ANATOMY AND

PHYSIOLOGY I
FINAL EXAM REVIEW
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY
 Definition of Anatomy
Greek word:“anatemnein”
• Ana means “up” or “apart”
• Tomy means “temnein” or “ to dissect” or“ to cut”.

Anatomy is Scientific discipline that investigates the body’s structure —for

example, the shape and size of bones.
It examines the relationship between the structure of a body part and its
function.
Greek words : Physio means ‘ nature’
ology means ‘study of’
So Physiology means “ study of nature
Physiology : it is the scientific investigation of the processes or functions of living
things. 3
Dr. Fahima Akhter, M Phil, MBBS
 Gross Anatomy
• 3. Surface anatomy
• Study of external form of the body &
its relation to deeper structures.
• For example, the sternum
(breastbone) and parts of the ribs
can be seen and palpated (felt) on
the front of the chest. Health
professionals use these structures
as anatomical landmarks to
identify regions of the heart and
points on the chest where certain
heart sounds can best be heard

4
Dr. Fahima Akhter, M Phil, MBBS
Microscopic Anatomy
Micro means ‘small’
Scope means ‘view’
• The study of structures that are are so small that they
must be studied using a microscope.

• Histology
• Cellular Anatomy/ cytology
• Histo= tissue
– Cyto= cell
• Ology= study of
– Ology= study of
• The study of the microscopic
structure of tissues. – The study of structural
features of cells .

5
Dr. Fahima Akhter, M Phil, MBBS
 Terminology and Body Plan
• Anatomical Position
• In this position Left
Right
• the body is straight in standing position with eyes Superior
(cephalic)
also looking straight Midline
Proximal
• The palms are hanging by the sides close to the
body and are facing forwards Medial
Distal
• The feet also point forwards, and the legs are Lateral

fully extended.
Inferior
(caudal)

Distal

Proximal

Dr. Fahima Akhter, M Phil, MBBS 1-6

In what quadrant would Urinary bladder/ Appendix/
Spleen /the stomach/liver be located? which regions?

7
Dr. Fahima Akhter, M Phil, MBBS
MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY
 Skeletal Muscle Structure
 Composed of muscle cells (fibers),
connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves
 Fibers are long, cylindrical,
multinucleated
 Tend to be smaller diameter in small
muscles and larger in large muscles
 1 mm- 4 cm in length
 Develop from myoblasts
 numbers remain constant
LM 800x
 Striated appearance due to light and
dark banding
Connective Tissue covering of Skeletal Muscle

1. Endomysium
 around a single muscle fiber ( muscle
cell)
2. Perimysium
 around a fascicle (bundle) of fibers
3. Epimysium
 covers the entire skeletal muscle( ex:
Deltoid)
Fascia – on the outside of the
epimysium
Nerves and Blood Vessel Supply
 Motor neurons:
Muscular fascia
stimulate muscle fibers to
(surrounds individual
muscles and groups contract
Nerve cells with cell
of muscles)
Epimysium
Artery (surrounds muscles)
bodies in brain or spinal
Vein
Nerve
Perimysium
(surrounds fasciculi) cord
Endomysium
(surrounds muscle  axons extend to skeletal
fibers)
Muscle
muscle fibers through nerves
fiber
Artery
Axons branch so that each
Nerve muscle fiber is innervated
Vein
Contact is neuromuscular
Fasciculus
junction
Capillary

 Capillary beds surround

muscle fibers

Axon of motor neuron

Synapse or neuromuscular junction
 Micro Anatomy of the skeletal muscle
 A single muscle (ex. Deltoid)

 Muscle fasciculi

 Muscle fibers(a single fiber is

a muscle cell)

 Myofibrils in cytoplasm of
muscle cell/muscle fibers

 Myofilaments present in
myofibrils that are: myosin,
troponin, tropomyosin, actin
 a protein component/ filament
responsible for the contraction
of a muscle cell
 Physiology of skeletal muscle contraction

