Marine and Petroleum Geology 162 (2024) 106738

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Marine and Petroleum Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo

Facies prediction in a mature oil field of Cretaceous age in the Calumbi

Formation (Sergipe-Alagoas Basin, Brazil) by using an outcrop
analogue approach
German Meneses Hernandez a, *, Felipe Torres Figueiredo a, b, Liliane Janikian c,
Mateus do Nascimento Santana a, Pedro Victor Oliveira Gomes d
a
Programa de Pós-graduação em Geociências e Análise de Bacias (PGAB) - UFS, Avenida Marechal Rondon Jardim s/n - Rosa Elze, São Cristóvão, SE, 49100-000,
Brazil
b
Departamento de Geologia, Universidade Federal de Sergipe (UFS), Avenida Marechal Rondon Jardim s/n - Rosa Elze, São Cristóvão, SE, 49100-000, Brazil
c
Instituto do Mar, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Rua Carvalho de Mendonça, 144, Santos, Brazil
d
Instituto de Geociências, Rua do Lago, 562, Universidade de São Paulo, Cidade Universitária, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Outcrop gamma-ray logging is crucial for understanding subsurface reservoirs, but it is rarely used on outcrops,
Gamma spectrometry especially for correlating gamma-ray data from borehole profiles. This case study focuses on a mature onshore
Reservoir analogue reservoir in the Sergipe-Alagoas Basin, Brazil, which is currently discarded by the oil industry. The study used an
Outcrop lithostratigraphy
ideal outcrop (M-17) to gather stratigraphic, sedimentological, and gamma-ray data to better understand the
Wave platform
lateral heterogeneity and distribution of reservoirs thought to have formed in offshore environments in the
Sergipe-Alagoas Basin. Seismic and paleontological data were used to reduce uncertainty in outcrop data. The
results showed a paleoenvironment compatible with marine sedimentary deposits on the continental shelf,
supported by evidence from Thalassinoides and Ophiomorpha ichnogenera. The model suggests sand was
continuously deposited following cycles of accommodation generation, resulting in a single succession of rocks
organized into three system tracts: lowstand, transgressive, and highstand. The gamma-ray response identified
and correlated the Cidade de Aracaju Oilfield using a pseudo-well and a well in the Cidade de Aracaju Oilfield.
The methodological approach was seen as useful as a correlation tool, revealing previously unknown exploratory
potential in the surrounding areas of the overexploited Cidade de Aracaju Oilfield. This approach is both un­
precedented and pivotal, revealing previously unknown exploratory potential in the surrounding areas of the
overexploited Cidade de Aracaju Oilfield.

1. Introduction from geobody size and geometry to microscale attributes such as

In recent years, a growing number of studies describing the use of
outcrop reservoir analogues have been published, with a particular focus
on the oil industry (Howell et al., 2014; Ferreira et al., 2016; Shanmu­
gam, 2018; Cheers et al., 2019; Ganat, 2020). Widespread interest from
industry and academia in developing different methods using outcrop
analogue studies of aerial digital photogrammetry (Pringle et al., 2006;
Westoby et al., 2012; Priddy et al., 2019), LIDAR laser scanner (Hodg­
etts, 2013; Rarity et al., 2014), and grounding penetrating radar (Bris­
tow et al., 1996; Forte et al., 2012) has greatly enhanced our
understanding of reservoir heterogeneities at different scales, ranging
permo-porosity, diagenesis events, and basin burial history. The utili­
zation of these techniques has facilitated the creation of accurate models
that demonstrate the significance of various rock types in underground
oil reservoirs and production curves (Nyberg et al., 2019; Marques et al.,
2020). For example, the use of facies analogues has enhanced the ac­
curacy of static connectivity and the effectiveness of reservoir drainage
(Howell et al., 2014). In this context outcrop studies provide valuable
insights into subsurface reservoir models and are therefore essential for
the success of extraction operations.
A commonly used method in outcrop analogue studies involves
combining facies association data observed in vertical lithostratigraphic

