Lets compare!

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
OF MATERIALS

(Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing; Materials, Processes and Systems,

by M. P. Groover)
1 2

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Mechanical Properties in

OF MATERIALS Design and Manufacturing
◼ Mechanical properties determine a material’s
Strength behavior when subjected to mechanical stresses
Tensile Test
◼ Properties include elastic modulus, ductility,
Engineering Stress
hardness, and various measures of strength
Engineering Strain
▪ Dilemma: mechanical properties desirable to the
Stress-strain curves
designer, such as high strength, usually make
Ductility (elongation, area reduction)
manufacturing more difficult
Compression test
The manufacturing engineer should
Toughness appreciate the design viewpoint
Hardness And the designer should be aware of the
manufacturing viewpoint

3 4

Dilemma = difficult problem, appreciate= assess

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 Various Tests

Strain- Stress Relationship

5 6

Types of Loading

Stress-Strain Relationships Tensile

Compressive

◼ Three types of static stresses to which

materials can be subjected:

1. Tensile - tend to stretch the material

2. Compressive - tend to squeeze it
3. Shear - tend to cause adjacent portions
Shear
of material to slide against each other
Torsion

▪ Stress-strain curve - basic relationship that

describes mechanical properties for all three
types
7 8

Subject= chịu, adjacent=neighboring

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Tensile Test Tensile Test Specimen
◼
ASTM (American
Most common test for studying Society for Testing and
stress-strain relationship, especially Materials) specifies
metals preparation of test
◼In the test, a force pulls the specimen
material, elongating it and reducing
its diameter

Figure 3.1 Tensile test: (a) tensile force applied

in (1) and (2) resulting elongation of material Tensile test:
(b) typical test specimen © Tensile test setup
Watch this video clip

9 10

Tensile Test Sequence Tensile Test

◼ Figure 3.2 Typical progress of a tensile test:

(1) beginning (2) uniform If pieces are put

elongation and (3) continued (4) necking (5)
of test, no load elongation, begins, load fracture back together as
reduction of in (6), final length Simulation of the steel round bar tensile test including the necking behavior.
cross-sectional maximum load begins to
reached decrease can be measured
area 11 12

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Different types of stress-strain graphs Engineering Stress
◼ Defined as force divided by original area:

Engineering → important in design

Stress-strain curves
True → important in manufacturing where
σe = engineering stress → units are MPa or Pa or psi,
F = applied force → N or lb
Ao = original area of test specimen (mm 2 or m 2 or in2)

Stress units:
Metric system: N/ m 2 = Pa, N/ mm 2 = MPa,
US customary: lb/ in2 = psi, klb/ in2 = kpsi/ in2

13 14

Engineering Strain Typical Engineering Stress-Strain Plot

◼ Defined at any point in the test as

where ◼ Figure 3.3 Typical

engineering
e = engineering strain (it has no unit); stress-strain plot in
a tensile test of a
L = length at any point during elongation; and metal.

Lo = original gage length

We ignore this fact in this course

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4
 Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Stress-Strain Behavior
Two Regions of Stress-Strain Curve (Tension)
Elastic
Elastic deformation
◼ The two regions indicate two distinct forms of behavior: Plastic
Reversible:
( For small strains)
1. Elastic region – prior to yielding of the material

Stress
Stress removed →
2. Plastic region – after yielding of the material material returns to
original size

Plastic deformation
Irreversible:
Stress removed →
material does not return
to original dimensions.
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distinct =different Reversible = restore University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 18

Plastic deformation
Elastic deformation
Molecular approach
Molecular approach 1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
bonds shear sheared
stretch

return to d plastic
d elastic + plastic
initial
d
F Plastic means permanent
F
➢Process of plastic deformation in crystals is by slip process
(motion of dislocation) and in non-crystalline solids, the plastic
Elastic means reversible deformation is by viscous flow mechanism.