 Skeletal muscles require stimulation from the nervous

system in order to contract
 Motor neurons are the cells that cause muscle fibers to
contract

cell body

dendrites
Synaptic terminals
axon (synaptic end bulbs)
telodendria
axon hillock

motor neuron

End bulbs contain

vesicles filled with
Acetylcholine (Ach)
 Motor unit of skeletal muscle cell
 Skeletal muscles are made up of thousands of muscle fibers
 A single motor neuron may directly control a few fibers within a
muscle, or hundreds to thousands of muscle fibers within a
muscle.
 All of the muscle fibers controlled by a single motor neuron
constitute a motor unit
 Muscle Atrophy
 Reduction in muscle size, tone, and power
 Due to reduced stimulation, it loses both mass and tone
 Muscle becomes flaccid, and its fibers decrease in size and become weaker

Muscle Hypertrophy
 An increase in muscle fiber size.
 Muscle size may be improved by exercising
MUSCLE : GROSS
General Principles of Skeletal muscles
• To create movement
• Muscles can only pull, not push
• Muscles in the body rarely work alone, & are
usually arranged in groups surrounding a joint
• Prime mover: Plays major role in
accomplishing movement;
contracts/stretches to allow desired Flexion

movement
• Agonist: Muscle causing an action when
contracts
• Synergists: Muscles that work together to
cause a movement
• Antagonist: A muscle working in oppositionExtension
to agonist
 SCALP/ HEAD MUSCLES
OCCIPITOFRONTALIS MUSCLE
ORBICULARIS OCULI
• FUNCTION? ACTION:
WRINKLES FOREHEAD MUSCLE THAT CLOSES EYE
RAISES EYEBROWS
CAPABLE OF BLINKING
BUCCINATOR ( TRUMPET) ORBICULARIS ORIS
 MUSCLE MAKES YOU SMILE
MUSCLE CLOSES MOUTH
 MUSCLE TO COMPRESS THE SIDE OF CHEEK ( FORCING THE
AIR OUT LIKE BLOWING
 MUSCLE FOR CHEWING
Mastication: means chewing.
Involves elevation/depression of
the mandible and excursion to
grind the teeth together

Muscles of Mastication

TEMPORALIS MASSETER MEDIAL PTERYGOID LATERAL PTERYGOID

 Muscles of the thorax: breathing Muscles
Breathing requires the use of muscles:
 Diaphragm (prime mover of inspiration)
 External intercostal muscles
 Scalenes
 internal intercostal muscles
 Transversus thoracis
 Contraction of first 2 produces inspiration
 Contraction of last 3 produces-- forced expiration
 Expiration-- ??
 Normal expiration requires little muscular activity

 Intercostals
EXTERNAL INTERCOSTAL
lifts rib cage in inspiration
INTERNAL INTERCOSTAL
depresses rib cage in forced expiration
 Diaphragm
prime mover of inspiration
Forms Floor of thoracic cavity
 Major muscle of inspiration.
Rotator cuff
( Muscles around shoulder joint )

• Supraspinatus
• Infraspinatus
• Teres minor
• Subscapularis
 Muscles act on Elbow joint : (Arm Muscles )
 ( extension of elbow ) ( Flexion of Elbow)
(posterior compartment muscles of arm ) (anterior compartment muscles of arm)
-Brachialis
-Triceps brachii -Biceps brachii
-Anconeus -Brachioradialis

Muscles are:
For extension: triceps brachii , anconeus.
For flexion: brachialis ,biceps brachii, brachioradialis
 Question--Muscles Action during Elbow Flexion
 Which specific muscle of the
upper arm is responsible for the
above action of elbow joint ?
 Prime mover = ?
 Synergist = ?
 Antagonist = ?

Brachialis-Prime Biceps Brachii Brachioradialis

mover of elbow Synergist Synergist
flexion

Triceps brachii
Antagonist
LOWER LIMB : Back of thigh muscles
Hamstrings muscles :
Function/Action : flex knee
 Hamstring muscles are :
Biceps femoris ( long head )
Semitendinosus
Semimembranosus
Hamstrings are antagonists of
quadriceps femoris

Biceps femoris Biceps femoris Semitendinosus

long head Semimembranosus
short head
Front of thigh muscles :
Quadriceps femoris ( FOUR MUSCLES)
Function /Action : Knee extension
 Four parts :
1. Rectus femoris
2. Vastus lateralis
3. Vastus intermedius
4. Vastus medialis

