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Satpura Range is a series of seven mountains1. It includes the following hills:

1. Dhupgarh: It is the highest peak in the Satpura Range and in Madhya Pradesh, central India2.
2. Mahadeo Hills: These hills are located in the northern region of the Satpura Range3.
3. Maikala Range: This range extends through the eastern part of the Satpura Range3.
4. Rajpipla Hills: These hills are located in the western region of the Satpura Range3.
5. Amarkantak: This is a hill in the eastern end of the Satpura Range, and it is the source of the Narmada River 1.
6. Bori: This hill is located in the central part of the Satpura Range2.
7. Tapti: This hill is also located in the central part of the Satpura Range2.

Refer--https://www.pmfias.com/hills-of-peninsular-india-aravalis-vindhyas-satpuras-western-ghats-sahyadris-eastern-ghats/
#aravali-range

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A land slope gradient of 25, often expressed as 25%, refers to a slope that rises 25 units vertically for every 100 units horizontally1. This is
also known as a 25:100 ratio2.
In other words, for every 100 feet (or meters, or any other unit of measurement) you move horizontally, you would rise (or fall) 25 feet (or
the same unit of measurement). This measurement is often used in civil engineering, architecture, and land surveying to describe the
steepness, incline, gradient, or tilt of a surface1.
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Loo is a strong, dusty, gusty, hot, and dry summer wind from the west that blows over the Indo-Gangetic Plain region of North India and
Pakistan12. Here are some key points about the Loo:
 Origin: The Loo is thought to have originated in the large desert regions of the northwestern Indian subcontinent, specifically the
Great Indian Desert, the Cholistan Desert, and the desert areas of Southern Balochistan2.

 Formation: The Loo winds are developed due to the formation of the Monsoon Low Pressure
Trough in northern India3. To maintain balance, the hot dry winds of the surrounding areas move
in, causing the formation of Loo3.
 Season: It is especially strong in the months of May and June12. The wind Loo comes to an end with the arrival of the Indian
monsoon in late summer2.
 Effects: Exposure to it often results in fatal heat strokes due to its extremely high temperatures which are usually around 45 °C–50
°C (115 °F–120 °F)2. Because of the extremely low humidity and high temperatures, the Loo has a severe drying effect on
vegetation, causing widespread browning in the areas affected during the months of May and June2.

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Torrential rainfall refers to very heavy rain that pours down rapidly and in great quantities12. It’s not a technical weather term as there
is no formal definition of torrential rains as recognized by the National Weather Service (NWS), but NWS does define heavy rainfall as rain
that accumulates at a rate of 3 tenths of an inch (0.3 inches), or more, per hour3.

Here are some key points about torrential rainfall:

 Formation: Torrential rain occurs when the amount of moisture in an air mass is disproportionately large compared to its
size. This can happen during certain weather events such as cold fronts, tropical storms, hurricanes, and monsoons3.

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Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), also known by sailors as the doldrums or the calms due to its monotonous
windless weather, is a broad trough of low pressure in equatorial latitudes1. It’s a band of clouds that encircles the Earth near the Equator2.

Here are some key features of the ITCZ:

 Trade Winds Convergence: The ITCZ is the area where the northeast trade winds from the Northern Hemisphere meet the
southeast trade winds from the Southern Hemisphere1. This convergence of winds leads to the development of frequent
thunderstorms and heavy rain3.
 Location: The ITCZ generally lies near the Equator, but its specific position varies seasonally 2. It tends to migrate from North to
South and from water to land since water takes longer to warm up than land1.
 Weather Effects: The ITCZ is characterized by doldrums, heavy cloudiness, calmness in the surface air, and other conditions that
make it a highly unpredictable zone1
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Western Disturbances are a type of extratropical storm that originates in the Mediterranean region12. Unlike tropical storms, which
carry moisture from the upper regions to the lower regions, Western Disturbances carry moisture in the opposite direction, from the lower
to the upper atmosphere12.

Here’s how and why this happens:

 How: A high-pressure area over Ukraine and neighboring regions consolidates, causing the intrusion of cold air from Polar
Regions towards an area of relatively warmer air with high moisture23. This generates favorable conditions for cyclogenesis in the
upper atmosphere, which promotes the formation of an eastward-moving extratropical depression23.
 Why: The reason for this opposite flow of moisture is due to the nature of Western Disturbances as extratropical
storms12. Extratropical storms are a global phenomenon with moisture usually carried in the upper atmosphere 2. The moisture in
these storms usually originates from the Mediterranean Sea, the Caspian Sea, and the Black Sea 12. When these storms encounter the
Himalayas, the moisture is sometimes shed as rain, causing rainfall in the region2.