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Elastic Region in Stress-Strain Curve
▪ Relationship between stress and strain is linear
▪ Material returns to its original length when stress is
removed

Hooke's Law: e = E e
e=strain
e = stress
E = modulus of elasticity (or
Elastic modulus)
E is a measure of the inherent stiffness of a material
▪ Its value differs for different materials
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Inherent= vốn có

Yield Point in Stress-Strain Curve

▪ As stress increases, a point in the linear relationship is finally
reached when the material begins to yield
◼ Yield point Y can be identified by the change in slope at the
upper end of the linear region
◼ Y = a strength property
◼ Other names for yield point = yield strength, yield stress, and
elastic limit

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Plastic Region in Stress-Strain Curve
▪ Yield point marks the beginning of plastic deformation
▪ The stress-strain relationship is no longer guided by Hooke's
Law (non-linear relationship)
▪ As load is increased beyond Y, elongation proceeds at a
much faster rate than before, causing the slope of the curve to
change dramatically
Tensile Strength in Stress-Strain Curve
▪ Elongation is accompanied by a uniform
reduction in cross-sectional area, consistent
with maintaining constant volume
▪ Finally, the applied load F reaches a
maximum value, and engineering stress at
this point is called the tensile strength TS (or
ultimate tensile strength)

TS =

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change dramatically= đáng kể

Ductility in Tensile Test Area reduction

Ability of a material to plastically strain without fracture defined as

▪ Ductility measure = elongation EL

expressed as a percent, where:

Af = area of the cross section at the point of fracture, mm 2 or
where EL = elongation (expresses as a percent); in2
Lf = specimen length at fracture; and A0 = original area
Lo = original specimen length
Therefore, ductility is measured by elongation (EL) or area
Lf is measured as the distance between gage marks after reduction (AR).
two pieces of specimen are put back together
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Review
ultimate
tensile
strength 3 necking
 UTS
Strain
yield Hardening Fracture
strength
y 5
2
Elastic region
Plastic slope =Young’s (elastic) modulus
Region
yield strength
e = E e Plastic region
Elastic Plastic region (flow ultimate tensile strength
region curve) described by Elastic strain hardening
(linear) power function Region
equation σ =Eε 4
fracture
σ 1
E= σy Strain ( ) (DL/Lo)
29 ε E=
ε 2 − ε1

Tensile properties: Ductility

Lets compare!
Which material has the highest
modulus of elasticity?

Which material has the highest tensile

strength?

Ductility → Deformation at Fracture Which material has the highest

l −l  elongational rate?
%EL =  f 0  100
percent elongation  l0 
or
 A − Af 
percent reduction in area %RA =  0  100
31
 A0  32

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 Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Mechanical Properties of Metals

Yield strength and tensile strength vary

with thermal and mechanical treatment,
impurity levels, etc.
Variability related to behavior of
dislocations (Elastic moduli are relatively
insensitive)
Yield and tensile strengths and modulus of
elasticity: Decrease with increasing
temperature.
Ductility increases with temperature.
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 34

Lets compare! Lets compare!

LOW - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - > HIGH Tensile Strength:
Modulus of elasticity (measure of stiffness):
AL (10,000psi), Copper, Cast Iron (40,000psi), Mg, Low C Steel,
Polyethylene (0.03x106 psi), Nylon, Lead (3x106 psi), High C Steel(90,000psi), Stainless steel (95,000psi), Ti alloy
Magnesium, AL & Glass, Copper, Cast Iron (20x106 psi), Iron
& Steel (30x106 psi), Alumina (50x106 psi), Tungsten,
Diamond (150x106 psi)
stress has lower E

LOW - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - > HIGH

strain
For a given force, the one with lower E, deforms more in
comparison with the one with higher E (which is stiffer).
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 Lets compare! True Stress
Elongation: ◼ Stress value obtained by dividing the applied load by
Metals: Cast Iron (0.6%), Mg, high C steel (10%), Ti, low C steel the instantaneous area
(30%), Nickel, Stainless steel (55%).

Ceramics: 0%, where

F = force; and
Polymers: thermosetting polymer (1%), Thermoplastic polymer (100%)
A = actual
(instantaneous) area
resisting the load

LOW - - - - -- - - - - - - > HIGH

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Instantaneous =immediately

True Strain or Hencky strain True Stress-Strain Curve

Provides a more realistic assessment of "instantaneous" elongation Figure 3.4 - True stress-strain curve for the previous engineering
stress-strain plot in Figure 3.3.
per unit length
where epsilon is the true
strain,

L = length of the specimen

at any time
(instantaneous) ; and In the tensile test, the true
In elastic
region they stress values are higher than
L0 = Original length are almost the engineering stress
the same values.
WHY?
ln stands for natural log.