 Antagonized by hamstrings

Knee flexors : Hamstrings

CNS PHYSIOLOGY
Central Nervous System
• Consists of
• Brain
Cranial
Brain nerves • Located in the skull
Central • Spinal cord
nervous
system • Located in vertebral/
Spinal
cord Peripheral
Spinal canal
• Brain and spinal cord
nervous
system

• Continuous with each

other at foramen
Spinal magnum
nerves

11-28
 Peripheral Nervous System
• All nervous tissue present outside CNS
• 1. Sensory receptors,
• 2. nerves,
• 3. ganglia &
• 4. plexuses
• 1. Sensory receptors are :

• Endings of the neurons

&
• Specialized cells that detect
temperature, pain, touch,
pressure, light, sound, odor
& etc

• Located : in the skin,

muscles, joints, internal
organs and organs of special
senses (eyes, tongue, nose
and ears )
Peripheral Nervous System

• 2. Nerves
• Bundle of nerve fibers (or
AXONS ) & their sheaths form
a nerve.
• 12 pair of CRANIAL NERVES
• 31 pair of SPINAL NERVES
 Peripheral Nervous System
4. Nerve Plexuses
3. Ganglia : Collection of neuron cell bodies located
Extensive network formed by of
outside the CNS.
axons of neurons located outside the
Ex : Dorsal root ganglion, Otic ganglion, Submandibular CNS
ganglion .
 Composition of Nervous tissue
2 types cells are present in nervous tissue
1.Neuron 2. Neuroglia

• Neurons or nerve cells receive stimuli (sensory) and

transmit information for activity(motor).
•Neuroglia
– Support and protect neurons

11-33
 Parts of a Neuron
 Parts of a neuron are-
• Cell body or soma
• Dendrites: input
• Axon: output

Cell body : Nucleus, extensive ER, Golgi apparatus &

mitochondria present here.

Dendrites: short, often highly branched cytoplasmic

extension , usually sensory in function.

Axons. Long , no branch. Usually motor in function

.Parts-
 Axon hillock ( cone-shaped area in the
neuron cell body)
 Initial segment: beginning of axon
 Axoplasm
 Axolemma
 Presynaptic terminals (terminal boutons)
 Synaptic vesicles
 Types/ Classification of Neurons
• Functional classification
• Sensory or afferent: transmit information towards CNS
• Motor or efferent: : transmit information away from CNS
• Interneurons or association neurons: connect one neuron to another within CNS.
• Structural classification
• Multipolar: most neurons in CNS; motor neurons
• Bipolar: sensory neuron in retina of the eye and nasal cavity.
• Unipolar: single process that divides into two branches. Part that extends to the periphery has dendrite-
like sensory receptors.

A multipolar neuron has A bipolar neuron has a A pseudo-unipolar neuron appears 11-35
many dendrites and an axon. dendrite and an axon. to have an axon and no dendrites.
 PNS : Functional classification of neuron
• SENSORY OR AFFERENT
• Transmits electrical signals (action potential) from sensory receptors to CNS
• Location of Cell bodies
• dorsal root ganglion near the SC ( for the spinal nerves ) and
• ganglia near the origins of cranial nerves
 PNS: Functional classification of neuron
• MOTOR OR EFFERENT
• Transmits action potential from CNS to
effector organ
• Divisions
A. Somatic motor neuron ( form somatic motor
nerve )
• Voluntary ( innervate skeletal muscle )
• Controls conscious thought and
movement
B. Autonomic motor neuron ( form autonomic
motor nerve ).
• Involuntary. ( innervate smooth , cardiac
muscles and glands )
• Types :
• Sympathetic (physical activity)
• Parasympathetic ( rest and digest)
• Enteric (independent of CNS)
 Neuroglia of CNS

