Cytochrome c is a vital protein involved in the electron transport chain of cellular respiration,

typically found in mitochondria. Its role in producing cellular energy is crucial, and it has remained
relatively unchanged over millions of years of evolution. Scientists have observed a significant degree
of similarity in the amino acid sequences of cytochrome c among different species, indicating a
common ancestry. For example, human cytochrome c contains 104 amino acids, with 37 of these
appearing in the same position across different species.

The primary structure of a protein refers to its unique sequence of amino acids, which is determined
by the gene encoding the protein. Even small changes in this sequence can dramatically affect
protein structure and function. For instance, sickle cell anemia results from a single amino acid
substitution in the β chain of hemoglobin, causing red blood cells to assume a sickle shape and
leading to various health problems.

Secondary structure refers to local folding patterns in polypeptide chains, resulting in structures like
α-helices and β-pleated sheets. These structures are stabilized by hydrogen bonds between amino
and carboxyl groups in the peptide backbone.

Tertiary structure is the overall three-dimensional shape of a protein, primarily determined by

interactions among R groups of amino acids. These interactions include hydrophobic interactions,
ionic bonding, hydrogen bonding, and disulfide linkages. The final shape of a protein is crucial for its
function, and any disruption in structure can lead to loss of function. Exergonic Reactions:

These reactions release energy.

The reactants have higher potential energy (due to the arrangement of their chemical bonds)
compared to the products.

During the reaction, some of this energy stored in the bonds of the reactants is released.

As a result, the products have lower overall energy compared to the reactants.

Exergonic reactions occur spontaneously because they release energy into the surroundings
without needing an external energy source.

Example: Cellular respiration, where glucose is broken down to produce energy in the form of
ATP.

Endergonic Reactions:

These reactions absorb energy.

The reactants have lower potential energy compared to the products.

Energy must be inputted from an external source to drive the reaction forward.

As a result, the products have higher overall energy compared to the reactants.
 Endergonic reactions are non-spontaneous under normal conditions because they require an
input of energy to occur.

Example: Photosynthesis, where energy from sunlight is used to convert carbon dioxide and
water into glucose and oxygen.

So, in exergonic reactions, energy is released because the reactants have higher energy than the
products, while in endergonic reactions, energy is absorbed to form products with higher energy
than the reactants..b bbIn a chemical equilibrium, while the rates of the forward and reverse
reactions are equal, it doesn't necessarily mean that the concentrations of reactants and products
are the same. Instead, it means that the concentrations remain constant over time because the rates
at which reactants are converted into products and products are converted back into reactants are
balanced.

In the context of living cells, the term "dynamic equilibrium" emphasizes the continuous flow of
molecules and energy through metabolic pathways. Unlike in a static equilibrium where there's no
net change in concentrations, in a dynamic equilibrium within cells, there are ongoing metabolic
reactions that involve the synthesis and breakdown of molecules. This constant metabolic activity
maintains a balance in the concentrations of key molec