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Strain Hardening in Stress-Strain Curve True stress versus Engineering Stress
True strain can be related to the
▪ Note that true stress increases continuously in corresponding engineering strain by:
the plastic region until necking
◼ In the engineering stress-strain curve, the significance of this
True stress and engineering
was lost because stress was based on an incorrect area value
stress can be related by the
expression:
▪ It means that the metal is becoming stronger as
strain increases True stress versus true strain in
plastic region: Flow curve
◼ This is the property called strain hardening K is the strength coefficient and is
in MPa.
n is the strain hardening exponent.

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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

True Stress and Strain

Lets compare!
True Stress
T = F/Ai T = ln(li/lo)

 = F/Ao  = (li-lo/lo)

True Strain

True stress: load divided by actual area in the

necked-down region, continues to rise to the point
of fracture, in contrast to the engineering 44

stress .
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 43

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 DUCTILITY
BRITTLENESS
Material – thin wires – withstands plastic
deformation
Fractures without deformation

Review Review
1. Which of the following are the three basic types of static stresses 2. Which one of the following is the correct definition of ultimate
to which a material can be subjected (three correct answers): tensile strength, as derived from the results of a tensile test on a
(a) compression, metal specimen:
(b) hardness, (a) the stress encountered when the stress–strain curve
(c) reduction in area, transforms from elastic to plastic behavior,
(d) shear, (b) the maximum load divided by the final area of
(e) tensile, the specimen,
(f) true stress, (c) the maximum load divided by the original area of the specimen,
(g) yield? (d) the stress observed when the specimen finally fails?

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 Review Review
4. A tensile test uses a test specimen that has a gage length of 50
3. If stress values were measured during a tensile test, mm and an area = 200 mm2. During the test the specimen yields
which of the following would have the higher value: under a load of 98,000 N. The corresponding gage length = 50.23
(a) engineering stress mm. This is the 0.2% yield point. The maximum load of 168,000 N is
(b) true stress? reached at a gage length = 64.2 mm. Determine:
(a) yield strength,
(b) modulus of elasticity
(c) tensile strength.
(d) If fracture occurs at a gage length of 67.3 mm, determine the percent
elongation.
(e) If the specimen necked to an area = 92 mm2 , determine the percent
reduction in area.

Review Review
5. During a tensile test in which the starting gage length = 125.0 mm and 6. A test specimen in a tensile test has a gage length of 2.0 in and an area
the cross-sectional area = 62.5 mm2, the following force and gage length = 0.5 in2. During the test the specimen yields under a load of 32,000 lb. The
data are collected (1) 17,793 N at 125.23 mm, (2) 23,042 N at 131.25 mm, corresponding gage length = 2.0083 in. This is the 0.2 percent yield point.
(3) 27,579 N at 140.05 mm, (4) 28, 913 N at 147.01 mm, (5) 27,578 N at The maximum load of 60,000 lb is reached at a gage length = 2.60 in.
153.00 mm, and (6) 20,462 N at 160.10 mm. The maximum load is 28,913 N Determine:
and the final data point occurred immediately before failure. (a) yield strength,
(a) Plot the engineering stress strain curve. Determine (b) modulus of elasticity,
(b) yield strength, (c) tensile strength.
(c) modulus of elasticity (d) If fracture occurs at a gage length of 2.92 in, determine the percent
(d) tensile strength. elongation.
(e) If the specimen necked to an area 0.25 in2 , determine the percent reduction
in area.

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 Compression Test
Applies a load that squeezes
the ends of a cylindrical
specimen between two
platens

Compression test
Figure 3.7 Compression test:
(a) compression force applied to
test piece in (1) and (2) resulting
change in height.
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Compression Test Setup Engineering Stress in Compression

As the specimen is compressed, its height is reduced and
cross-sectional area is increased

F
e = -
Ao

where

Watch this concrete Ao = original area of the specimen

compression test video

55 56

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Engineering Strain in Compression Stress-Strain Curve in Compression
Engineering strain is defined Shape of plastic region is
different from tensile test
because cross section
increases

Since height is reduced during compression, value Calculated value of engineering stress
of e is negative is higher
In comparison to the true stress
(the negative sign is usually ignored when
expressing compression strain)
Figure 3.8 Typical engineering
stress-strain curve for a compression test.