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: germanmh@usp.br (G. Meneses Hernandez).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2024.106738
Received 25 July 2023; Received in revised form 25 January 2024; Accepted 29 January 2024
Available online 1 February 2024
0264-8172/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
G. Meneses Hernandez et al.
profiles with gamma ray spectrometry data acquisition. This approach
has been documented in various studies (Myers and Bristow, 1989;
Jordan et al., 1993; Aigner et al., 1995; Davies and Elliot, 1996; Rider,
1996; North and Boering, 1999; Ferreira et al., 2010; Simícek and Babek
2014; Zuchuat et al., 2019; Phujareanchaiwon et al., 2021; Howell et al.,
2022). Although the method plays a crucial role in stratigraphic analysis
and is widely used in the oil industry, there is a lack of publications that
have examined the inherent behavior of gamma radiation patterns
measured at the outcrop and their correlation with the values obtained
from well profiles in producing fields (Slatt et al., 1992; Evans et al.,
2007). It is important to highlight this specific aspect, as we have
emphasized its necessity in understanding the porosity behavior of the
reservoir throughout the extensive methodology used to construct a
precise model. Previous studies have shown that utilizing natural
gamma radiation at the outcrop level offers the benefit of being asso­
ciated with different lithofacies and architectural elements (Keeton
et al., 2015; Sêco et al., 2018, 2021; Yeste et al., 2020). Moreover,
gamma rays can be employed to determine the clay composition of
sedimentary rocks, as evidenced by studies conducted by Rider (1996),
Svendsen and Hartley (2001), Ferreira et al. (2010), Simcek and Babek
(2014), and Milad and Slatt (2019). Reservoir models can be better
understood by examining stratigraphic profiles in different outcrop
areas. These models, in conjunction with facies and geochemical ana­
lyses, can be employed to reconstruct the historical environment (Sim­
cek & Babek, 2014; Paredes et al., 2018; Milad and Slatt, 2019).
Nevertheless, it remains crucial to verify the accuracy of sedimentary
facies and stratigraphic models through the utilization of well and
seismic data obtained from each examined basin (Howell et al., 2014;
Falivene et al., 2014; Peter et al., 2020). One specific issue regarding
Brazil’s onshore oil fields relates to the high level of uncertainty
Fig. 1. Onshore reservoirs of the Sergipe-Alagoas Basin within the context of Brazil’s passive margin basins (top right). Zoom in on the red square on the left to see
the location of the Calumbi Formation outcrops studied previously (blue and yellow circles). The Cidade de Aracaju Oilfield (green stars) and the analogue candidate
outcrop investigated in this study (red triangle).
2
Marine and Petroleum Geology 162 (2024) 106738
surrounding exploiting mature reservoirs, which are normally aban­
doned after years of exploration or sold to minor companies. Some
Mesozoic reservoirs that have been preserved along the South Atlantic
Ocean margin, either as onshore or offshore basins in northeast Brazil,
are an intriguing target for this approach. The Sergipe-Alagoas Basin
was formed during the Jurassic-Cretaceous breakup of southwest
Gondwana and has significant exploration potential either onshore,
where the majority of mature deposits are located, or offshore, where
recently gigantic hydrocarbon reservoirs were discovered. These de­
posits are composed of carbonate successions registered in the Morro do
Chaves and Coqueiro Seco formations (Campos-Neto et al., 2007;
Luft-Souza et al., 2022) and turbidite systems in the Calumbi Formation
(Cainelli, 1992; Soares et al., 2019). A large number of mature onshore
oil fields are drilled in drift siliciclastic successions, which are typical of
deep-water facies associations. This is especially pertinent given that the
majority of research focuses on the growing economic significance of
turbidite models in the hydrocarbon reservoir spectrum (Colligan, 1999;
Weimer and Pettingill, 2008; Shanmugam, 2012; Cauxeiroa et al., 2020;
Souza et al., 2020; Murawski et al., 2020). According to Weimer and
Pettingill (2008) and Aas et al. (2014), turbidite facies associations are
responsible for approximately 78 billion barrels of oil worldwide. In
Brazil, more than 80 % of all oil is produced in this context (Mutti and
Carminatti, 2011; Rodrigues de Ceia et al., 2012; ANP, 2017; ANP,
2018), which makes stratigraphic and facies studies from the outcrop
scale imperative for the application of upscaling methods to the
reservoir.
To tackle the problem, we examine a specific example - the Cidade de
Aracaju Oilfield in the Sergipe-Alagoas Basin. This oilfield is located in
the northeastern region of Brazil, as shown in Fig. 1. We aimed to
establish a correlation across the entire basin between a widely
G. Meneses Hernandez et al.
recognized outcrop of the Calumbi Formation and the oilfield in ques­
tion. Using this outcrop as an analogue candidate for the onshore Cidade
de Aracaju Oilfield can greatly enhance the understanding of both the
exposed and submerged sections of the unit. This is particularly valuable
due to the challenges in accurately predicting the presence of sand
bodies, which lack clear seismic contrasts but serve as the primary res­
ervoirs within this lithostratigraphic unit. These reservoirs are of utmost
importance to the onshore oil fields in the Sergipe-Alagoas Basin. The
primary goal was to offer fresh perspectives on the connection between
the similar geological formation exposed on the surface and the oilfield.
In this case, a facies association characterized by wave-dominated
sedimentation in a nearshore environment was identified. The outcrop
was analyzed in detail using gamma-ray spectrometry to determine the
various geological contexts and the prevailing geochemical environ­
ments during sedimentary deposition. This analysis also enabled us to
make inferences about the mineral composition, following the meth­
odology of Svendsen and Hartley (2001); Klaja and Dudek (2016). The
analysis of GR logs in relation to stratigraphy and 2D seismic profiles in
the oilfield enhanced our comprehension of lateral continuity, strati­
graphic analysis, and reservoir modeling, resulting in a more depend­
able understanding.
2. Geological context
The Cidade de Aracaju oil field is located in the Sergipe-Alagoas
sedimentary basin, approximately 5 km west of Aracaju in São
Cristóvão-SE municipality (Fig. 1). In 1997, twelve wells were drilled in
Divina Pastora, a structural low northwest of Canyon Ilha Pequena,
yielding a total of 24,000 cubic meters of oil and 589,600 cubic meters
of gas. The former concessionaire (PETROBRAS) estimated that the
initial in-situ volume would be 238 thousand cubic meters of hydro­
carbons and 3,346,000 cubic meters of gas. The primary source of
production in this study is the Calumbi Formation, which has an average
accumulation depth of 560 m (ANP, 2016).
Stratigraphically, the Calumbi Formation consists predominantly of
mudstones and shales in discordant contact (pre-Calumbi unconformity)
with carbonate rocks (Cotinguiba Formation), formed during the Cen­
omanian (100.5–93.9 Ma) and Coniacian (89.8–86.3 Ma) stages, or with
older rocks (Riachuelo Formation, late Aptian–Cenomanian) (Souza-­
Lima, 2001). Most researchers agree that the Sergipe-Alagoas Basin
experienced a sea level drop in the Coniacian Stage, resulting in a
prominent regional erosion of the Cotinguiba Formation’s carbonate
rocks, recorded as an erosional unconformity. During the Upper Con­
iacian (87.3–86.3 Ma), a marine transgressive event caused the retro­
gradation of clayey and muddy sediments that were progressively
deposited on the slope, unconformably covering previously deposited
strata of the Cotinguiba Formation. This event had a significant impact
on the deposition of the basin, which has gradually shifted from
carbonate-dominated to siliciclastic-dominated, resulting in the depo­
sition of the Piaçabuçu Group. The Piaçabuçu Group consists of car­
bonates and marine shales from the Calumbi, Marituba, and Mosqueiro
formations (Feijó, 1994; Souza-Lima, 2001; Figueiredo, 2014).
The occurrence of the Calumbi Formation is restricted to the offshore
zone in the center-south of the Alagoas sub-basin (Jardim de Sá, 2008).
As a result, the unit has attracted the attention of the industry, primarily
due to its potential as an oil reservoir. The sedimentary rocks in this unit
have typical thin interdigitation of a few centimeters to a few millime­
ters between mudstones and siltstones. They are also often found with
structureless or stratified sandstones that have fluidization structures,
flute castings, and convoluted laminae (Souza-Lima, 2001). For a long
time, subsurface information like tabular sandstone layers mixed in with
the long pelitic section or pinch-out petroleum traps (Cainelli, 1992;
Feijó, 1994) was only understood as slope and ocean basin turbidite
systems. When it comes to the unit thickness, there is a clear thickening
towards the ocean, and in general, it is in the range of 20 to 2400 m,
locally reaching even greater values of up to about 3000 m (Fisher et al.,
3
Marine and Petroleum Geology 162 (2024) 106738
1973; Morelli, 1989; Soares et al., 2019) (Fig. 2). New seismic evidence
supports these thicknesses. Inside the paleo canyon, there are three
incomplete stratigraphic sequences (low stand, transgressive, and high
stand) that make up almost 1000 m of the Calumbi Formation (Soares
et al., 2019). That interpretation partially corroborates previous works
(Cainelli, 1992) and confirms the highly variable distribution of envi­
ronments at the same time interval along the Brazilian coastline.
Outcrop studies have corroborated the existence of multiple coastal
systems, including turbiditic systems, which originate from the platform
(Souza-Lima, 2001, 2003). Stratigraphic accumulation and trapping
models are currently acknowledged.
In the map-view the unit is a small, green area characterized by low
hills covered in vegetation. It is located between the main estuaries of
the Sergipe and Cotinguiba rivers and mangrove channels (Souza-Lima,
2001; Jardim de Sá, 2008; Figueiredo, 2014; ANP, 2011). (Fig. 2). In this
area, there are few exposed rock formations that are poorly preserved
and usually covered by Neogene sediments (Barreiras Group), Quater­
nary deposits, or have undergone significant erosion. The main reason
for this is the lithological composition of the area, which is predomi­
nantly composed of shale and other fine-grained, clayey minerals. The
likelihood of preserving outcrops of the Calumbi Formation is highest in
the southern part of the basin, where there are frequent layers of mud­
stones and coarse sandstones. These sandstone layers have low-angle
cross-stratifications arranged in sets that are a few centimeters in size.
Additionally, there are layers of strata that are a few decimeters or
sub-decimeters in size, which show wave patterns that are either uni­
directional or bidirectional. The deposits were identified as the outcome
of both inner and outer platform systems. Offshore bars were usually
modified by onshore currents when sea levels were lower, as indicated
by Souza-Lima (2001) and Jardim de Sá (2008).
3. Materials and methods
The materials utilized in this study consist of a dataset obtained from
previously published sources, including paleoenvironmental, biostrati­
graphic (Koutsoukos, 1989; Souza-Lima, 2001), and petrographic (Fig­
ueiredo, 2014) data. An analysis of existing literature on the Cidade de
Aracaju Oilfield enabled us to establish the ages of various stratigraphic
units and identify the corresponding reservoir intervals. We have suc­
cessfully proven that the reservoir intervals of interest in the Calumbi
Formation are from the late Campanian Stage, which is part of the Upper
Cretaceous period.
The subsurface data collected for this study consists of borehole
logging, seismic lines, and seismic facies. The outcrop data, on the other
hand, consists of sedimentary facies, lithostratigraphic sections, pale­
ontological data, and gamma-ray spectrometry.
The acquisition, integration, processing, and interpretation were
divided into three stages.
3.1. Stage I. data compilation and the building of a multi-scale model
An extensive analysis was conducted on the existing literature data
pertaining to geological, structural, paleontological, and biostrati­
graphic datasets, as well as seismic section interpretations in the study
area. This analysis enabled the following outcomes: 1) identification,
georeferencing, and creation of an outcrop database that serves as an
analogue to the Calumbi Formation in the Sergipe-Alagoas Basin; 2)
determination and evaluation of the connections between the outcrops,
biostratigraphic framework, and distribution patterns of paleoenviron­
ments associated with the Calumbi Formation and Cretaceous events.
Subsurface analyses were conducted using correlations of paleo­
environmental and biostratigraphic cross-sections between onshore and
offshore wells, specifically utilizing ditch cuts and cores. The seismic
dataset consists of post-stack time-migrated (PSTM) data obtained from
15 lines. The production history of oil, gas, and water in the oil field and
per well was reconstructed using prior research conducted by Cruz
G. Meneses Hernandez et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 162 (2024) 106738

Fig. 2. (a) Summarized chronostratigraphic chart and lithostratigraphic units of the Sergipe-Alagoas Basin cropping out around Cidade de Aracaju Oilfield. The
green area at the center of the map highlights the Upper Cretaceous Calumbi Formation studied here (modified from Teixeira et al., 2014). (b) Regionally interpreted
seismic profile, from the continental (left) to the deep-water region (right) of the Sergipe-Alagoas Basin, showing the main stratigraphic sequences (modified from
Cruz, 2008; Jardim de Sá, 2008; Cruz et al., 2010).