• Major supporting cells in the CNS

• Forms permeability barrier between
the blood and the neurons
• Phagocytize foreign substances
• Produce cerebrospinal fluid
• Forms myelin sheaths around axons
• 4 types
• Astrocytes
• Ependymal cells
• Microglia
• Oligodendrocytes
Neuroglia of CNS
Ependymal Cells
Astrocyte : Regulate what substances reach the CNS
 Line brain ventricles and spinal cord
from the blood ( Form blood-brain barrier).
central canal
Blood-brain barrier:  Help to form choroid plexuses that
protects neurons from toxic substances, allows the secrete CSF
exchange of nutrients and waste products between
neurons and blood.
 Neuroglia of CNS
Oligodendrocytes
Microglia : Form myelin sheaths around the axon of many
neurons in CNS .
specialized macrophages. Respond to inflammation,
phagocytize necrotic tissue, microorganisms, and
foreign substances that invade the CNS.
Neuroglia of PNS
Satellite cells
Schwann cells or neurolemmocytes
 Surround neuron cell bodies
 Wrap around portion of only one in ganglia, provide support
axon to form myelin sheath and nutrients to neuron
 Myelinated and Unmyelinated Axons
• Unmyelinated axons: not wrapped by
Schwann cells( in PNS) or oligodendrocytes
(in CNS).
Present in gray matter of the CNS.
• Myelinated axons- wrapped by Schwann cells
or oligodendrocytes.
Present in white matter of the CNS.
• travels signals more rapidly .
• Not continuous sheath , Nodes of Ranvier present.
( Unmyelinated part of axon)
• Completion of development of myelin sheaths
occurs at 1 year of age
• Degeneration of myelin sheaths occurs in multiple
sclerosis and some cases of diabetes mellitus.
Function of myelin sheath:
• Myelin protects and insulates axons from one
another, speeds transmission, helps in repair of
axons.
11-42
 • Gray Matter
Organization of Nervous System
• Group of neuron cell bodies &
initial part of dendrites.
• Grayish in color.
• In CNS
• CORTEX-surface of the brain
• NUCLEI- clusters of gray matter
deeper within the brain
• Inner part of Spinal cord ( Butterfly
shaped )
In PNS : Ganglia

• White Matter
• Bundles of myelinated axons/
nerve fibers.
• Whitish in color
• CNS- forms nerve tracts
• PNS- All nerves
Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves
 • Extends from foramen magnum of occipital
Spinal Cord bone to second lumbar vertebra, Present in
vertebral canal.
• Segmented/ Different regions present :-
• Cervical
• Thoracic
• Lumbar
• Sacral
• coccygeal
• Gives rise to 31 pairs of spinal nerves from these
segments
• Not uniform in diameter throughout length
• Cervical enlargement
• supplies upper limbs muscles and skin
• Lumbosacral enlargement
• supplies lower limbs muscles and skin
Medullary Cone, Cauda Equina & Filum terminale
• Conus medullaris
• tapered inferior end of Spinal
cord.
• Cauda equina
• roots of spinal nerves that
extends inferiorly from
lumbosacral enlargement and
conus medullaris & form
Cauda equina, look like
“horse tail”.
• Filum terminale
• Extension of Pia mater from
the lower part of Spinal cord
to the coccyx Filum terminale
Cauda
Cauda equina
equina Filum terminale
• It anchors/fixes spinal cord to Conus medullaris
coccyx bone.
Meninges of the Spinal Cord
• Connective tissue membranes
surrounding spinal cord called
meninges.
• The layers of meninges are, from
outer to inner :
• Dura mater:
• outer layer
• Continuous with epineurium
of the spinal nerves
• Arachnoid mater:
• the Middle layer
• Pia mater:
• Inner layer, bound tightly to
surface of spinal cord. Forms
the filum terminale.
• Spaces
• Epidural
• Subdural
• Subarachnoid
 Spaces in the Meningeal layers
 Epidural space: space in between the vertebral wall
and the dura mater .This is the area for injecting
anesthesia during childbirth.
 Subarachnoid space : Contains CSF and blood
vessels

 For the diagnostic purpose, CSF is collected from the

Subarachnoid space of spinal cord by spinal tap/
lumbar puncture to help diagnose serious infections.

 Where in the vertebral column is a lumbar puncture

generally done?
---Between L3 and L4

 Why is this the site of choice?

----The spinal cord ends at the level of L2;
thus, there is little chance of damaging the spinal
cord below that level.

