoa exhibit a wide range of feeding mechanisms, including phagocytosis, absorption, and
photosynthesis.

- Examples of protozoa include amoebas, paramecia, and plasmodium (which causes malaria).

Let's provide brief explanations for each term or question:

Ticket 3:

1. **Respiratory organs. Gas exchange in the lungs:**

- Respiratory organs refer to structures involved in breathing and gas exchange. In mammals, this includes the
nose, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.

- Gas exchange in the lungs occurs in tiny air sacs called alveoli. Oxygen from the air is taken up by blood in the
capillaries surrounding the alveoli, while carbon dioxide is released from the blood into the alveoli to be exhaled.

2. **Life action of paramecium:**

- Paramecium is a single-celled organism belonging to the group of protozoa.

- It moves using hair-like structures called cilia and feeds on microorganisms by sweeping them into its oral
groove.

- Paramecium also reproduces asexually by binary fission and can exhibit behaviors such as avoiding obstacles
and responding to stimuli.
3. **Vegetative reproduction of plants:**

- Vegetative reproduction is a form of asexual reproduction in plants where new individuals are produced from
vegetative structures such as stems, roots, or leaves.

- Examples include runners in strawberries, tubers in potatoes, and bulbs in onions.

Ticket 4:

1. **Sense organs. The structure of the vision organs:**

- Sense organs are specialized structures that detect stimuli from the environment and transmit signals to the
brain for processing.

- The structure of the vision organs includes the eye, which consists of parts such as the cornea, iris, lens, retina,
and optic nerve.

2. **Insects and their characteristics:**

- Insects are a class of invertebrates characterized by having a three-part body (head, thorax, abdomen), six legs,
and usually wings.

- They exhibit diverse characteristics such as metamorphosis (complete or incomplete), specialized mouthparts,
and a highly diverse range of habitats and feeding habits.

3. **Fruits and seeds:**

- Fruits are mature ovaries of flowering plants that contain seeds.

- Seeds are structures produced by plants that contain the embryo of a new plant, along with stored food and a
protective seed coat.

I'll continue with the explanations for the remaining tickets. Let me know if you want me to keep going!

Ticket 5:

1. **Blood. Composition and functions of blood:**

- Blood is a bodily fluid that circulates through the arteries and veins of the circulatory system.

- It is composed of plasma (a liquid component) and formed elements such as red blood cells (erythrocytes),
white blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes).

- Functions of blood include transportation of oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products; regulation of pH
and electrolyte balance; and defense against pathogens.

2. **General information about the animal world:**

- The animal kingdom is a vast and diverse group of organisms characterized by multicellularity, heterotrophy,
and the absence of cell walls.

- Animals are classified into different phyla based on characteristics such as body symmetry, presence of a
backbone, and embryonic development.
3. **Distribution of fruits and seeds:**

- The distribution of fruits and seeds refers to how plants disperse their seeds to new locations.

- Methods of seed dispersal include wind dispersal, animal dispersal (by ingestion or attachment to fur), water
dispersal, and explosive dispersal.

Ticket 7:

1. **Unconditioned reflexes and their meaning:**

- Unconditioned reflexes are automatic, involuntary responses to stimuli that occur naturally without prior
learning.

- Examples include the knee-jerk reflex and the withdrawal reflex.

2. **Migration of birds:**

- Bird migration is the regular seasonal movement of birds between breeding and wintering grounds.

- Birds migrate to find food, avoid harsh weather conditions, or breed in areas with optimal resources.

3. **Bacteria, their structure, and life activity:**

- Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms belonging to the domain Bacteria.

- They have a simple cellular structure without a nucleus and can be classified based on their shape (e.g., cocci,
bacilli, spirilla).

- Bacteria play important roles in various ecological processes such as nutrient cycling, decomposition, and
symbiotic relationships.

I'll continue with the explanations for the remaining tickets. Let me know if you want me to keep going!

Ticket 6:

1. **Components of cell:**

- Cells are the basic structural and functional units of living organisms.

- Major components of a typical eukaryotic cell include the cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm, mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and ribosomes.

2. **Class reptiles:**

- Reptiles are a class of vertebrates characterized by their scaly skin, ectothermic metabolism, and laying of
amniotic eggs.

- Examples include snakes, lizards, turtles, crocodiles, and tuataras.

3. **Variety of plants:**

- The plant kingdom encompasses a wide variety of organisms ranging from small mosses to large trees.
 - Plants can be classified into several groups based on characteristics such as vascularization (vascular plants vs.
non-vascular plants), seed production (seed plants vs. seedless plants), and reproductive structures.

Ticket 8:

1. **Tissues and organs:**

- Tissues are groups of cells with similar structure and function.