(2008) and Jardim de Sá (2008). The completion well data and petro­
physical logs of the wells utilized in Koutsoukos’ (1989) thesis were
acquired via unrestricted access to publicly available onshore technical
data provided by REATE (Brazil’s initiative for rejuvenating oil and
natural gas exploration and production in onshore regions).
A multi-scale model was generated by integrating spatial data using
the open-source Geographical Information System software QGIS
Desktop 3.10.3 A Corua. The vector data files were acquired through the
web application GeoANP, which is a georeferenced data map and
interactive tool that gathers information from the oil and gas exploration
and production sectors, specifically related to data collected in Brazilian
sedimentary basins. The raster data was categorized into two distinct
types: 1) georeferenced raster maps in Geotiff format, and 2) georefer­
enced aerial photos and satellite images. Ultimately, it was established
as a database management system specifically designed to manage
petrophysics data, which includes the incorporation of the QgeoloGis
plugin for visualizing well logs in QGIS.
3.2. Stage II. seismic, facies and petrophysical analyses
The horizons of the Calumbi Formation were analyzed using
Schlumberger’s Petrel® software suite. The process of correlating
seismic data with well data was carried out by utilizing a time-depth
curve constructed from Sonic Delta Time (DT) data. The P-wave
seismic velocity observed in the Sergipe-Alagoas Basin environment can
be utilized to establish a connection between seismic horizons and their
appropriate depth and geological bed (Box and Lowrey, 2003).
Clinoforms and seismic reflector termination patterns were identi­
fied in 2D seismic lines. Additionally, a horizon slice was mapped within
the Campanian interval using the interpreted horizons. The acoustic
impedance (AI) analysis, derived from sonic and density logs, was
employed to quantify the seismic reflection responses of the lithologies
under investigation.
The interpretation of the structural and geological models involved
the utilization of petrophysical analysis, well correlation (including the
correlation of wells in the Cidade de Aracaju Oilfield and wells with
paleoenvironmental and biostratigraphic cross-section data in the study

4
G. Meneses Hernandez et al.
area, as documented in Koutsoukos’s (1989) thesis), and seismic depth
maps and faults datasets. Additionally, previously published data from
the literature were also incorporated. The Petrel software and Qgis
suites were utilized to conduct geological, structural, and seismic sec­
tions, along with lateral correlation analyses, for the Campanian wells
and outcrops in the studied region.
The analysis of the reservoir zones was conducted using the Inter­
active Petrophysics (IP) software developed by Lloyd’s Register Soft­
ware. Reservoir parameters were described and identified using wireline
log data from seven (7) wells in the Cidade de Aracaju field. The soft­
ware subsequently graphed the different log inputs in relation to depth,
measured in meters, using the logs as a reference. The Schlumberger
chart, as described by Schlumberger 2013, was utilized to perform
environmental corrections for various logs including gamma ray, den­
sity, neutron, and resistivity. Porosity, formation water resistivity, water
saturation, and hydrocarbon saturation were determined through pet­
rophysical analysis.
The section and vertical profile were described in detail using the
methodology proposed by Miall (1977). The data acquisition process
involved combining information from a vertical profile with gamma-ray
log data, following the methodologies outlined by Sêco et al. (2018). The
gamma-ray data was acquired manually using a portable gamma spec­
trometer (RS-125 Super SPEC model, Radiation Solution Inc.). Mea­
surements were recorded at 38 discrete intervals along the vertical log
section at outcrop M-17. At intervals of 0.2 m and whenever there was a
variation in the granulometry of the rock, a series of three measurements
was taken. The device was directed towards the rock for a duration of 60
s, with the uranium (U), thorium (Th) levels recorded in parts per
million, and the potassium (K) levels recorded as a percentage. (e.g.,
Løvborg et al., 1971, Hesselbo and Parkinson 1996, and Svendsen &
Hartley in 2001.
To facilitate the identification of subtle trends and patterns in the
concentration changes of the radioisotope elements K, U, and Th, we
organized the Spectral Gamma Ray (SGR) responses according to the
main lithofacies observed at the M-17 outcrop. This facilitated the
testing of lithology, minerals, and clay content.
In order to assess the precision of the measurements, scatter plots
were generated to compare the concentrations (in parts per million) of
the variables total count (TC), potassium (K), uranium (U), and thorium
(Th) with their corresponding counts per second. This approach is
similar to the methodology employed by Sêco et al. (2018) (Fig. 6). The
correlation indexes did not show a significant spread of the data points
and were deemed satisfactory (R2 > 0.9) based on the analysis of the
graph. This suggests that the equipment is accurately calibrated,
allowing for a comparison between the gamma-spectrometric profile
and the stratigraphic profile of the M-17 outcrop.
The gamma-ray data was analyzed and graphed using a methodology
similar to that of well profiles. Peaks of higher or lower radioactivity
were detected, considering the presence of clay and sandy layers,
respectively. The graphics were associated with the stratigraphic pro­
files depicted along a vertical section of the outcrop. To enable the
comparison of the measured sections with the well records, the dataset
was converted into API units using the multipliers: API = 16K + 8U +
4Th (Ellis, 1987). To establish a relationship between the exposed rock
formation and the underground data, we selected the gamma ray curve
obtained from the profile conducted in this study and compared it with
the subsurface data from the Cidade de Aracaju oil field. In order to
assess the correlation, a simulated well was created using Schlumberg­
er’s Petrel® software, and the gamma-spectrometry data obtained from
the outcrop for each thickness and lithology were imported. The Ghost
Well Profile Correlation Petrel® tool was used to perform the lateral
correlation.
3.3. Stage III – surface and subsurface data integration
The fusion of surface and subsurface data was conducted utilizing
5
Marine and Petroleum Geology 162 (2024) 106738
Schlumberger’s Petrel® software and the open-source Geographical
Information System tool QGIS Desktop 3.10.3. The suitable rock expo­
sure displaying connectivity as determined in the seismic interpretation,
exhibiting compatible attributes, and demonstrating a stronger associ­
ation (in terms of both spatial and temporal aspects) with the Cidade de
Aracaju Oilfield was chosen, following the sequential procedure out­
lined below.
1) Identifying the relationship between the exposed rock formations
and historical oceanic events, gaps in sedimentation, changes in rock
types across a horizontal plane, and the influence of tectonic forces
on the rock structure;
2) Establishing and evaluating the connection (continuity of seismic
horizons and variations in topography) between the exposed rock
formations and the seismic horizons associated with the Calumbi
Formation (a geological formation from the Campanian–Upper
Cretaceous period), and evaluating the correlation between
biostratigraphy, paleoenvironmental data from wellbore logging,
and the seismic horizons associated with the Calumbi Formation.
4. Results
4.1. Digital modeling
The digital model was generated by integrating geospatial data from
satellite base map layers, geological surface map information, and pre­
viously published structural geology data by Jardim de Sá (2008) and
Teixeira et al. (2014). The geospatial basin analysis was integrated with
the 2D seismic line sections of the Cidade de Aracaju Oilfield. This
integration allowed for the identification of the optimal location that
could potentially provide a suitable correlation between the Calumbi
Formation reservoir units and regional outcrops, both in terms of space
and time. The M-17 outcrop, previously described by Figueiredo (2014)
and presented here, along with the Taissoca 1 and 2 outcrops described
by Souza-Lima (2001), were selected as the most suitable examples for
conducting gamma spectrometry characterization (Fig. 3).
The data obtained from these rock exposures comprises both quan­
titative and qualitative information, encompassing distinct sedimentary
facies, facies architecture, depositional systems, and stratigraphy. The
selection of the M-17 outcrop as an appropriate analogue was based on
the conceptual models of the depositional system. The analysis of both
the surface and subsurface confirmed that the Campanian interval ex­
tends laterally from the oilfield (CA-1 well) to the outcrops in the Nossa
Senhora do Socorro region. The analyses encompassed the examination
of the geological structure, seismic lines, information from published
outcrops, a detailed digital model of the study area at various scales, the
boundaries of the Campanian interval, and biostratigraphic data from
the SE-04 and SE-10 wells as documented in Koutsoukos (1989).
The data obtained from well SE-10 was combined with the surface
data from outcrops, which were interpreted by Figueiredo (2014), and
the biostratigraphic data from outcrops, which were interpreted by
Souza-Lima (2001). The location on the surface where the seismic line
102 intersects the outcrops was also taken into account. The presence of
Campanian rocks from the Calumbi Formation was verified in the M-17,
Taissoca 1, and Taissoca 2 outcrops (Fig. 3).
4.2. Outcrop analogue data
4.2.1. Lithostratigraphy, facies association and fossil assemblage
The Campanian M-17 outcrop is situated on Rodovia Manoel do
Prado Franco, 8 km north of the Cidade de Aracaju Oilfield. It has a total
thickness of 11 m and exhibits a predominant alternation of mudstones,
siltstones, lower very fine-grained sandstones, massive and laminated
mudstones, and subordinate siltstones (Fig. 4).
Based on field data, five lithofacies were distinguished: F1 - con­
sisting of massive and laminated mudstones with subordinate siltstones,
G. Meneses Hernandez et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 162 (2024) 106738