12-48
 Cross Section of the Spinal Cord
• Gray matter is divided into horns.
• Neuron cell bodies, dendrites and initial
unmyelinated part of axons present here.
• Dorsal horns
• contain cell body ( nuclei) of sensory
neurons.
• Ventral horns
• contain cell bodies ( nuclei ) of somatic
motor neurons.
• Lateral horns
• contain cell bodies ( nuclei) of autonomic
motor neurons.
• Dorsal root
• Carries sensory/ afferent information into
the spinal cord
• Ventral root
• carries motor/efferent signals away from the
spinal cord to the target organs ( muscles,
glands)
 White matter of spinal cord : composed of many nerve tracts
Descending nerve Ascending nerve
tracts tracts
Motor nerve tract Sensory nerve
cending nerve tracts present in white tract that
cending nerve tracts matter ( medulla ) ascend through
of brain ( formed the white
by the axons of matter of
upper motor spinal cord to
neuron )that the brain.
descend from the
brain to the spinal
cord white matter
as descending
tract.
Spinal nerve formation

• By two Roots :-

• 1.Dorsal (posterior) root ,has a ganglion

&
• 2. Ventral (anterior) root .

• Two roots merge lateral to the spinal

cord ( in intervertebral foramen ) and
form the spinal nerve
So spinal nerve is formed by the union of
the ventral and dorsal root
 Spinal nerve
• Dorsal (posterior) root
• formed by sensory neuron
• Ventral (anterior) root
• formed by motor neuron
• So spinal nerve is formed by the union of
the motor and sensory neuron.
• It is a mixed nerve
Organization of Spinal Nerves

• 31 Pairs of Spinal Nerves

• 8 pairs cervical
• 12 pairs thoracic
• 5 pairs lumbar
• 5 pairs sacral
• 1 pair coccygeal
Branches of Spinal Nerves
• Posterior /Dorsal ramus
• supply the muscles and skin of the back ( ex_
erector spinae)
• responsible for movements of the vertebral
column
• Ventral ramus
• thoracic region form intercostal nerves that
• supply the thorax and upper abdomen muscles & Skin
• remaining ventral rami join to form 5 nerve
plexuses
Quick Review…

What would happen if the following structures

were damaged or transected?
Dorsal root of spinal nerve?
Ventral root of spinal nerve?
Ventral ramus of spinal nerve?
Dorsal ramus in spinal nerve?
Reflex Arc
• Reflex arc is the basic functional unit of the
nervous system. The component parts of Reflex arc
from skin to effector organs are :
• 1.Sensory receptors
• Detects a stimulus.
• 2. Sensory neurons
conducts stimulus through the nerve and dorsal
root to the spinal cord.
• 3. Interneurons in the CNS
• synapse with sensory and with motor neurons
• 4. Motor neurons
motor neuron axon conducts information through
the ventral root and spinal nerve to an effector organ
• 5. Effector organs
• muscles & glands that respond to the action
potentials/stimuli.
BRAIN AND CRANIAL NERVES
 Brain
• Part of CNS contained in cranial
cavity
• Control center for many of body’s
functions
• Much like a complex computer but
more
• Parts of the brain from below up
• Brainstem
• Cerebellum
• Diencephalon
• Cerebrum
Sagittal Section of the Brain