- Organs are structures composed of two or more types of tissues working together to perform specific functions
in the body.

2. **Order of insectivores:**

- Insectivores are mammals that primarily feed on insects and other invertebrates.

- Examples of insectivorous mammals include shrews, moles, hedgehogs, and some bats.

3. **Lichens:**

- Lichens are symbiotic associations between fungi and algae or cyanobacteria.

- The fungal partner provides structural support and protection, while the photosynthetic partner produces food
through photosynthesis.

- Lichens can colonize a wide range of habitats and are important as pioneer species in ecosystems.

Ticket 9:

1. **Human skeleton. Structure and growth of bones:**

- The human skeleton provides structural support, protects internal organs, and facilitates movement.

- Bones are composed of living cells embedded in a matrix of collagen and mineral salts, primarily calcium and
phosphorus.

- Bones grow through a process called ossification, where bone tissue replaces cartilage tissue during
development.

2. **Order of diptera:**

- Diptera is an order of insects commonly known as flies.

- Flies are characterized by having only one pair of wings (di- meaning two, -ptera meaning wings) and undergo
complete metamorphosis.

3. **Relationship between animals and nature:**

- The relationship between animals and nature encompasses various interactions between organisms and their
environment, including predation, competition, symbiosis, and ecosystem dynamics.

- Understanding these relationships is essential for conservation efforts and maintaining biodiversity.
Ticket 10:

1. **Human health and ways to protect it:**

- Human health refers to the overall well-being of individuals, including physical, mental, and social aspects.

- Ways to protect human health include maintaining a balanced diet, regular exercise, adequate sleep,
vaccinations, hygiene practices, and avoiding harmful substances.

2. **Class reptiles. Lizards:**

- Lizards are a diverse group of reptiles characterized by their scaly skin, four legs (in most species), and ability to
detach their tails as a defense mechanism.

- They exhibit various adaptations for survival, including camouflage, burrowing, and climbing.

3. **The magnifying devices:**

- Magnifying devices are instruments used to increase the apparent size of objects, making them easier to see.

- Examples include magnifying glasses, microscopes, and telescopes, which utilize lenses or mirrors to focus light
rays and produce magnified images.

Ticket 14:

1. **Composition and functions of blood. Blood plasma:**

- Blood is a fluid connective tissue that circulates through the body, transporting oxygen, nutrients, hormones,
and waste products.

- Blood consists of plasma (a liquid component) and formed elements such as red blood cells, white blood cells,
and platelets.

- Blood plasma is the liquid portion of blood, composed mainly of water, electrolytes, proteins (including
albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen), hormones, and waste products.

2. **The evolution of reptiles:**

- Reptiles evolved from early tetrapods during the Carboniferous period.

- Key adaptations that allowed reptiles to become successful on land include the development of scaly skin to
prevent water loss, the amniotic egg with extraembryonic membranes, and more efficient respiratory and
circulatory systems.

3. **Photosynthesis. Formation of starch in leaves:**

- During photosynthesis, plants convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of glucose.

- Excess glucose is converted to starch and stored in the chloroplasts of plant cells, particularly in leaves.

- Starch serves as a long-term energy storage molecule for plants.

Ticket 16:
1. **White blood cells. Immunity:**

- White blood cells, or leukocytes, are cells of the immune system involved in defending the body against
infections and foreign substances.

- They can be categorized into granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) and agranulocytes (lymphocytes,
monocytes).

- White blood cells recognize and destroy pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi, and they also play a role
in allergic reactions and autoimmune diseases.

2. **Multicellular animals and their origin:**

- Multicellular animals are organisms composed of multiple cells that are organized into tissues, organs, and
organ systems.

- Multicellularity likely evolved independently multiple times in different lineages of eukaryotes.

- The evolution of multicellularity allowed for increased complexity, specialization of cells, and division of labor
among cells.

3. **General information about algae:**

- Algae are a diverse group of photosynthetic organisms that can be found in various aquatic environments,
ranging from freshwater to marine habitats.

- They can be unicellular, colonial, or multicellular and can vary in size from microscopic to very large.

- Algae are important primary producers in aquatic ecosystems, providing food and oxygen for other organisms.

Ticket 17:

1. **Autonomic nervous system:**

- The autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates involuntary bodily functions such as heart rate, digestion,
respiratory rate, pupillary response, and sexual arousal.

- It consists of two main divisions: the sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight response) and the
parasympathetic nervous system (rest and digest response).

2. **Reproduction and development of fish:**

- Fish reproduce either by laying eggs (oviparous) or giving birth to live young (viviparous).

- Fertilization can be external or internal, depending on the species.

- Fish undergo various developmental stages, including embryonic development, larval stages, and
metamorphosis in some species.