Fig. 3. The study area encompasses various features, including the authors’ outcrops located at the bottom right, the uninterpreted correlation of onshore seismic
lines 62, 280, and 102, the exploration wells CA-01, SE-04, 10-1 and SE-10, which have identified the Campanian interval of the Calumbi Formation, the boundaries
of the Cidade de Aracaju Oilfield represented by a yellow square, and the M-17 outcrop located near Nossa Senhora do Socorro city, which is the focus of the current
study. The uninterpreted correlation of onshore 2D seismic lines post-stack (62, 280, and 102) identifies the location of the Cidade de Aracaju Oilfield, the M-17
outcrop analogue area, and the top of the reservoir. TA-1 and TA-2 are situated 8 km to the north of the Cidade de Aracaju Oilfield, with coordinates UTM:
8800350N/707300E and UTM: 8800250N/707400E respectively.

F2 - characterized by interbedded mudstones, siltstones, and lower very
fine-grained sandstone, F3 - composed of heterolithic mudstones and
very fine-grained sandstone, F4 - consisting of very fine to upper fine-
grained sandstone, and F5 - composed of fine-grained sandstone.
These lithofacies are organized into three genetically related facies as­
sociations (Table 1).
4.2.1.1. Facies association 1- FA1: offshore and offshore transition
4.2.1.1.1. Description. The Facies Association (FA1) comprises pre­
dominantly massive and laminated mudstones with subordinate silt­
stones (F1), as well as interbedded mudstones, siltstones, and lower very
fine-grained sandstone (F2) facies. These sediments were primarily
deposited through the settling of mud particles suspended in water. The
paleoenvironment is very probable to have been a low-energy offshore
zone that is suitable for an open marine environment, similar to the ones
described by Howard and Reineck (1981). The thickness of the deposit
varies from a few tens of centimeters to less than 1 m along its deposition
path, and it maintains a continuous lateral extent.
In interval C (Fig. 4a), mudstones are alternating with siltstones and
sandstones that have very small grains. The sandstone layers, ranging
from very fine to upper fine-grained, are found alongside sub-
decimetrically thick laminated sandy siltstones. The predominant sedi­
mentary structures found at the uppermost level include ripples,
climbing ripples, and swaley cross-stratification (Fig. 4b and d). The
interval (D) contains a combination of mudstones, siltstones, and very
fine-grained sandstones that are interbedded. Additionally, there are
massive and laminated mudstones, as well as siltstones. The transition
from thick sandstones with tabular shape and continuous distribution
was observed from the lower to the upper part for thin sandy siltstones
with layers, as well as for sandstones with ripple marks and Swaley
cross-stratification (Fig. 4b). This section identifies ichnofossils that
exhibit both internal mold preservation and those that do not, in addi­
tion to massive sandstone facies. Certain individuals have conserved
tunnels that range in width from 0.2 to 0.5 cm and can extend up to 4 cm
in length. The preserved burrows are primarily characterized by their
sub-horizontal orientation and uninterrupted structure. They are pre­
dominantly Y-shaped and contain evidence of both mold and counter-
mold.
4.2.1.1.2. Interpretation. The F1 deposits, characterized by hori­
zontal layers and fine grains, indicate a low-energy environment where
suspended sediment can settle. The lack of preserved sedimentary
structures suggests slow deposition rates and a low-energy environment,
similar to an offshore marine environment below the storm-wave base
(Plint, 2010; Boggs, 2012; Hutsky and Fielding, 2016; López et al.,
2016). The larger grain sizes of F2 may suggest a slightly more energetic
environment between fair-weather and storm-weather waves, charac­
terized by minimal reworking from storm-waves. This environment
could be the offshore transition zone, where sediment alternates be­
tween calm water conditions and the strong influence of storm currents
(López et al., 2016; El Euch-El Koundi and Barhouni, 2020). This facies
association suggests that bioturbation is generally absent or weak.
Despite that, the Y-shaped burrows record both mold and counter mold,
which suggests the activity of Thalassinoides sp. and Ophimorpha nodosa.
4.2.1.2. Facies association 2 – FA2: fair-weather and storm-wave-
dominated shoreface
4.2.1.2.1. Description. FA2 is composed of heterolithic mudstones,
very fine-grained rippled sandstones, and cross-stratified sandstones
with swaley cross lamination. This association, which is typically 10–25
cm thick and bounded on top and bottom by FA1, is characterized by a
coarsening and thickening trend along the depositional strike.
4.2.1.2.2. Interpretation. Current ripples and cross-stratification in

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G. Meneses Hernandez et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 162 (2024) 106738

Fig. 4. (a) Studied outcrop M-17 (UTM: 8799576.45N/707381.37E), showing a compound section. Interval A represents facies association 1 (FA1), interval B
represents facies association 2 (FA2), interval C represents facies association 3 (FA3), interval D represents facies association 1 or 3 (FA1 - FA3); (b) compound section
showing sandy fraction predominantly composed of storm and wave structures; (c) structureless and poorly laminated sandy mudstones at interval C; (d) fine-grained
sands with low angle cross lamination bearing Ophiomorpha nodosa found at interval D.

facies F3 (heterolithic mudstones and very fine-grained sandstones) and
F4 (very fine to upper fine-grained sandstones) point to a depositional
environment where storm and wave-dominated foreshore to shoreface
deposits predominate, with progradation and an offshore transition to a
shoreface environment (Harms et al., 1975; Howard and Reineck, 1981).
This facies association suggests that bioturbation is generally nonexis­
tent or weak.
4.2.1.3. Facies association 3 – FA3: transgressive storm shelf
4.2.1.3.1. Description. FA3 comprises swaley cross-stratified sand­
stones (F4) and fine-grained sandstones (F5). This facies association is
between 10 and 30 cm thick, and its boundaries are either sharp or
erosive.
4.2.1.3.2. Interpretation. FA3 describes the process of transgressive
erosion, where previous deposits along the shoreline were eroded. These
eroded sediments were then reworked into a marine shelf environment,
which is primarily influenced by strong storm currents but also