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Monsoon Winds: The term “monsoon” is derived from the Arabic word for season, ‘mawsim’. Monsoons are essentially seasonal winds
that reverse their direction according to the change in season1. In the context of India, there are two primary monsoon winds213:

o Southwest Monsoons (Summer Monsoons): These winds blow from the southwest during the warmest months of the
year. They are caused by the formation of an intense low-pressure system over the Tibetan Plateau14. These winds bring
large amounts of rainfall to the region during June and July2.
o
o Northeast Monsoons (Winter Monsoons): These winds blow from the northeast during the cooler months of the
year15. Since they blow from land to sea, most of the nation stays dry, which explains why India’s winters are so dry5.

Trade Winds: Trade winds are steady winds that blow towards the equator from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere or from the
southeast in the Southern Hemisphere6. They are also known as tropical easterlies and are known for their consistency in force and
direction6. In the context of India:

o Southeast Trade Winds: These winds are attracted to the low-pressure system over the Indian subcontinent during the
summer. Due to the Coriolis effect, these winds turn right towards low-pressure areas in India after crossing the equator
and begin blowing in the southwestern direction. These winds bring the southwest monsoon to India’s peninsular region7.
o
o Northeast Trade Winds: These are the reversal of the Southwest Monsoons and are dominant in India during the winter5.

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Cleavage in(splitting r breaking in a definite structure) structure can refer to two different concepts depending on the context, one in
geology and the other in mineralogy:
1. Geology: In structural geology and petrology, cleavage describes a type of planar rock feature that develops as a result of
deformation and metamorphism1.
2. Mineralogy: In mineralogy and materials science, cleavage is the tendency of crystalline materials to split along definite
crystallographic structural planes2. It occurs on planes where the bonding forces are weakest3. The orientation and

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Plate tectonics, convergent and divergent boundaries refer to the interactions between tectonic plates12345:
1. Convergent Boundaries: These occur when two tectonic plates move towards each other124. If one of the colliding plates is
oceanic (denser) and the other is continental (less dense), the oceanic plate is subducted, or pushed under the continental
plate2. This can lead to the formation of deep ocean trenches and volcanic arcs2.
2. Divergent Boundaries: These occur when two tectonic plates move away from each other135. When this happens beneath the
ocean, it forms a mid-ocean ridge5. The separation of the plates allows magma to rise from the mantle, creating new oceanic
crust135.
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Solar irradiance is the power of solar radiation per unit area, measured in watts per square metre (W/m²) in SI units. It
is the amount of sunlight that reaches the Earth’s surface or any other surface in the solar system. Solar irradiance varies depending on the
distance from the Sun, the angle of incidence, the time of day, the season, and the atmospheric conditions. There are different types of solar
irradiance, such as total, direct, and diffuse, that have different applications and effects on the environment 1

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Western Disturbances are extratropical storms that significantly impact India’s weather patterns, particularly during the non-
monsoon seasons. Let’s delve into the details:
1. Origin and Mechanism:
o These disturbances originate in the Mediterranean region.
o Unlike tropical storms that carry moisture from upper to lower regions, western disturbances flow in the opposite
direction, from lower to upper atmosphere.
o The Westerlies guide their precipitation pattern.
2. Journey to India:
o These storms pick up moisture as they travel.
o Originating in Ukraine, they move eastward.
o The high-pressure region in Ukraine creates a cold air intrusion from polar regions with high moisture.
o This results in an extratropical depression moving eastward to the Indian subcontinent.
3. Impact on India:
o Western disturbances bring sudden winter rain to northern India.
o They are crucial for Rabi crops (such as wheat) grown during winter.
o The Himalayan mountain range plays a role in their development, causing rainfall in the region.
4. Significance:
o Western disturbances are vital for agriculture in India.
o They influence cloudy skies, warmer nights, and unusual rain patterns.