3. **Gourd plants of Tajikistan:**

- Gourd plants are members of the family Cucurbitaceae and include plants such as pumpkins, squash, melons,
and cucumbers.

- Gourds are cultivated for their edible fruits, seeds, and sometimes for their fibrous shells, which are used as
containers or musical instruments.
Ticket 18:

1. **Class birds:**

- Birds belong to the class Aves and are characterized by feathers, a beak, laying of hard-shelled eggs, and a high
metabolic rate.

- They are the only living descendants of theropod dinosaurs and are adapted for flight in most cases, although
some species are flightless.

2. **Flower. Significance of the flower in the life of plants:**

- Flowers are the reproductive structures of angiosperms (flowering plants) and are essential for sexual
reproduction.

- The main functions of flowers are to facilitate pollination and fertilization, leading to the production of seeds
and fruits.

- Flowers attract pollinators such as insects, birds, and bats through their color, scent, and nectar.

Ticket 19:

1. **Gas exchange in lungs and tissues:**

- Gas exchange in the lungs involves the diffusion of oxygen from the alveoli into the bloodstream and the
diffusion of carbon dioxide from the bloodstream into the alveoli to be exhaled.

- Gas exchange in tissues involves the diffusion of oxygen from the bloodstream into the cells and the diffusion of
carbon dioxide from the cells into the bloodstream to be transported back to the lungs for exhalation.

2. **Order of insectivores:**

- Insectivores are mammals that primarily feed on insects and other invertebrates.

- The order Insectivora is no longer used in modern taxonomy. Many insectivorous mammals are now classified
into different orders such as Eulipotyphla and Afrosoricida.

Let's tackle each ticket one by one:

Ticket 20:

1. **Skin. Structure and function of skin:**

- The skin is the largest organ of the human body and serves as a protective barrier between the internal organs
and the external environment.

- **Structure:** The skin consists of three main layers: the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis (subcutaneous
tissue).
 - **Epidermis:** The outermost layer of the skin, primarily composed of epithelial cells. It provides
waterproofing and protection against pathogens.

- **Dermis:** The middle layer of the skin, composed of connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves, and accessory
structures such as hair follicles and sweat glands.

- **Hypodermis:** The innermost layer of the skin, composed mainly of fat and connective tissue. It provides
insulation and cushioning.

- **Function:** The skin performs several vital functions, including:

- Protection against physical, chemical, and microbial damage.

- Regulation of body temperature through sweat production and blood vessel dilation/constriction.

- Sensation, allowing for the perception of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.

- Synthesis of vitamin D when exposed to sunlight.

2. **Phylum of coelenterates:**

- Coelenterates belong to the phylum Cnidaria.

- Characteristics of cnidarians include radial symmetry, a sac-like body plan with a central digestive cavity
(gastrovascular cavity), and specialized stinging cells called cnidocytes.

- Examples of cnidarians include jellyfish, corals, sea anemones, and hydras.

3. **Organs of the urinary system:**

- The urinary system, also known as the renal system, is responsible for filtering waste products from the blood
and excreting them in the form of urine. Key organs of the urinary system include:

- **Kidneys:** Filter waste products and excess substances from the blood to produce urine.

- **Ureters:** Tubes that transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.

- **Urinary bladder:** Stores urine until it is expelled from the body.

- **Urethra:** Tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body during urination.

Ticket 21:

1. **Vitamins and their importance for the human body:**

- Vitamins are essential organic compounds that the human body requires in small amounts for various
physiological functions.

- Each vitamin has specific functions and plays a crucial role in maintaining overall health and preventing
deficiency diseases.

- Examples of vitamins and their importance include:

- Vitamin A: Essential for vision, immune function, and skin health.

- Vitamin C: Acts as an antioxidant, supports immune function, and aids in collagen production.

- Vitamin D: Helps regulate calcium and phosphate levels for healthy bones and teeth.

- Vitamin B12: Necessary for red blood cell production and nerve function.
 - Vitamin K: Required for blood clotting and bone metabolism.

2. **General characteristics of annelids:**

- Annelids belong to the phylum Annelida and are segmented worms.

- General characteristics of annelids include:

- Segmented body divided into repeated units called segments.

- Presence of a coelom (fluid-filled body cavity) that provides space for internal organs and allows for greater
body flexibility.

- Well-developed organ systems, including a closed circulatory system with a dorsal blood vessel and segmental
hearts, a complete digestive system, and a nervous system with a ventral nerve cord and segmental ganglia.

3. **The role of bacteria in nature and human life:**

- Bacteria play important roles in various ecological processes and have significant impacts on human life. Some
of their roles include:

- Decomposition of organic matter, which is essential for nutrient cycling and soil formation.

- Nitrogen fixation, where certain bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can use.