7
G. Meneses Hernandez et al.
Table 1
Lithofacies and interpreted facies associations of the M-17 outcrop from the Calumbi Formation.
Lithofacies Lithology Sedimentary structures
1 Structureless and laminated Structureless or parallel lamination
mudstones, and subordinate
siltstones
2 Interbedded mudstones, Plane parallel lamination; Coarsening upward
siltstones and very fine- pattern
grained sandstones
3 Sandstones with Sharp-based. Plane parallel lamination, current
heterolithic bedding ripples, horizontal to low-angle cross-
lamination
4 Very fine to fine-grained Swaley cross-stratification, wave and
sandstones combined flow ripples, rare occurrences of
symmetrical and asymmetrical ripples on bed
surfaces.
5 Fine-grained sandstones Structureless; rare low-angle to plane parallel
lamination. Sporadically swaley cross
lamination showing sharp or slightly erosive
layers
experiences periods of calm and low-energy conditions. According to
Leckie and Walker (1982) and López et al. (2016), the presence of
swaley cross-stratification in facies F4 suggests a potential connection
influenced by intense storms and rapid sediment deposition. Facies F5
can be interpreted as the outcome of density flows propelled by waves,
or more plausibly, they may be storm beds formed by the movement of
sandbodies on the shelf (Swift et al., 1987; Snedden et al., 2011; López
et al., 2016). The level of bioturbation in sandstone beds ranges from
low to moderate.
The predominant biogenic structures observed in sandstone layers
are Thalassinoides and Ophiomorpha nodosa (Fig. 5). These structures are
characteristic of the Skolithos Ichnofacies, which can thrive in both mud
and sand substrates ranging from the foreshore to the proximal lower
shoreface. These structures are also associated with tempestites (Ains­
worth et al., 2008; Pemberton et al., 2012). The Y-shaped burrows are
commonly linked to the presence of permanent or long-term habitats
(Frey et al., 1978; Rindsberg, 2012). The combination of sedimentary
facies and ichnofacies observed on the M-17 outcrop strongly indicates a
marine environment that is typically affected by gentle waves and has a
high population of suspension-feeding organisms. This environment
could either be a fair-weather wave influenced area, as suggested by
MacEachern et al. (1999) and MacEachern and Bann (2008), or it could
be the lower offshore region where Thalassinoides sp. are less frequently
preserved but can still be found.
4.2.2. Spectral gamma ray logging at the analogue outcrop
The total gamma-ray counting taken along the vertical log profile at
the M-17 analogue outcrop exhibit significant variability, with values
ranging from 85.0 to 150 API units. The mudstones exhibited the highest
recorded values, ranging from 119 to 150. The API values of the fine-
grained sandstones ranged from 85.0 at the bottom of the section to
115. The silty sandstones exhibited a narrow grain size distribution,
with values ranging from 120 to 125, showing moderate variability.
The typical levels of potassium (K), thorium (Th), and uranium (U) in
sedimentary rocks are consistent with those found in sandstones and
shales. The U-shaped curve obtained from measurements at 0.4, 3.0, 5.8,
6.4, 7.0, 8.8, and 10.4 m indicates stratigraphic levels where organic
matter was preserved through deposition, resulting in reduced oxygen
levels that promote the retention of uranium. The Th and K curves
indicate that measurements are higher in areas with finer sediments and
lower in areas with coarser sediments. Nevertheless, certain Th mea­
surements (obtained at a depth of 10.2 m) correspond to the mean value
observed in claystones and shales.
The gamma-ray dataset supports the identification of the layers
observed at the outcrop as either clayey sandstones or arkoses, rather
than silty or muddy sandstones. This conclusion is based on the higher
8
Marine and Petroleum Geology 162 (2024) 106738
Bed/set Bioturbation Facies Association
thickness
Centimeters to Rare Thalassinoides sp and (FA 1) - Offshore
decimeters Ophiomorpha nodosus.
Centimeters to - (FA 1) - Offshore transition
decimeters
Thickening-up – (FA 2) - Fair-weather and
(up to 0.2 m) storm-wave-dominated
shoreface
Centimeters to – (FA 2) - Fair-weather and
decimeters storm-wave-dominated
shoreface
Decimeters Biogenic structures, mainly (FA 3) - Transgressive
Thalassinoides sp and storm shelf
Ophiomorpha nodosus.
potassium (K) content observed in these layers. The elevated K values
observed in all samples (ranging from 1.7 % to 3.5 %) suggest the ex­
istence of fine sediments within the sandstones, indicating a significant
abundance of k-feldspar within the same intervals. The measured and
predicted gamma-spectrometric responses for each layer and lithotype
exhibit consistency, with a noticeable decrease in intensity observed in
the sandy layers (Fig. 6).
The SGR activity concentrations were used to determine the vari­
ability and concentration of elements (Table 2). The total gamma-ray
measurements show a wide range of values, from 77 to 150 (API),
which align with the notable variations and distinctions in the gamma-
ray profile patterns observed in relation to the different vertical sedi­
mentary facies identified in the outcrop (Fig. 5). The gamma-ray
signature of Lithofacies F1 exhibits relatively elevated values associ­
ated with dense and layered mudstone, with lesser amounts of siltstones.
The elevated gamma-ray readings can be attributed to the presence of
organic matter and its association with radioactive potassium, a com­
mon constituent. This can be linked to the clay’s capacity to absorb
uranium and thorium. Lithofacies F2 exhibits a gamma-ray response
that closely resembles that of F1, characterized by relatively elevated
values. The potassium log from F1 and F2 exhibits a relatively consistent
trend with the gamma-ray log (Fig. 8).
Conversely, the lithofacies F5, which consists of fine-grained sand­
stone, exhibits the lowest recorded value of gamma rays, indicating a
low presence of radioactive substances. The gamma-ray response of
lithofacies F4 exhibits a resemblance to that of F5, characterized by
comparatively low values. The gamma-ray measurements of lithofacies
F3 vary between 118 and 135 API units, with an average value of 126
API. The gamma-ray responses from F3 are comparatively elevated in
relation to F1 and F2, primarily due to the presence of heterolithic
mudstones.
The U/Th ratio in the measured section ranges from 0.02 to 0.46
(Table 2). The values of all identified lithofacies indicate an oxic con­
dition of the depositional system, with values consistently below 0.5
(Ferreira et al., 2020). The elevated levels of uranium may suggest the
existence of mudstones with a high organic content, as indicated by the
U/Th ratio observed in the measured sections. The identification of the
predominant radioactive minerals in the clay was determined by plot­
ting the ratio of potassium to thorium (Schlumberger, 2009). The pre­
vailing clay minerals were identified as a combination of mixed-layer
clay, with Th/K ratios ranging from 3.7 to 8.6, which were found to be
correlated with smectite (montmorillonite), kaolinite, and chlorite
(Fig. 7a).
The Th/U ratios have demonstrated their impact on the sedimentary
environment. The relationship demonstrates that continental prove­
nance is typically associated with high Th/U ratios, whereas marine
G. Meneses Hernandez et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 162 (2024) 106738

Fig. 5. (a) Detailed facies on interval D (on Fig. 4), highlighting the contact between a layer composed of greenish-gray mudstone at the base and yellowish massive
and poorly laminated sandstone at the top. From bottom to top, layers transition between massive sandstone (Sm) with tabular geometry of lateral continuity, passing
to the top to laminated sandy siltstones (Sl) in a sub-decimetric thickness, sandstones with plan-parallel lamination (Sh), and sandstones with climbing ripples (Sr).
(b) Ophiomorpha nodosa is described at the base of interval D on massive silty sandstone. (c) Sandstone with typical "Y" shape-like burrows. (d, e) Internal mold of
O. nodosa, preserved on micaceous sandstone. Burrows are 0.2–0.5 cm in width and 4 cm in length.

depositional settings are characterized by the lowest trend (Klaja and
Dudek, 2016). The thorium to uranium ratios in the samples vary be­
tween 2.2 and 7, accounting for 59 % of the samples. This indicates a
marine deposit environment, as the Th/U ratio is less than 7. On the
other hand, the Th/U ratios in 41 % of the samples range from 7 to 49.8,
suggesting a continental deposit environment, as the Th/U ratio is
greater than 7 (Fig. 7b).
The cross-plot of Th/U and Th/K for the outcrop samples reveals that
the Th/U ratios vary between 2.2 and 49.8, while the Th/K ratios range
from 3.7 to 8.6. The values of a certain group indicate that the ratios are

9
G. Meneses Hernandez et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 162 (2024) 106738

Fig. 6. Comparison of the M-17 outcrop’s lithostratigraphic profile (on the left) and measured gamma spectrometric section (on the right). Graphs of data correlation
and dispersion in concentrations (PPM) and counts per second (cps) are shown below. Yellow boxes show predominantly fine to medium sandstone facies, and green
boxes across vertical logs represent mudstones and sandy mudstones. The total GR log cut line is approximately 120 API, dividing measures of sandstones and
mudstones, and a cut line around 0.17 could be interpreted for the U/Th ratio.

Table 2
Mean values and ranges of total gamma-ray (API), thorium (ppm), uranium (ppm), potassium (%), and the U/Th ratio for each lithofacies were interpreted across the
vertical log profile at the analogue outcrop.
Sedimentary Facies Total Gamma-ray (API) Thorium (ppm) Uranium (ppm) Potassium (%) U/Th

Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean

F1: Massive and laminated mudstone and subordinate 121.2–150.8 134.3 15.2–23.4 17.8 0.4–5.8 1.6 2.3–3.4 2.8 0.02–0.46 0.09
siltstones
F2: Interbedded mudstone, siltstones and very fine- 122.4–137.2 129.7 15.2–17.3 16.5 2.6–3.1 2.8 2.3–2.9 2.6 0.16–0.20 0.17
grained sandstone
F3: Heterolithic mudstones and very fine-grained 118.4–135.2 126.3 11.3–17.8 14.8 1.3–4.2 2.6 2.5–3 2.7 0.08–0.37 0.18
sandstones
F4: Very fine to fine-grained sandstone 111.2–135.2 117.0 11.2–19.8 15.1 0.4–4 1.2 2.6–3.1 2.8 0.02–0.36 0.08
F5: Fine grained sandstone 77.6–154.4 111.4 9.4–20.3 14.1 0.4–1.8 1.6 1.6–3.1 2.4 0.02–0.31 0.11

consistent with those found in a uranium environment that has under­
gone leaching (Th/U > 7). This suggests that the samples were formed in
a terrestrial environment that was highly oxidized. On the other hand,
the values of another group are associated with shallow marine envi­
ronments (Fig. 7b). The Th/K ratios obtained in this study indicate that
the samples contain a high concentration of mixed-layer clays.
The organic matter content in clay sediments was evaluated quali­
tatively using the U/K ratio. An elevation in the U/K ratios accompanied
by a reduction in the Th/U ratios is attributed to an augmentation in the
uranium concentration in conjunction with organic matter. The U/K
ratios span from 0.1 to 1.8 U/K ratios (Fig. 7c).
4.3. Seismic analysis and gamma ray data from boreholes
Acoustic impedance analysis revealed significant disparities between
shales and sandstone rocks, with the latter exhibiting the highest am­
plitudes (Fig. 8A). Sandstones exhibit strong and uniformly distributed
reflections. The occurrence of hydrocarbons is associated with
moderate-to-low-intensity reflection anomalies above the Calumbi
Formation sandstone reservoir, which may be caused by the strong ab­
sorption of gas-filled reservoirs.
Two horizon slices, named H1 and H2, were interpreted on the
seismic section. These slices cover a time span from the Maastrichtian to
the Turonian, which corresponds to the Upper Cretaceous period. The
Horizon H1 represents the lowermost layer of the Maastrichtian interval,
located at a depth of 700 (TWTT) in the borehole (Fig. 8B). Maas­
trichtian markers exhibit lateral discontinuity, characterized by mod­
erate to low amplitude reflections. Chaotic seismic facies are prevalent,
with subordinate discordant seismic reflections. These layers can be
considered as a dynamic and energetic environment of sediment

10
G. Meneses Hernandez et al.
Fig. 7. (a) Cross-plot showing intermediate Th/K values compatible with mixed-layer clay minerals, kaolinite, montmorillonite, and illites. (b) Th/U and Th/K
confirm the mixed-layer clay mineral trend and two distinct trends of continental-like and marine-like environments. (c) Th/U revealing predominantly oxidizing
environment conditions.
deposition. The Maastrichtian interval in borehole CAU-02-SE has a
thickness of 475 m and is primarily composed of shales and mudstones,
with occasional layers of siltstones. Narrow bodies of fine-to very-fine-
grained sandstones intercalated between shales and siltstones are rare.
The stratigraphic unit markers in the Calumbi Formation show
consistent horizontal distribution and similar seismic characteristics
between slices H1 and H2 on the Campanian interval. These markers
have moderate to high amplitude reflections and a distinct bottom set
identified by horizon (H2) at a depth of 1000 (TWTT) in the borehole.
The Horizon H2 represents the upper part of the Santonian-Turonian
unit and is identified by the presence of the top of the Cotinguiba For­
mation in the borehole.
Except for a few intervals that can be described as unclear sand­
stones, the analysis of gamma-ray logs and stacking patterns reveals a
slight difference in lithology between sandstones and shale signals in the
interpreted section of the Calumbi Formation. The bow trend, charac­
terized by a consistent decrease followed by a gradual rise in the gamma
signal, is commonly attributed to the processes of progradation and
retrogradation. The phenomenon is characterized by a gradual transi­
tion at both ends of the gamma-ray trend. It represents an upward
cleaning trend followed by an upward dirtying trend of the same
thickness (Fig. 8C).
4.4. Structural setting
4.4.1. Seismic line 62
Seismic research conducted on line 62 identified three clearly
distinguishable seismic facies patterns at different depths (Fig. 9a). This
enabled us to separate and calculate the thickness of each facies based on
the Maastrichtian, Campanian, and Santonian-Turonian time intervals
observed in the São Cristóvão structural low.
Campanian intervals display a high degree of lateral continuity,
characterized by parallel seismic facies featuring moderate to high-
amplitude reflections. The reflectors exhibit a synform fold configura­
tion towards the southeast and an antiform fold configuration towards
the northwest at a certain depth. The presence of curved reflections with
a low angle of dip indicates the truncation of two reflectors with a high
11
Marine and Petroleum Geology 162 (2024) 106738
angle of dip. These reflectors are interpreted as massive extension faults,
which are most likely a major fault separating the lower structural block
in the hanging wall from the footwall. This fault is located northwest at
the Aracaju High (Fig. 9b).
A likely reason is the activation of stretching processes that took
place while the Cotinguiba Formation was being deposited, specifically
in the São Cristóvão low (a block of rock above the fault), where addi­
tional rollover structures formed and served as a trapping mechanism.
The structural configuration is intricate, and it is probable that signifi­
cant faults are present beneath the region. Seismic analysis and well data
indicate that the Calumbi formation has a significant thickness in the
southwestern region, suggesting a higher level of subsidence.
4.4.2. Seismic line 280
Seismic line 280 spans a distance of 6.3 km and extends in a north­
ward direction from south. By utilizing regional well-tied surfaces of
exploration well 10-1 and conducting well top analyses, we were able to
accurately ascertain the precise thickness of the Calumbi Formation in
the core area of seismic line 280. The seismic interpretation indicated
that there is consistent and parallel continuity with reflections that have
a moderate to high amplitude. The identification of markers along the
well in the Calumbi Formation zone enabled the interpretation of the
same Campanian intervals found in the Cidade de Aracaju Oilfield. The
lateral continuity of the Campanian interval (Fig. 8B) was verified by
analyzing paleontological and biostratigraphic data from outcrops
Taissoca 1 and 2 (Souza-Lima, 2001) located in the northern zone of
seismic line 280. The Aracaju High corresponds to the highest part of
seismic line 280, which represents a block of rock located below the fault
plane. The structural setting is intricate; there are likely significant faults
beneath the area, and it is possible that the presence of these faults is not
connected to a single event or the spreading of rift faults that are
currently active in the basin or the deformation caused by salt tectonics
after the rift phase (Cruz, 2008; Jardim de Sá, 2008; Cruz et al., 2010).
Secondary faults with vertical displacement intersect the primary fault
blocks, resulting in varying levels of internal deformation of the fault
blocks. This deformation event can be interpreted as a post-rift defor­
mation event (Fig. 9b).
G. Meneses Hernandez et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 162 (2024) 106738

Fig. 8. (A) The seismic behavior (acoustic impedance, reflection coefficients, and response pattern of the synthetic seismogram) of the sandstones in the Calumbi
Formation was assessed and described using data from gamma ray, sonic, and density profiles of well CA-02, which spans a thickness of 1006 m. The sandstone
intervals are depicted in yellow, while the shale and mudstone intervals are depicted in green. (B) Seismic line number 0062 in the 0–1000 ms Two-Way Travel Time
(TWT) interval, represents the Calumbi Formation sandstones from the CA-01 well. The left side well-logging profile line shows the gamma ray log, with sandstone
intervals marked in yellow, shale and mudstone intervals marked in brown, and limestone intervals marked in cyan. The well logging profile line on the right
corresponds to the Sonic log data. The red intervals indicate higher velocities. (C) The Calumbi formation in the Cidade de Aracaju oilfield shows a bow-shaped
gamma ray trend in four wells. This trend is either symmetrical or barrel-shaped and can be observed at both the top and bottom of the reservoir sandstone. The
trend indicates a pattern of coarsening upward (CU) and fining upward (FU).

The seismic interpretation and well data reveal that there is a sig­
nificant increase in subsidence towards the southern region, as evi­
denced by the substantial thickness of Lower Cretaceous to Paleogene/
Neogene strata. The Calumbi Formation exhibits a reduced thickness in
the southern region, where Campanian sedimentary units crop out in the
city of Nossa Senhora do Socorro. Conversely, the unit is thicker in the
northern region, despite being situated closer to the surface. This sug­
gests that there are different levels of maturity across the basin, ranging
from the São Cristóvão Low to the Aracaju High. The lower Cretaceous
unconformity, which can be seen in various sections of the basin along
seismic line 280, demonstrates a shift from a restricted marine envi­
ronment to open marine conditions (Cruz, 2008; Jardim de Sá, 2008;
Cruz et al., 2010).
interpretation. Line 62 facilitated the deduction of a comparable struc­
tural arrangement. Certain reflectors indicate the existence of exten­
sional high-angle faults, while others indicate the presence of listric
normal faults. A roll-over anticline structure is evident in the middle
section of the hanging wall block. Unconformities with erosional trun­
cation patterns have potentially been detected in certain regions along
seismic lines 62 and 102 (Fig. 9b). The plan view along line 62 shows a
sloping geometry from west to east, where the Calumbi Formation is
thickest in the eastern region (line 102). This suggests either increased
subsidence in that direction or a differential throw caused by the listric
fault.
5. Discussion

