Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 179 (2019) 504–512

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/petrol

Influence of silica nanoparticles on the functionality of water-based drilling T

fluids
Mortatha Al-Yasiria,∗, Afrah Awada, Shahid Pervaiza, Dongsheng Wena,b
a
School of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
b
School of Aeronautic Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Using nanoparticles into a drilling fluid (mud) is a promising technique that could solve a range of problems
Biopolymer presently encountered during drilling operations. This paper reports the development of a novel drilling fluid
Rheology using a biopolymer/nanoparticle mixture to improve the performance of a water-based mud (WBM) formulation,
Filtration enhancing rheological, filtration and lubrication properties. The xanthan gum- SiO2 mixture developed is pro-
Swelling
posed as a solution to operating challenges in drilling operation, with the synergistic properties of nanoparticles
Hole cleaning
and polymer offering desirable properties. The novel nanofluids characterised by scanning electron microscope,
X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and thermal-gravimetric analysis. The modified
drilling fluids were found to have higher yield point, beneficial for hole cleaning, showed less filtrate loss and
more bit lubrication than conventional WBM formulations. Properly engineered, nanoparticles could improve
the performance of presently deployed drilling fluids significantly.

1. Introduction
Drilling fluids are employed in oil and gas drilling operations, as
well as geothermal energy, to provide a number of functions such as
removing drilled cuttings, lubricating and cooling the drill bit, and
providing hydrostatic pressure to maintain borehole stability. The ful-
filment of these duties depends upon the type of lithology being drilled
and numerous properties of the drilling fluid, which should be adjusted
to achieve desired performance. Different substances have been added
to water-based drilling fluids to improve their performance. Natural
polymers, such as xanthan gum, are one of these materials, used to
establish rheological filtration properties and to mitigate wellbore in-
stability problems. Many natural polymers have been used as rheology
modifiers (KOK and Alikaya, 2005), wellbore stabilisers (Estes, 1986),
fluid loss reducers (Blkoor and Fattah, 2013) and drilling fluid invasion
controllers (Sun et al., 2014). With the increase of well depth and
higher bottom hole temperatures, the thermal stability of these poly-
mers becomes a significant concern (Al-Yasiri and Al-Sallami, 2015),
and drilling fluid operations face significant technical and economic
challenges. Dispersing nanoparticles into a drilling fluid has been re-
cently proposed as a potential solution to improve the drilling fluid
performance, especially under downhole conditions (Alyasiri et al.,;
Singh et al., 2010; Javeri et al., 2011; Srivatsa and Ziaja, 2011; Nguyen
et al., 2012; Contreras et al., 2014; Barry et al., 2015).
Quite recently, considerable attention has been paid to using na-
noparticles to improve drilling fluid performance (Al-Yasiri and Al-
Sallami, 2015). A considerable effort has been recently devoted to
employing nanoparticles in drilling fluids to control the mud filtrate
volume (Srivatsa and Ziaja, 2011; Contreras et al., 2014; Barry et al.,
2015), minimizing differential pipe sticking (Javeri et al., 2011), im-
proving drilling and production at high pressure and high temperature
(HPHT) conditions (Singh et al., 2010; Nguyen et al., 2012; William
et al., 2014), enhancing shale stability (Hoelscher et al., 2012; Li et al.,
2012; Riley et al., 2012) and improving rheological properties (Jain
et al., 2015; Mao et al., 2015; Sadeghalvaad and Sabbaghi, 2015).
Nanoparticles were used by some researchers to develop thermal,
electrical and HPHT rheology of water-based mud (William et al., 2014;
Hassani et al., 2016). It is detected that the increase of nanoparticle
concentration promotes thermal and electrical features of drilling
fluids. The results of recent studies showed that nanoparticles enhanced
thermal and electrical characteristics by approximately 35% compared
to water-based mud (WBM). These studies have shown that the addition
of nanoparticles could improve some properties of the drilling fluid,
which shows some promise for future applications.
On the other hand, a few researchers have shown that certain na-
noparticles could improve the performance of polymer-based drilling
fluids by strengthening their rheological, filtration and lubrication
properties (Abdo et al., 2014; Alizadeh et al., 2015; Mao et al., 2015;