- Production of food products such as yogurt, cheese, and pickles through fermentation.

- Contribution to human health, including maintaining gut health, synthesizing vitamins, and protecting against
pathogens.

Ticket 22:

1. **Heart. Structure of the heart:**

- The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood throughout the body.

- **Structure:** The human heart consists of four chambers: two atria (upper chambers) and two ventricles
(lower chambers).

- **Atria:** Receive blood returning to the heart from the body (right atrium) and lungs (left atrium).

- **Ventricles:** Pump blood out of the heart to the body (left ventricle) and lungs (right ventricle).

- The heart also contains valves that ensure one-way blood flow and coronary arteries that supply oxygenated
blood to the heart muscle itself.

2. **Class gastropods and cephalopods:**

- Gastropods belong to the class Gastropoda and include snails, slugs, and sea snails.

- They typically have a single, coiled shell (in many species), a muscular foot for locomotion, and a distinct head
with sensory organs.

- Cephalopods belong to the class Cephalopoda and include octopuses, squids, and cuttlefish.

- They are characterized by a distinct head with large, complex eyes, a well-developed brain, and a modified
foot adapted for jet propulsion.
 - Most cephalopods lack an external shell (except for the chambered nautilus), and instead, they have a reduced
or internalized shell.

3. **Harmful bacteria:**

- Harmful bacteria, also known as pathogenic bacteria, can cause diseases in humans, animals, and plants.

- Examples of harmful bacteria and the diseases they cause include:

- **Escherichia coli (E. coli):** Causes food poisoning and urinary tract infections.

- **Salmonella:** Causes salmonellosis, a type of food poisoning.

- **Streptococcus pneumoniae:** Causes pneumonia, meningitis, and other infections.

- **Mycobacterium tuberculosis:** Causes tuberculosis (TB), a bacterial infection that primarily affects the
lungs.

Ticket 23:

1. **Ears and their structure:**

- The human ear is divided into three main parts: the outer ear, middle ear, and inner ear.

- **Outer ear:** Includes the pinna (external ear) and the ear canal (auditory canal). It collects sound waves and
directs them to the eardrum.

- **Middle ear:** Contains three small bones called the ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes) that transmit sound
vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear.

- **Inner ear:** Contains the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibule. It converts sound vibrations into
electrical signals that are sent to the brain via the auditory nerve.

- The inner ear also plays a role in balance and spatial orientation.

2. **Harmful insects:**

- Harmful insects are insects that cause damage to crops, transmit diseases, or nuisance to humans. Some
examples include:

- **Mosquitoes:** Transmit diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, and Zika virus.

- **Flies

:** Carry and spread diseases such as cholera, typhoid fever, and dysentery.

- **Cockroaches:** Contaminate food and spread bacteria that cause food poisoning and allergic reactions.

- **Termites:** Cause damage to wooden structures and crops.

3. **Mushrooms:**

- Mushrooms are fungi belonging to the kingdom Fungi.

 - They are characterized by a fleshy fruiting body (the mushroom) that is often produced above ground or on a
substrate.

- Mushrooms play important ecological roles as decomposers, breaking down organic matter and recycling
nutrients in ecosystems.

- While many mushrooms are edible and nutritious, some species are poisonous and can cause illness or death if
ingested.

Ticket 25:

1. **Minerals and their function:**

- Minerals are inorganic nutrients that are essential for various physiological functions in the human body.

- Some important minerals and their functions include:

- **Calcium:** Essential for bone and teeth formation, muscle function, and nerve transmission.

- **Iron:** Necessary for the production of hemoglobin, which carries oxygen in the blood.

- **Potassium:** Regulates fluid balance, muscle contractions, and nerve signals.

- **Sodium:** Helps maintain fluid balance, nerve function, and muscle contractions.

- **Magnesium:** Required for energy production, muscle function, and bone health.

2. **Relationships of plants and the environment:**

- Plants interact with their environment in various ways, influencing and being influenced by abiotic (non-living)
and biotic (living) factors.

- Some examples of relationships between plants and their environment include:

- **Photosynthesis:** Plants use sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water to produce glucose and oxygen, which is
essential for their growth and survival.

- **Transpiration:** Plants release water vapor through small pores (stomata) in their leaves, which affects
humidity and climate.

- **Symbiotic relationships:** Plants form symbiotic relationships with other organisms, such as mycorrhizal
fungi (helps with nutrient uptake) and nitrogen-fixing bacteria (convert atmospheric nitrogen into a usable form).

- **Responses to environmental cues:** Plants respond to environmental factors such as light, temperature,
and water availability by adjusting their growth, flowering, and other physiological processes.

3. **Ferns. Development and their role in nature:**

- Ferns are a group of vascular plants that reproduce via spores rather than seeds.