4.4.3. Seismic line 102 5.1. Paleoenvironment and paleogeography

Seismic line 102 spans a distance of 3.9 km in an east-west orienta­
tion. The line is in a deteriorated state, which poses difficulties in its The facies association observed at outcrop M-17 indicates a

12
G. Meneses Hernandez et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 162 (2024) 106738

Fig. 9. (a) Uninterpreted 2-D seismic lines 62, 280, and 102 revealed only the depth at which the formations of interest for this study (Quaternary to Cretaceous)
were found. The axes (purple lines) denote the intersection points of the seismic lines and the position of seismic-well calibration is indicated by two parallel vertical
black lines. The orientation of the line is specified in letters in the upper part of each seismic line; the relative location of the Cidade de Aracaju Oilfield, wells used in
the interpretation, and the location of the outcrops are marked in the upper part of each seismic line. (b) The thickness of Maastrichtian to tertiary strata is rep­
resented in green shadow color on 2-D seismic lines 62, 280, and 102, while the Santonian-Turonian gap is marked in yellow shadow color. The Campanian interval is
depicted with no color shadow. The structural setting revealed that Campanian intervals of the Calumbi formation reach great thickness in the southwest (São
Cristóvão Low area), and seismic interpretation confirms the lateral continuity of the Campanian interval, which rises to the surface outcrops in the region of Nossa
Senhora do Socorro in the northern zone (Aracaju High).

Fig. 10. (a) Satellite image of the Nossa Senhora do Socorro area (red box in Fig. 5C). The yellow line denotes the studied cross section between the outcrops (QGIS-
Bing satellite image). (b) A cross section from outcrops positioning and (c) stratigraphic correlation between the M-17 (this study), TA-1, and TA-2 outcrops
(Souza-Lima, 2001).

13
G. Meneses Hernandez et al.
paleoenvironment that is consistent with a marine setting located within
the continental shelf. This setting is situated between the shoreface and
offshore, in a medium-to deep-neritic environment. The basin in this
area is primarily supplied with sand particles from the mainland, which
are consistently reshaped by storms or waves over a large expanse of the
continental shelf. Mud is occasionally deposited during high tides. The
evidence observed in the studied outcrop (M-17) provides an explana­
tion for the extensive horizontal extent and narrow width of sand layers
deposited on the continental shelf, which is predominantly composed of
shale and mudstones. This interpretation supports the findings of Souza-
Lima’s publication from 2001, which is based on the examination of the
Taissoca 1 (TAI-1) and Taissoca 2 (TAI-2) outcrops. The author links the
outcrops to a continental shelf setting that was subsequently revealed
during a Neo-Campanian regression, causing sedimentation to occur in a
deeper water environment. This expansive region facilitated the pres­
ervation of crustaceans’ burrows, which were found in muddy sand
deposits that had been altered by both fair weather and storm waves.
The paleoenvironmental model proposed in this study, based on the
M-17 outcrop, suggests that sand deposition occurred continuously
following cycles of gradual increase in accommodation generation. This
led to the formation of a stratigraphic sequence consisting of three
system tracts arranged in a bottom-to-top order: lowstand, transgressive,
and highstand system tracts (Fig. 10C). Sediments are later modified,
resulting in the creation of storm deposits on the shelf. These deposits
gradually accumulate and form a ridge known as a shelf-storm ridge (e.
g., Snedden and Nummendal, 1991). Subsequently, tidal currents gain
prominence over storms, leading to the alteration of previous storm
deposits. Subsequently, the tides’ supremacy over the storms leads to the
modification of prior storm sediments.
This is substantiated by evidence of erosion and subsequent deposi­
tion of sediment, primarily originating from a shoreline that is
advancing towards the west of the study area. The sedimentation in the
Cidade de Aracaju Oilfield area was primarily influenced by platform
turbidites, which provided sediment for the formation of the reservoir.
Turbidites, which are oil reservoirs, were primarily formed as a result of
storm events in the region. Turbidite currents likely had a substantial
impact on the spreading of sand to far-off areas of the basin, particularly
those near the Cidade de Aracaju Oilfield.
From a paleogeographic perspective, this is notably intriguing,
indicating the presence of a remarkably sinuous coastline extending
from the north to the south, and the simultaneous existence of distinct
environmental conditions in each segment of the basin. In the northern
part of the Sergipe-Alagoas Basin, seismic interpretation of three or four
sequences, which include incised valleys at a regional scale, revealed
that the area is primarily affected by the presence of submarine canyons,
submarine fans, and slumps on the slope (Koutsoukos and Beurlen,
1991; Cainelli, 1992; Feijó, 1994; Ronzê, 1995). These environments
can be linked to the transgressive and regressive phases of the regional
paleogeographic overview during the Campanian and Maastrichtian
intervals of the Sergipe-Alagoas Basin (Silva, 2007).
5.2. Structural setting
The presence of roll-over structures, high-angle normal faults, and
listric normal faults indicates a structural framework related to a dis­
tensive tectonic reactivation during the end of the Campanian period.
This interpretation is supported by Souza-Lima (2001) and Chang et al.
(1992), who suggested that the continuous differential thermal subsi­
dence experienced a gradual cooling process towards the craton during
the Campanian stage. Additionally, the basin experienced progressive
tilting due to the simultaneous expansion of the Atlantic Ocean. The
structural configuration is intricate due to the presence of significant
faults that are likely located beneath the area. The occurrence of these
faults is likely not caused by a single event, but rather connected to
thermal subsidence processes or the propagation of reactivated rift faults
in the basin. It could also be associated with post-rift salt tectonic
14
Marine and Petroleum Geology 162 (2024) 106738
deformation events (Cruz et al., 2010). The lower Cretaceous uncon­
formity, observed at various locations in the basin along seismic line
280, signifies a shift from a confined marine habitat to unrestricted
marine conditions (Cruz et al., 2010).
The sedimentation in the basin during the Campanian period has
predominantly been of marine origin since the post-rift phase. It has
been characterized by both upward and downward variations in sea
level throughout the sedimentation process. The transgressive event
took place when there was a shift in sedimentation from carbonate to
siliciclastic. The stacking pattern became progressive due to the higher
sediment input (Campos Neto et al., 2007).
5.3. Gamma-ray correlation: from the outcrop to Cidade de Aracaju
Oilfield
Hand specimens represent sandstone strata and silty sandstones. The
measured average concentrations indicate the presence of radioactive
elements, which may be attributed to the infiltration of clays. This
suggests a high uranium (U) value, with varying amounts of clay in each
sample. Regarding the K measurements, nearly all of the sampled in­
tervals exhibited elevated concentrations, ranging from 1.7 % to 3.5 %.
This suggests that finer sediments are likely to be conserved and in­
dicates the presence of k-feldspar in those intervals. These findings
support the previous interpretations made by Figueiredo (2014).
The gamma ray response of the outcrop was compared to a pseudo-
well, which had a measured gamma ray profile, and a well in the Cidade
de Aracaju Oilfield. This comparison was done specifically for the in­
terval that corresponds to the Campanian age of the Calumbi formation.
A strong correlation can be observed between the lithological units and
the responses detected in vertical well CA-04-SE, specifically in its
gamma ray profile data at a depth of 539.5–550.5 m TVD. The presence
of varied vertical levels in the sandy bodies indicates the potential of
lateral extension (Fig. 11a).
5.4. Reservoir behavior
By integrating production data, petrophysical data, and well-lateral
correlation, we were able to identify the lateral continuity between
layers of different thicknesses, as well as the production characteristics
of each structural block and reservoir properties. Despite the oilfield
displaying diverse levels of structural deformation (Fig. 11b), all of the
structural blocks contain reservoir fluids of the same composition, which
have been formed through natural pressure depletion. The petrophysical
analysis indicated a porosity range of 9.2 %–32 % and a permeability of
30 millidarcies when saturated with oil of 30◦ API. The main method of
production involves the presence of gas in a solution (Fig. 12a). Reser­
voirs that have been divided into separate sections by layers of shales
seem to be connected over long distances and can create barriers to
vertical flow beneath the surface. Although there is evidence supporting
the existence of vertical stratigraphic barriers, the overall performance
of this field over a long period of time suggests that lateral connectivity
is generally strong. Based on material-balance calculations, the rate at
which the pressure is decreasing aligns with the depletion of the reser­
voir volume. Flow barriers are consistently observed in production
behavior and seismic appraisal. Reservoir faults (Fig. 12b) can some­
times be responsible for these boundaries.
The primary factors influencing the porosity and permeability of
reservoirs at the pore-scale are most likely the combined effects of the
initial texture of sandstones (predominantly determined by grain size,
sorting, and clay content) and the subsequent burial diagenesis to some
extent. Figueiredo (2014) conducted a petrographic analysis of the
outcrops and found that the sandstones consist primarily of mono­
crystalline quartz grains (82–94 %), with smaller amounts of carbonate
microfossils (6–18 %), muscovite (1–2 %), and rare feldspars.
Furthermore, there exists a discernible correlation between the
thickness of the sandstone and the existence of porosity. This is evident
G. Meneses Hernandez et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 162 (2024) 106738