Anterior

Corpus callosum Cerebrum

Thalamus
Diencephalon
Hypothalamus
Posterior
Midbrain

Brainstem Pons

Cerebellum
Medulla
oblongata

Medial view

13-59
Brainstem
• Connects spinal cord to brain
• Central core of the brain
• beginning where the spinal
cord swells as it enters the
skull
• responsible for automatic
survival functions
• Parts : from below up
• Medulla oblongata
• Pons
• Midbrain
Medulla oblongata
• Function: Contains
• cardiac center that controls heart rate,
• vasomotor center that controls blood
pressure and
• respiratory center that works, along with
the pons, to control the rate and depth of
breathing.
• Centers for hiccupping, sneezing,
swallowing, and coughing.
• 9, 10,11,12 cranial nerves are attached to
this area
Brainstem
Midbrain
Pons
Function:
• Function: Pons  contains centers for
 Regulate the rate and auditory and visual
depth of breathing reflexes.
incoordination with  3rd & 4th cranial nerve
medulla. attached here.
 Acts as sleep center
 5th cranial nerve attached
here
 Cerebellum Diencephalon
• the “little brain” attached behind the Located between brainstem and cerebrum
brainstem. • Function:
• Function :  Act as relay stations for incoming sensory message
 Is the “gateway” to the cerebral cortex ( except 1st
1. Control balance, gross motor coordination cranial nerve.)
& fine motor coordination
2. Corrects discrepancies between intended • Components
 Thalamus
movements & actual movements  Subthalamus
• If cerebellum Injured  Epithalamus
• difficulty walking, keeping balance,  Hypothalamus
shaking hands
 Diencephalon
• Hypothalamus
• most inferior portion of the
diencephalon, contains several
nuclei and nerve tracts.
• Function :
• ANS control
• Regulates blood pressure
• Rate and force of heartbeat
• digestive tract motility
• respiratory rate and depth
• pupil size
• Endocrine control
• Temperature regulation
• Regulation of food and water intake
• Emotions
• Regulation of sleep-wake cycle
• Center for emotional response -pleasure,
fear, rage
Cerebrum
• Largest part of brain
• Composed of right and left
cerebral hemispheres .
• Fissures, sulci and gyri present:
• Fissures – deep grooves, which
separate major regions of the
brain
• Transverse fissure –
separates cerebrum and
cerebellum
• Longitudinal fissure –
separates cerebral
hemispheres
• Sulci - grooves on the surface of
the cerebral hemispheres
• Gyri - twisted ridges between sulci 13-65
Lobes of Cerebrum
• The cerebrum is divided into four lobes. Lobes
are named for the skull bones overlying them.
They are :
• Frontal
• Parietal
• Temporal
• Occipital
Different sulci that divide the cerebrum into lobes
• Central sulcus- separates frontal and parietal lobes
• Bordered by two gyri
• Precentral gyrus : In front of central sulcus
• Postcentral gyrus : behind the central sulcus
• Parieto-occipital sulcus - separates the occipital from the
parietal lobe
• Lateral sulcus - separates temporal lobe from parietal and
66
frontal lobes
Cerebral Hemispheres cross
sections : 3 basic regions present
• White matter
• inner, unmyelinated part
• Cortex (40% of brain mass)
• superficial /outer gray matter,1-
4.5 mm thick
• Composition of cortex :
• Interneurons, cell body of upper
motor neuron, dendrites ,
unmyelinated axons, neuroglial
cells & blood vessels present
here.
• no nerve tract present

• Basal Nuclei
• islands of gray matter within
the white matter
Cerebral Cortex
Three kinds of functional
areas:
• Motor areas
• control voluntary
movement
Frontal (Forehead to top)  Motor Cortex
• Sensory areas Parietal (Top to ear)  Sensory Cortex
• conscious awareness of
sensation
• Association areas
• integrate diverse
information
• communicate motor
cortex with sensory
areas to analyze input.
Occipital (Back)  Visual Cortex ( sensory cortex )
No functional area acts Temporal (behind ear)  Auditory Cortex ( sensory cortex )
alone
Central sulcus divides the motor cortex from sensory cortex that is present in
between frontal lobe & parietal lobe.
Primary motor cortex (Precentral gyrus) – Primary sensory cortex (Postcentral gyrus) –
In front of central sulcus, part of frontal lobe. Behind the central sulcus , part of parietal lobe.
(motor area) : (sensory area):
Function :- control movement of the opposite Function :- Receives the general sensation&
side of the body. taste (pain, touch, temperature, pressure etc.)
from the opposite side of the body.

Precentral gyrus Postcentral

Post gyrus
central gyrus

central sulcus

69
Frontal Lobe Parietal Lobe
• behind your forehead • At the top of head , behind frontal lobe.
• involved in speaking and muscle • Acts as an integrator to sensory
movements of opposite side of information .it receives and process the
the body. sensory information from opposite side of
• It “executes” body.
• Decision making •Sensations are ( all general and taste
• Problem solving sensation )
• Planning •Touch
• Thought •Pressure
•Pain
•Temperature
•Texture
Temporal Lobe Occipital Lobe
• just above your ears
• at the back of your head
• receives auditory
• It contains the visual areas
information ,primarily from
• receives visual information
the opposite ear
from the opposite eye.
Cerebrum : white matter
• Tracts: Nerve fibers that connect
different functional areas of the
CNS.