- **Development:** The life cycle of ferns includes two distinct stages: the sporophyte stage (the dominant
stage) and the gametophyte stage.

- Sporophyte: The familiar fern plant that produces spores through meiosis.

- Gametophyte: A small, inconspicuous plant that produces gametes (eggs and sperm).

- **Role in nature:** Ferns play several important roles in nature, including:

 - Soil stabilization and erosion control.

- Providing habitat and food for various organisms.

- Contributing to nutrient cycling and soil health.

- As indicator species for environmental health and biodiversity.

Ticket 26:

1. **Spinal cord. Structure of the spinal cord:**

- The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue that extends from the base of the brain down
through the vertebral canal.

- **Structure:** The spinal cord is divided into segments, each of which gives rise to pairs of spinal nerves. It
consists of gray matter (nerve cell bodies) and white matter (nerve fibers).

- **Gray matter:** Located in the center of the spinal cord, it contains nerve cell bodies, dendrites, and
unmyelinated axons.

- **White matter:** Surrounds the gray matter and contains myelinated nerve fibers that transmit signals to
and from the brain.

- The spinal cord is protected by the vertebrae of the spinal column, cerebrospinal fluid, and meninges.

2. **Habitat and external structure of insects:**

- Insects are a diverse group of arthropods with three body segments (head, thorax, abdomen) and six legs.

- **Habitat:** Insects inhabit almost every terrestrial and freshwater habitat on Earth, including forests,
grasslands, deserts, and wetlands.

- They can also be found in human-made environments such as homes, farms, and urban areas.

- **External structure:** The external structure of insects includes:

- **Head:** Contains sensory organs (antennae, compound eyes, mouthparts) and the brain.

- **Thorax:** Contains three pairs of legs and, in winged insects, one or two pairs of wings.

- **Abdomen:** Contains the digestive, reproductive, and respiratory organs.

3. **Wheat - the most important grain crop:**

- Wheat is one of the most important cereal crops worldwide and a staple food for a large portion of the world's
population.

- **Importance:**

- Provides a significant source of carbohydrates, protein, fiber, vitamins, and minerals in the human diet.

- Used to make various food products such as bread, pasta, noodles, couscous, and breakfast cereals.

- Grown in a wide range of climates and soil types, making it adaptable to diverse agricultural conditions.

- Plays a crucial role in global food security and the economy.

Ticket 27:
1. **Vision, structure, and organs of vision:**

- Vision is the ability to detect light and interpret it as images. The organs of vision include the eyes and
associated structures.

- **Structure of the eye:** The human eye consists of several parts, including:

- **Cornea:** The transparent outer covering of the eye that helps focus light onto the retina.

- **Pupil:** The opening in the center of the iris that allows light to enter the eye.

- **Lens:** A transparent, flexible structure that focuses light onto the retina.

- **Retina:** The light-sensitive tissue lining the back of the eye that contains photoreceptor cells (rods and
cones) that convert light into electrical signals.

- **Optic nerve:** Transmits visual information from the retina to the brain for processing.

cortex:** The part of the brain that processes visual information and allows us to perceive and interpret images.

2. **Silkworm:**

- The silkworm, Bombyx mori, is the larval stage of the silk moth.

- **Life cycle:** Silkworms undergo complete metamorphosis, consisting of four stages: egg, larva (caterpillar),
pupa (chrysalis), and adult moth.

- The larvae (silkworms) spin silk cocoons around themselves for protection during the pupal stage.

- The silk is harvested from the cocoons and used to produce silk fabric.

- **Importance:** Silkworms are economically important because of the silk they produce. Silk is a valuable and
luxurious natural fiber used in textiles and other products.

3. **Family of leguminous:**

- The leguminous family, Fabaceae (also known as Leguminosae or the pea family), is one of the largest and most
economically important plant families.

- **Characteristics:** Plants in the legume family are characterized by:

- Nitrogen-fixing root nodules that host symbiotic bacteria capable of converting atmospheric nitrogen into a
form that plants can use.

- Compound leaves with stipules (small leaf-like structures at the base of the leaf).

- Fruits that are pods containing seeds.

- **Importance:** Legumes are important for:

- Providing nitrogen to the soil through nitrogen fixation.

- Food production, as many legumes are important food crops (e.g., beans, lentils, peas).

- Animal feed, as legume crops are used as forage for livestock.

- Soil conservation and improvement, as legumes help prevent erosion and improve soil fertility.

Ticket 28:
1. **Unconditioned reflexes and their meaning:**

- Unconditioned reflexes are automatic, involuntary responses to stimuli that are innate and do not require prior
learning.

- **Examples:**

- **Blinking:** Closing the eyelids in response to a sudden bright light or object approaching the eye.