Fig. 11. (a) PETREL software generated a gamma-ray profile of the M-17 outcrop as a pseudo-well, indicating correlation points with letters ranging from "a" to "l.”
Correlation of the M-17 outcrop’s gamma-ray profile (black line and shade of blue color) with the CA-04 (7-CAU-006-SE) well’s gamma-ray data (blue line) using the
PETREL software’s phantom curve tool for petrophysical well profile correlation. For each lithology, the letters indicate the consistency of the expected correlation
responses. (b) In-depth 3D plan view: detail of the reservoir’s top, interpreted structure, and identification of associated faults. (c) Total gamma ray counting and U,
Th, K, and U/Th distribution.

as the thinner layers are fully filled by carbonate cement, while the
thicker layers are less prone to cementation (Figueiredo, 2014). Hence,
the permeability structure of the reservoir is closely linked to the
arrangement of sedimentary rock types and the thickness of the sand­
stone layers. Nevertheless, the reappearance of shale barriers may be an
intrinsic attribute of reservoirs formed on the continental shelf due to
the reworking of sandstone deposits.
The Cidade de Aracaju Oilfield shares similarities with the charac­
teristics described by Koutsoukos (1989), Souza-Lima (2001), and Fig­
ueiredo (2014). These characteristics include sand grain size and
distribution trends, facies, internal surfaces, ichnofauna, depositional
process, geobody architecture, burial history, diagenesis, and lateral
continuity. The oilfield also exhibits thinning through the intercalation
of mudstones, cementation with reduced porosity, and permeability.
Moreover, the interpretation of the depositional system as a
storm-dominated shelf with elongated offshore sandstone bodies, based
on evidence from the multi-scale model, seismic interpretation, and
gamma spectrometry correlation between the M-17 outcrop and the
Cidade de Aracaju Oilfield, can potentially be applied to the subsurface.
The offshore bars were created by wave and storm activities and moved
across a muddy shelf area. These bars share similar features to those
described by various authors such as Harms et al. (1975), Conybeare
(1976), Howard and Reineck (1981), Leckie and Walker (1982), Swift
et al. (1987), Smith and Zawada (1989), Hampson and Storms (2003),
Plint (2010), Snedden et al. (2011), and Boggs (2012).
6. Conclusions
Existing production well data reveals the existence of depleted res­
ervoirs in the Cidade de Aracaju Oilfield, situated in the southern region
of the Sergipe-Alagoas Basin on the northeastern coast of Brazil. The
stratigraphic approach employed in this study involved the integration

15
G. Meneses Hernandez et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 162 (2024) 106738

Fig. 12. (a) Log Interpretations for Well CA-6 (7-CAU-008D-SE), displaying the main hydrocarbon-bearing interval (red pay flag). (b) A section window below
depicts the reservoir zonation in four wells as well as the production correlation (oil and water).

16
G. Meneses Hernandez et al.
of four sets of production well data with an analogue outcrop data (M-
17), as well as the TA-1 and TA-2 outcrops, and seismic interpretations.
The paleoenvironment model derived from the Cidade de Aracaju Oil
supports previous interpretations of platform environments that were
affected by storm and fair-weather wave ripples. These interpretations
were made based on observations from the Taissoca 1 and 2 outcrops
located 1 km to the north. However, an alternative hypothesis has been
put forward to explain the consistent presence of sandy layers. The
formation of these ridges is primarily attributed to the accumulation of
sand in a parallel manner along the shoreline, leading to the develop­
ment of elongated sand ridges. This process differs from the formation of
subaqueous dune bedforms through migration and superimposition. The
proposed model is frequently observed in transgressive system tracts,
where incised valleys containing lowstand turbidite sandy offshore de­
posits (FA1) are covered by a relatively equal mixture of sand, mud, and
muddy sand heterolithic shoreface near offshore deposits (FA2), which
is also the case in the current study.
The stratigraphic model we developed identified one of the three or
four sequences that were indicated by the seismic data obtained from the
Carapitanga Oilfield in the northern part of the Sergipe-Alagoas Basin.
The presence of highly variable shoreline contours from north to south is
indicated by the evidence of unbalanced sea level rise and falls on
penecontemporaneous (Maastrichtian-Campanian) sequences across the
basin. The interpretation is substantiated by the disparities in the sur­
roundings, such as the presence of incised submarine fans towards the
north and platform shoreface towards the south of the basin. In addition,
the presence of roll-over features and listric normal faults indicates the
impact of distensive tectonic reactivation during the late Campanian
period. This is in contrast to the northern region, where these features
are rare.
The application of the analogue outcrop approach combined with
gamma ray spectrometry was valuable in predicting facies at the Cidade
de Aracaju Oilfield. This method accurately identified the corresponding
subsurface layers, which in turn facilitated the lateral correlation of sand
bodies between wells in the southern part of the Sergipe-Alagoas Basin.
The reservoir setting obtained was crucial for interpreting architecture
heterogeneities and field-scale correlation within the study area of the
Calumbi Formation. This is supported by the long-term performance of
the field, suggesting strong lateral connectivity. Notwithstanding the
existence of vertical traps, the reservoir volume has been exhausted, and
the probable reason for this is a decline in pressure throughout the oil­
field’s exploration timeline. In addition, the reservoir exhibited several
kilometers of vertically stratified layers separated by shales, suggesting
the existence of vertical barriers to fluid flow in the subsurface. It is
advisable to conduct a future well-testing campaign in order to identify
boundaries and internal flow baffles in the Cidade de Aracaju Oilfield.
Prior to commencing exploratory campaigns, it is imperative to thor­
oughly assess mature onshore oil fields, such as those found in the
Cretaceous passive margin deposits of the Sergipe-Alagoas Basin on the
northeast coast of Brazil.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
German Meneses Hernandez: Project administration. Felipe
Torres Figueiredo: Supervision. Liliane Janikian: Paes de Almeida,
Conceptualization. Mateus do Nascimento Santana: Investigation.
Pedro Victor Oliveira Gomes: Formal analysis.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare the following financial interests/personal re­
lationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:
German meneses hernandez reports financial support was provided
by Foundation for Research Support and Technological Innovation of
Sergipe State. Liliane janikian reports financial support was provided by
National Council for Scientific and Technological Development. If there
17
Marine and Petroleum Geology 162 (2024) 106738
are other authors, they declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Fundação de Apoio à Pesquisa e à Inovação Tec­
nológica do Estado de Sergipe (FAPITEC/SE) for the scholarship pro­
vided through the Graduate Program in Geosciences and Basin Analysis
of the Federal University of Sergipe (Edital Fapitec/SE/Capes No. 12/
2016, Programa de Bolsas de Mestrado (master’s degree)) and the Na­
tional Council for Scientific and Technological Development
(CNPq—grants 312453/2019-1 to Liliane Janikian). We are thankful to
Progeologia Laboratory at the Federal University of Sergipe (UFS),
which provided the necessary software licenses (Schlumberger’s Pe­
trel®, Lloyd’s Register Software Interactive Petrophysics (IP)), as well as
the field equipment, and to Agência Nacional do Petróleo, Gas Natural e
Biocombustíveis (ANP) PRH-ANP 43.1 (grants 045319 to G. Meneses)
for scholarship to PhD and the basin seismic lines and structural geology
data. We also thank the ENGEPET oil company, which furnished pro­
duction data from seven wells, completion well data, and petrophysical
logs. The authors acknowledge Renato Paes de Almeida, professor at the
Department of Sedimentary and Environmental Geology of the Univer­
sity of São Paulo, whose patience, knowledge, and observations sub­
stantially enhanced this paper. A special thanks to Antonio Jorge
Vasconcellos Garcia, professor at the Department of Geology of the
University of Sergipe, Luiz Henrique Santos Vandelli (retired Petrobras
geologist), and Vitor Hugo Simon (retired Petrobras geologist), who
contributed with important discussions and provided stimulating com­
ments and suggestions on successive versions of the manuscript.
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