• Association fibers : Connects

same cerebral hemisphere area.
• Commissural fibers : Connects
the areas between two
hemispheres
• Projection fibers : Connects the
cerebrum with other parts of
the brain and the spinal cord
 Meninges
• Brain is
• covered by the dura, arachnoid,
and pia mater. :They are
connective tissue membrane.
• Dura mater (outer layer)
• attaches to the inner surface of
the skull
• has two layers
• Arachnoid mater ( Middle layer)
• subarachnoid space contains
CSF, which acts as cushion of the
brain
• Pia mater (inner layer) attaches
directly to the brain
Ventricles: Cavity in Brain , contains CSF
• Lateral ventricles: each within one cerebral hemispheres Choroid plexuses
•Interventricular foramina ( Foramen of Monroe): join lateral ventricle
with third ventricle.
• Third ventricle: within diencephalon
• Fourth ventricle: associated with
pons and medulla oblongata Choroid plexuses_ produce
CSF which fills
• Above: connected to third ventricles and other parts
ventricle by the cerebral aqueduct of brain ( subarachnoid
• Below: continuous with the spinal space ) and spinal cord
cord, and connected to the (central canal).
subarachnoid space by the lateral
(foramen of Lushke) and medial
apertures ( foramen of Magendie)  So, CSF present in
1. All Ventricles
2. Subarachnoid space
3. Central canal of spinal
cord
13-74
Blood Supply to the Brain
• Brain
• Receives 15-20% of blood pumped by
heart.
• Interruption can cause
unconsciousness and
irreversible brain damage
Brain receives blood from:
# Internal carotids arteries
# Vertebral arteries
The vertebral arteries join to form the  Two Internal carotid plus basilar arteries
basilar artery form the cerebral arterial circle (Circle of
# Cerebral arterial circle (Circle of Willis)
Willis).  Branches from the circle and basilar artery supply
the brain
Cranial Nerves
• Indicated by Roman numerals I-XII
from anterior to posterior
• May have one or more of 3 functions
• Sensory (special or general)
• Somatic motor (skeletal muscles)
• Parasympathetic (regulation of
glands, smooth muscles, cardiac
muscle).
• Special senses and cranial nerves
• 1.Smell------ I (I st )
• 2.Vision----- -II (2nd)
• 3.Hearing & balance ------ VIII (8th) .
• 4.Taste-------- VII, IX, X (7th, 9th, I0th )
 I. Olfactory Nerve ( Sensory )
II. Optic nerve ( Sensory )

 Provides special sense of smell  Provides vision

 Damage causes  Damage causes blindness
impaired/absence sense of
smell
III. Oculomotor nerve ( motor ) IV. Trochlear nerve ( motor )

• Provides some eye movement, opening of eyelid,

constriction of pupil, • Provides eye movement inferolaterally
• Damage causes drooping eyelid, dilated pupil, • Damage causes double vision & inability to rotate eye
inability to move eye in certain directions
inferolaterally

• VI. Abducens nerve ( motor )

• Provides eye movement laterally

• Damage results in inability to rotate eye laterally & at
rest eye rotates medially
V. Trigeminal nerve (Mixed)
• Main sensory nerve to face (touch, pain
and temperature)
• motor to muscles of mastication
• Damage produces loss of sensation in face
& impaired chewing.
VII. Facial Nerve (Mixed)
• Provides motor supply to muscles of facial expressions
• sense of taste on anterior 2/3’s of tongue, salivary
glands
• Damage produces sagging facial muscles & disturbed
sense of taste (missing sweet & salty) & decreased
salivation
 VIII. Vestibulocochlear Nerve ( Sensory )

 Provides Special senses of hearing (cochlear

nerve) & sense of balance (vestibular nerve)
 Damage produces deafness, dizziness, nausea,
loss of balance.
X. Vagus Nerve (Mixed) XI. Accessory
 Provides swallowing, sense of
taste from most posterior part of
the tongue, speech,
 Damage causes hoarseness or
loss of voice, impaired swallowing • Damage causes impaired head,
& fatal if both are cut
Nerve ( motor )
• Provides head, neck &
shoulder movement
• motor to sternocleidomastoid
and trapezius
neck & shoulder movement,
head turns towards injured
side
XII. Hypoglossal
Nerve( motor )
• Provides tongue movements
for speech, food
manipulation & swallowing
• Damage results in inability to
protrude tongue if both are
damaged or deviation
towards injured side if one
damage.