- **Sneezing:** Expelling air forcibly through the nose and mouth in response to irritants in the nasal passages.

- **Swallowing:** Moving food or liquid from the mouth to the esophagus and stomach.

- **Meaning:** Unconditioned reflexes are important for survival and help protect the body from harm.

2. **Variety of arachnids:**

- Arachnids are a class of arthropods characterized by four pairs of legs and two body segments (cephalothorax
and abdomen).

- **Examples of arachnids and their characteristics:**

- **Spiders:** Have eight legs, produce silk, and have venomous fangs used to inject venom into prey.

- **Scorpions:** Have a pair of pincers (pedipalps) and a tail equipped with a venomous stinger.

- **Ticks and mites:** Small, parasitic arachnids that feed on the blood of animals and humans.

- **Habitat:** Arachnids inhabit a wide range of environments, including terrestrial, freshwater, and marine
habitats.

3. **Spreading of bacteria:**

- Bacteria can spread through various mechanisms, including:

- **Direct contact:** Bacteria can spread from person to person through direct contact with infected
individuals, such as shaking hands, kissing, or sexual contact.

- **Indirect contact:** Bacteria can spread indirectly through contaminated objects or surfaces, such as
doorknobs, utensils, or contaminated food and water.

- **Airborne transmission:** Bacteria can spread through the air via respiratory droplets when an infected
person coughs or sneezes.

- **Vector transmission:** Some bacteria can be spread by vectors such as mosquitoes, ticks, or fleas that
transmit bacteria from one host to another.

Ticket 29:

1. **Life organization:**

- Life organization refers to the hierarchical levels of organization within living organisms, from the simplest to
the most complex.

- **Levels of organization:**

- **Atom:** The basic unit of matter.

- **Molecule:** A group of atoms bonded together.

 - **Cell:** The basic structural and functional unit of life.

- **Tissue:** A group of similar cells that perform a specific function.

- **Organ:** A structure composed of two or more tissues that work together to perform a specific function.

- **Organ system:** A group of organs that work together to perform a coordinated set of functions.

- **Organism:** An individual living thing capable of carrying out all life processes.

- **Example:** The human body is organized into several organ systems, including the digestive system,
respiratory system, circulatory system, and nervous system.

2. **Order of primates:**

- Primates are a diverse group of mammals that include humans, apes, monkeys, and prosimians.

- **Order:** Primates belong to the order Primates, which is divided into two suborders:

- **Strepsirrhini:** Includes lemurs, lorises, and galagos. They are characterized by a moist nose and a reflective
layer (tapetum lucidum) in their eyes.

- **Haplorhini:** Includes tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans. They are characterized by a dry nose and a lack
of a tapetum lucidum.

- **Characteristics:** Primates are characterized by:

- Forward-facing eyes with stereoscopic vision.

- Grasping hands and feet with opposable thumbs or big toes.

- Well-developed

brains and complex social behaviors.

3. **Variety of plants:**

- Plants exhibit a wide variety of forms, structures, and adaptations that allow them to survive and thrive in
diverse environments.

- **Examples of plant diversity:**

- **Trees:** Tall, woody plants with a single main stem (trunk) and many branches.

- **Shrubs:** Shorter than trees, with multiple stems arising from the base.

- **Herbs:** Small, non-woody plants with soft stems that die back to the ground at the end of the growing
season.

- **Grasses:** Herbaceous plants with narrow leaves and jointed stems, often forming dense clumps or
spreading mats.

- **Adaptations:** Plants have developed various adaptations to survive in different habitats, including:

- **Root systems:** Taproots for deep anchorage or fibrous roots for soil stabilization.

- **Leaf structures:** Thick cuticles to reduce water loss or modified leaves for water storage.

- **Reproductive strategies:** Seeds, spores, or vegetative propagation.

Ticket 29:
1. **Life organization:**

- Life organization refers to the hierarchical levels of organization within living organisms, from the simplest to
the most complex.

- **Levels of organization:**

- **Atom:** The basic unit of matter.

- **Molecule:** A group of atoms bonded together.

- **Cell:** The basic structural and functional unit of life.

- **Tissue:** A group of similar cells that perform a specific function.

- **Organ:** A structure composed of two or more tissues that work together to perform a specific function.

- **Organ system:** A group of organs that work together to perform a coordinated set of functions.

- **Organism:** An individual living thing capable of carrying out all life processes.

- **Example:** The human body is organized into several organ systems, including the digestive system,
respiratory system, circulatory system, and nervous system.

2. **Order of primates:**

- Primates are a diverse group of mammals that include humans, apes, monkeys, and prosimians.