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UNDER metamorphic process limestone changes in to marble, sandstone
changes into quartzite, coal into graphite. These are more valued than the
former.so you also change metamorphically…
5/13/2024 7:49:01 PM
throughout Earth's history, there have been several major mass extinction
events, during which a significant proportion of species went extinct within a
relatively short period of time. These events have had profound impacts on the
planet's biodiversity and ecological systems. Here are the five most well-known
mass extinctions:
1. Ordovician-Silurian Extinction (around 443 million years ago): This event
occurred during the transition from the Ordovician to the Silurian period.
It's thought to have been caused by a combination of factors, including
glaciation and a drop in sea levels. Marine life was most affected, including
brachiopods, trilobites, and graptolites.
2. Late Devonian Extinction (around 359-375 million years ago): This
extinction occurred over several phases during the Late Devonian period.
It's believed to have been caused by various factors such as climate change,
 sea-level fluctuations, and anoxic events (lack of oxygen in the oceans).
Many marine species, including corals and early tetrapods, were affected.
3. Permian-Triassic Extinction (around 252 million years ago): This is often
referred to as the "Great Dying" and is the most severe mass extinction
event in Earth's history. It led to the extinction of around 96% of marine
species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species. The causes are still
debated but likely include volcanic activity, climate change, and ocean
acidification.
4. Triassic-Jurassic Extinction (around 201 million years ago): This event
marked the boundary between the Triassic and Jurassic periods. It's
associated with large volcanic eruptions that released vast amounts of
greenhouse gases, leading to climate change and habitat disruption. Many
marine and terrestrial species went extinct.
5. Cretaceous-Paleogene Extinction (around 66 million years ago): This is one
of the most well-known mass extinctions as it led to the demise of the non-
avian dinosaurs. It's widely attributed to the impact of a large asteroid or
comet near what is now the Yucatan Peninsula, causing widespread fires,
tsunamis, and a "nuclear winter" effect due to debris in the atmosphere.
This event also affected many other species and allowed mammals to
diversify and take over ecological niches.
These mass extinction events have played a significant role in shaping the
evolution of life on Earth. It's important to note that extinction is a natural
process, but the current concern is that human activities, such as habitat
destruction, pollution, and climate change, are causing a rapid decline in
biodiversity that could lead to another mass extinction event sometimes
referred to as the "Sixth Extinction."
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Thunder and lightning are caused by the rapid heating and cooling of air around a lightning bolt, which creates a
shock wave that we hear as thunder12. Here’s a more detailed explanation:
1. Formation of Lightning: Lightning begins as static charges in a rain cloud. The turbulent winds inside the cloud
cause water droplets to be lifted to great heights where they freeze, while downdrafts push ice and hail down from
 the top of the cloud1. When the ice going down meets the water coming up, electrons are stripped off, resulting in a
cloud with a negatively charged bottom and a positively charged top1. When the strength of the charge overpowers
the insulating properties of the atmosphere, lightning happens1.
2. Formation of Thunder: The lightning bolt rapidly heats the air around it to incredible temperatures—as hot as
54,000 °F (30,000 °C), which is five times hotter than the surface of the Sun1. This rapid heating causes the air to
expand quickly, creating a shock wave that travels through the air, causing the sound we know as thunder 12.
Upon collision of ice- water particles and ice particles and
becomes +vely and -vely charged and the ions are evenly
distributed in the cloud. But upon movement of turbulent winds
separate them into negatively charged move down of the cloud
and positives move up. Now these negative near tto the surface
of the earth and often look for positives in the excited state.
Hence sudden discharge of electrons to the ground via trees ,
pole and human blasts these mediums..
This type of thunder is called cloud to ground thunder
Another type is cloud to cloud thunder of +ves of one cloud with
-ves of another cloud causes lightenings in the sky…
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A cyclone is a large air mass that rotates around a strong center of low atmospheric pressure1. The rotation is counterclockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere when viewed from above1. Cyclones are characterized by inward-spiraling
winds that rotate about a zone of low pressure1.
Cyclones can be of various types, including tropical cyclones, polar cyclones, mesocyclones, and extratropical cyclones 2. The formation of
cyclones takes place in low-pressure areas2. The vulnerability of the place where the cyclone strikes depends on the topography, intensity,
and frequency of the cyclone2.
Tropical cyclones, known as hurricanes in the Caribbean Sea, typhoons in the China Sea, and simply cyclones in the Indian Ocean, are
warm-core systems that form due to significant thunderstorm activity1. Mesocyclones can lead to the formation of tornadoes
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Onshore wet monsoons, also known as summer monsoons, are formed due to the differential heating of land and sea123. Here’s a simple
explanation:

1. During the summer, the land heats up faster than the ocean. This causes the air over the land to become warmer and rise, creating
an area of low pressure123.
2. The surrounding ocean, being cooler, has high pressure123.
3. Air always moves from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas. So, the cooler, moist air from the ocean moves towards the
land123.
4. As this moist air rises over the land, it cools and condenses to form clouds and rain123.

This phenomenon is most often associated with the Indian Ocean, where it causes wet and dry seasons throughout much of the
tropics123. The summer monsoon brings a humid climate and torrential rainfall to these areas123. Monsoons always blow from cold to warm
regions1
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Offshore dry monsoons, also known as winter monsoons, occur when the land cools faster than the ocean during the winter12.
Here’s a simple explanation:

1. During the winter, the land cools down faster than the ocean. This causes the air over the land to become cooler and denser,
creating an area of high pressure12.
2. The surrounding ocean, being warmer, has low pressure12.
3. Air always moves from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas. So, the cooler, dry air from the land moves towards the ocean12.
4. As this dry air moves offshore, it brings little to no rain, resulting in a dry season12.

This phenomenon is most often associated with the Indian Ocean, where it causes wet and dry seasons throughout much of the
tropics34. The winter monsoon is less powerful than the summer monsoon in Southeast Asia, in part because the Himalaya Mountains
prevent much of the wind and moisture of the monsoons from reaching the coast2
India has several copper mines, including12:
Copper mines in india

1. Khetri Copper Belt in Rajasthan1

2. Singhbhum Copper Belt in Jharkhand1
3. Malanjkhand Copper Belt in Madhya Pradesh13
4. Hazaribagh in Jharkhand2
5. Ghatshila in Jharkhand2

6. GEOGRAPHY
7. DATED:23-05-2023