57 58

Different modulli of elasticity

Tensile Test vs. Compression Test
▪ Although differences exist between engineering stress-strain
curves in tension and compression, the true stress-strain
relationships are nearly identical
▪ Since tensile test results are more common, flow
curve values (K and n) from tensile test data can be
applied to compression operations
▪ When using tensile K and n data for compression,
ignore necking, which is a phenomenon peculiar to
straining induced by tensile stresses
▪ Instead Barreling and edge fracture happen

59

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➢Modulus of elasticity of materials depends on bond strength
between atoms, stronger the bond, larger will be the modulus of
elasticity. ➢Increase in temperature of material, decreases the modulus of
➢Values of the modulus of elasticity for ceramic materials are elasticity.
about the same as for metals; for polymers they are lower. These
differences are a direct consequence of the different types of
atomic bonding in the three materials types.

Hardness Tests
Poisson’s Ratio:
Indentation Method
1) Brinell Hardness Test
2) Rockwell Hardness Test
3) Vicker Test

unloaded loaded

➢ If lateral strain along x- and y- directions is same

(ε x = ε y),material may be isotropic.

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 VH = 1.854F/d2 , d = (d1+d2)/2

Increasing the temperature…

 Ductilityincreases
 Toughness increases
 Yield stress decreases
 Modulus of elasticity decreases
 n decreases (strain-hardening
exponent)

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 Review
In a Brinell hardness test, a 1500-kg load is pressed into a
specimen using a 10-mm-diameter hardened steel ball. The
resulting indentation has a diameter = 3.2 mm.
(a) Determine the Brinell hardness number for the metal.
(b) If the specimen is steel, estimate the tensile strength of the steel

Review
A batch of annealed steel has just been received from the
vendor. It is supposed to have a tensile strength in the range
60,000 to 70,000 lb/in2. A Brinell hardness test in the receiving
department yields a value of HB = 118.
(a) Does the steel meet the specification on tensile strength?
(b) Estimate the yield strength of the material.

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◼ A typical impact test consists of placing a notched specimen in
an impact tester and breaking the specimen with a swinging
pendulum
◼ CHARPY
initial height
◼ IZOD
◼ Impact Toughness-the energy dissipated by breaking the final height
specimen
◼ Materials with high impact resistance generally have high
strength, ductility, toughness

TCVN, ak = Công phá hủy tính cho một đơn vị diện tích cắt ngang mẫu
AK = m.g.H – m.g.h Ak Nm/cm 2, • Là chỉ tiêu cơ tính mang tính chất định tính, không
= m.g.(H-h) ak = kJ/m 2, được đưa vào các công thức tính toán sức
S bền.
kGm/cm 2 • Sử dụng độc lập để so sánh khả năng chịu
tải va đập giữa các vật liệu với nhau
Chi tiết chịu va đập cần ak>200 kJ/m2
Chi tiết chịu va đập cao cần ak>1000 kJ/m2
σ Ceramic
Ak =  F Dl
F Kim loại

Bản chất của độ dai va đập:

ak = f(ζ0,2,δ) ≈ độ bền x độ dẻo

Polyme
Trong vật liệu kim loại, tăng ak như thế nào? ε
O Δl
10

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 Hardness:
Strength :
- withstand plastic deformation or Ability to withstand loads
indentation produced in the material.
Types of strength
1.Yield strength :
Strength beyond which it
exhibits plasticity
2. Tensile strength (or)
Ultimate strength :
Creep: Strength at which the material
- time dependent deformation at breaks or fractures
constant load

Toughness : Summary
Energy absorbed up to fracture. Make sure you understand language and concepts:
➢ Anelasticity
➢ Ductility
Fatigue: ➢ Elastic deformation
Failure under cyclic (or) repeated stress ➢ Elastic recovery
➢ Engineering strain
➢ Engineering stress
Fracture: ➢ Hardness
➢ Modulus of elasticity
Breakage of a material into separate parts ➢ Plastic deformation
➢ Poisson’s ratio
under the action of stress ➢ Proportional limit
➢ Shear
➢ Tensile strength
➢ Toughness
➢ Yielding
➢ Yield strength

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A test specimen in a tensile test has a gage length of 2.0 in and an area = 0.5 in2. During the test
the specimen yields under a load of 32,000 lb. The corresponding gage length = 2.0083 in. This is
the 0.2 percent yield point. The maximum load of 60,000 lb is reached at a gage length = 2.60 in.
Determine:
(a) yield strength,
(b) modulus of elasticity,
(c) tensile strength.

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