- **Order:** Primates belong to the order Primates, which is divided into two suborders:

- **Strepsirrhini:** Includes lemurs, lorises, and galagos. They are characterized by a moist nose and a reflective
layer (tapetum lucidum) in their eyes.

- **Haplorhini:** Includes tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans. They are characterized by a dry nose and a lack
of a tapetum lucidum.

- **Characteristics:** Primates are characterized by:

- Forward-facing eyes with stereoscopic vision.

- Grasping hands and feet with opposable thumbs or big toes.

- Well-developed brains and complex social behaviors.

3. **Variety of plants:**

- Plants exhibit a wide variety of forms, structures, and adaptations that allow them to survive and thrive in
diverse environments.

- **Examples of plant diversity:**

- **Trees:** Tall, woody plants with a single main stem (trunk) and many branches.

- **Shrubs:** Shorter than trees, with multiple stems arising from the base.

- **Herbs:** Small, non-woody plants with soft stems that die back to the ground at the end of the growing
season.

- **Grasses:** Herbaceous plants with narrow leaves and jointed stems, often forming dense clumps or
spreading mats.

- **Adaptations:** Plants have developed various adaptations to survive in different habitats, including:
 - **Root systems:** Taproots for deep anchorage or fibrous roots for soil stabilization.

- **Leaf structures:** Thick cuticles to reduce water loss or modified leaves for water storage.

- **Reproductive strategies:** Seeds, spores, or vegetative propagation.

Ticket 31:

1. **Excretion:**

- Excretion is the process by which metabolic wastes and excess substances are removed from the body.

- **Organs involved in excretion:**

- **Kidneys:** Filter waste products from the blood to produce urine.

- **Urinary bladder:** Stores urine until it is expelled from the body.

- **Ureters:** Tubes that transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.

- **Urethra:** Tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body during urination.

- **Other excretory organs:**

- **Skin:** Excretes sweat, which contains water, salts, and small amounts of metabolic waste products.

- **Lungs:** Excrete carbon dioxide and water vapor during respiration.

2. **Mammals, their importance, protection, and common features:**

- Mammals are a class of warm-blooded vertebrates characterized by the presence of mammary glands that
produce milk for feeding their young.

- **Importance of mammals:**

- Ecological roles: Mammals play various roles in ecosystems as herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, scavengers,
and prey.

- Economic importance: Many mammals are sources of food, clothing, and labor, while others contribute to
ecosystem services such as pollination and seed dispersal.

- **Protection:** Mammals have evolved various adaptations for protection, including:

- Fur, hair, or spines for insulation, camouflage, or defense.

- Claws, teeth, horns, or antlers for defense or obtaining food.

- Behavioral adaptations such as burrowing, fleeing, or forming groups for safety.

- **Common features of mammals:**

- Mammary glands for feeding offspring with milk.

- Hair or fur covering the body.

- Warm-blooded (endothermic) metabolism.

- Differentiated teeth for various functions such as cutting, tearing, and grinding food.

- Live birth (except for monotremes) and parental care of offspring.

3. **Vegetable plants of Tajikistan:**

 - Vegetable plants grown in Tajikistan include a variety of crops used for food and other purposes.

- **Examples of vegetable plants grown in Tajikistan:**

- **Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum):** A staple food crop grown for its edible tubers.

- **Tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum):** Grown for their edible fruits, used in salads, sauces, and other culinary
dishes.

- **Cucumbers (Cucumis sativus):** Grown for their edible fruits, which are often eaten fresh or pickled.

- **Onions (Allium cepa):** Grown for their edible bulbs, used as a flavoring or vegetable in cooking.

- **Carrots (Daucus carota):** Grown for their edible taproots, which are rich in vitamins and minerals.

- **Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata):** Grown for its dense-leaved heads, used in salads, coleslaw, and
other dishes.

Ticket 32:

1. **Blood circulation. The movement of blood in the body:**

- Blood circulation is the continuous movement of blood through the cardiovascular system, transporting oxygen,
nutrients, hormones, and waste products to and from the cells of the body.

- **Components of the cardiovascular system:**

- **Heart:** Pumps blood through the blood vessels.

- **Blood vessels:** Tubes that carry blood throughout the body.

- **Arteries:** Carry oxygen-rich blood away from the heart to the body tissues.

- **Veins:** Carry oxygen-poor blood back to the heart from the body tissues.

- **Capillaries:** Tiny blood vessels where

exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste products occurs between the blood and body tissues.

- **Blood circulation process:**

- Oxygen-rich blood is pumped from the heart's left ventricle to the body tissues through the systemic
circulation.

- Oxygen-poor blood returns to the heart's right atrium through the systemic veins.

- The heart pumps the oxygen-poor blood to the lungs through the pulmonary circulation.

- In the lungs, carbon dioxide is removed from the blood, and oxygen is added.

- Oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart's left atrium through the pulmonary veins, completing the cycle.

2. **Order of Proboscidea:**

- Proboscidea is an order of mammals that includes elephants and their extinct relatives.

- **Characteristics of Proboscideans:**

- Large size: Proboscideans are the largest terrestrial animals.

- Long, muscular trunks (proboscis) used for breathing, smelling, touching, grasping, and producing sounds.
 - Tusk-like incisor teeth made of ivory.

- Thick, wrinkled skin, often gray in color.

- **Species in the order Proboscidea:**

- **African elephant (Loxodonta africana):** Found in sub-Saharan Africa, the African elephant is the largest
living land animal.

- **Asian elephant (Elephas maximus):** Found in various habitats across Asia, the Asian elephant is slightly
smaller than the African elephant and has smaller ears.

3. **Types of pollination:**

- Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the male reproductive organs (anthers) to the female reproductive
organs (stigma) of flowers, leading to fertilization and the production of seeds.

- **Types of pollination:**

- **Self-pollination:** Pollen is transferred from the anthers of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or
another flower on the same plant.

- Advantages: Ensures fertilization and seed production even in the absence of pollinators.

- Disadvantages: May result in inbreeding and reduced genetic diversity.

- **Cross-pollination:** Pollen is transferred from the anthers of one flower to the stigma of another flower on
a different plant of the same species.

- Advantages: Increases genetic diversity and promotes outbreeding.

- Requires pollinators such as insects, birds, bats, or wind to transfer pollen between flowers.

- **Agent of pollination:**

- **Wind:** Wind-pollinated plants produce large quantities of lightweight, dusty pollen. Examples include
grasses, trees, and some flowers.

- **Insects:** Insect-pollinated plants produce sticky or spiky pollen that adheres to the bodies of insects.
Examples include bees, butterflies, moths, flies, and beetles.

- **Birds:** Bird-pollinated plants often have brightly colored, tubular flowers with abundant nectar. Examples
include hummingbirds and sunbirds.

- **Bats:** Bat-pollinated plants typically have large, white or pale-colored flowers that open at night and
produce a strong, fruity odor. Examples include certain species of cacti and trees.

Ticket 33:

1. **Digestion in the stomach:**

- The stomach is a muscular organ located in the upper abdomen, where the process of digestion continues after
food enters from the esophagus.

- **Functions of the stomach:**

- **Mechanical digestion:** The stomach mixes food with gastric juices and contracts rhythmically to break it
down into smaller particles.

- **Chemical digestion:** Gastric glands in the stomach lining secrete gastric juice, which contains hydrochloric
acid and digestive enzymes such as pepsin.
 - **Storage:** The stomach stores food and regulates its release into the small intestine.

- **Process of digestion in the stomach:**

- Food enters the stomach from the esophagus and is mixed with gastric juices.

- Hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice helps break down food and kill bacteria.

- Pepsin, an enzyme in the gastric juice, begins the digestion of proteins.

- The churning action of the stomach muscles helps further break down food into a semi-liquid substance called
chyme.

- Chyme is gradually released into the small intestine for further digestion and absorption.

2. **Class centipedes:**

- Centipedes belong to the class Chilopoda and are elongated arthropods with numerous body segments and
legs.

- **Characteristics of centipedes:**

- **Body structure:** Elongated, flattened body divided into segments, with one pair of legs per segment.

- **Antennae:** One pair of long antennae.

- **Venomous claws:** Modified legs on the first body segment that are modified into venomous claws
(forcipules) used to capture and immobilize prey.

- **Habitat:** Centipedes are found in various terrestrial habitats worldwide, including forests, grasslands,
deserts, and caves.

- **Diet:** Carnivorous, feeding on insects, spiders, and other small invertebrates.

- **Reproduction:** Centipedes reproduce sexually, with females laying eggs that hatch into miniature versions
of the adults.

3. **Vegetative reproduction of plants by roots and leaves:**

- Vegetative reproduction is a form of asexual reproduction in plants

where new individuals are produced from vegetative parts such as roots, stems, or leaves, without the formation
of seeds.

- **Examples of vegetative reproduction by roots and leaves:**

- **Roots:** Some plants can produce new individuals from specialized underground stems called rhizomes or
from adventitious roots that grow from stems or leaf nodes.

- Example: Mint plants (Mentha spp.) can spread rapidly through underground rhizomes, giving rise to new
plants at various points along the rhizome.

- **Leaves:** Some plants can produce new individuals from specialized structures called plantlets that develop
along the margins or tips of leaves.

- Example: Spider plant (Chlorophytum comosum) produces long, arching stems with small plantlets at the
ends. These plantlets can root and grow into new plants when they come into contact with soil.