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ml14msma@leeds.ac.uk (M. Al-Yasiri).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2019.04.081
Received 23 September 2018; Received in revised form 23 April 2019; Accepted 23 April 2019
Available online 26 April 2019
0920-4105/ © 2019 Published by Elsevier B.V.
M. Al-Yasiri, et al.
Sadeghalvaad and Sabbaghi, 2015; Aftab et al., 2016). William et al.
(2014), discussed the formulation and preliminary test results of CuO
and ZnO nanofluids in Xanthan gum to improve the thermal and elec-
trical properties of drilling fluids (William et al., 2014). Rajat Jain et al.,
2015, examined the feasibility of polyacrylamide-grafted-polyethylene
glycol/SiO2, polyacrylamide/clay and polyacrylamide grafted xanthan
gum/multiwalled carbon nanotubes nanocomposites as a potential ad-
ditive for the drilling of troublesome shale formations (Jain and Mahto,
2015; Jain, Mahto et al. 2015, 2016). Alizadeh et al. (2015), studied the
Alumina/polyacrylamide nanocomposite as rheology modifier
(Alizadeh et al., 2015). Mao et al. (2015), introduced micro-nano
composite material to drilling fluids. They synthesised polymer based
studied the plugging ability of SiO2/hydrophobic polymer using micro-
model drilling fluid flooding of core column (Mao et al., 2015).
Sadeghalvaad and Sabbaghi (2015), employed the TiO2/poly-
acrylamide (PAM) nanocomposite additive for improving the water-
based drilling fluid properties (Sadeghalvaad and Sabbaghi, 2015). In
2016, A. Aftab et al. (Aftab et al., 2016) investigate the effect of em-
ploying zinc oxide nanoparticles-acrylamide composite on the rheolo-
gical properties and shale inhibition characteristics of water based
drilling fluids. In 2018, Xianbin Huang et al. introduced the synthesis of
a nanoscale acrylic resin/nano-SiO2 composite (AR/SiO2) with a core-
shell structure for water-based drilling fluid (WBM) (Huang et al.,
2018). Some researchers used rice husk to develop drilling muds
properties (Anawe et al., 2014; Okon et al., 2014; Biltayib et al., 2018).
It was discovered that the rice husk can reduce the filtration loss as it
was showed high resistance to water penetration. However, rice husk
couldn't improve the rheological properties of the mud, as the results
showed. Rice husk holds almost 20% opaline silica in mixture with a
large amount of the phenyl propanoid structural polymer called lignin
(Olivier, 2004). The presence of these blend silica and lignin compound
makes the rice husk like our suggested recipe (Both of them have silica
and polymer). It is interesting to note that rice husk and SiO2/XG re-
duce the amount of filtrate loss and both are low environmental impact.
Our SiO2/XG also has the potential to enhance the rheological prop-
erties while rice husk.
However current state-of-art studies have a number of limitations,
as commented here. Firstly, the understanding of the properties of na-
noparticle-based drilling fluids is insufficient. Most of the studies have
been focused on one single property, such as rheological property or
filtration property (Taha and Lee, 2015; Muhsan et al., 2017; Vryzas
and Kelessidis, 2017). As a drilling fluid provides multi-functions
during the drilling operation, such as cooling, lubrication and cutting
transport, the addition of nanoparticles would clearly affect these
functions. It is essential to understand the variations of related prop-
erties in order to have a complete assessment of the nanoparticle ef-
fects. Secondly, the impact of nanoparticles is multi-facets, and their
influence on different properties are different. The addition of one na-
noparticle may improve one property, but not on the others (Alyasiri
et al.,). Thirdly, the drilling fluid cycle is often unsteady; conjointly
variate between a movement and a steady state. Therefore, the chal-
lenge is to design a single recipe of drilling fluid that exhibits agreeable
abilities both at static and in dynamic conditions. However, most of the
previous studies do not take that into account. Understanding the in-
fluences and the mechanisms of nanoparticles to different drilling fluids
functions could give information required for designing a reliable pre-
dictive tool. Finally, the addition of nanoparticles could exhibit a no-
table enhancement to a polymer's physicochemical, mechanical and
thermal properties due to the large surface area/volume ratio offered by
nanoparticles. Most of the polymers that have been hitherto studied,
however, are not naturally occurring. There is as yet, to our knowledge,
no systematic study undertaken on using nanoparticles in conjunction
with a natural biopolymer to improve the properties of an en-
vironmentally low impact water-based drilling fluid. Nanoparticles are
presently used as fillers for polymer composites due to their high
thermal and electrical conductivities. It is expected that the addition of
505
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 179 (2019) 504–512
small amount of nanoparticles could actively improve the thermal,
electrical and mechanical properties of a polymer matrix as used in a
drilling fluid. In this study, SiO2 nanoparticles, in conjunction with
xanthan, are used to improve the properties of a water-based drilling
mud (WBM) under high temperature and high pressure conditions. The
rheological, filtration and lubrication properties are examined and
compared to the base fluid and a control SiO2 nanoparticle dispersion
only. An important observation was explained through this comparison
that the addition of nanoparticles alone is not magic solution to im-
prove the base drilling fluid as reported in some studies. The nano-
particles cooperation or the interaction with other drilling fluid in-
gredients like polymers is the key to drilling fluids performance.
SiO2 nanoparticles are selected due to their good stability, low
toxicity, good economics and ability to be functionalized with a range
of molecules and polymers. Xanthan gum (XG) is selected for providing
better dispersion to SiO2 nanoparticles and offering non-Newtonian
rheology to form a flat velocity profile in annular flow that is required
for efficient cuttings removal. In addition, xanthan gum is considered as
non-hazardous and suitable for use in environmentally sensitive loca-
tions and applications (Japper-Jaafar et al., 2010). The nanoparticles
are characterised by scanning electron microscope (SEM), Fourier
transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and
thermal-gravimetric analysis (TGA) and the drilling fluids performance,
in terms of rheology, lubrication and filtration, are investigated under
high temperature and high pressure conditions. This present research is
undertaken in an effort to develop a novel and economic formulation to
improve the performance of WBM suitable for applications in the in-
creasing number of unconventional reservoirs being drilled.
2. Experimental work
Experimental work for testing the properties of the newly prepared
drilling fluids are standardized according to American Petroleum
Institute (API) 13-B1 recommendations. The drilling fluid samples were
formulated in a standard laboratory barrel (350 ml) and tested on
proportionately small-scale samples. Pilot testing is based on the fact
that every one gm/350 cm3 of the sample is equivalent to 1 lb/bbl (42
gals) of the actual mud system (Institute, 2003).
2.1. Materials
The model drilling fluid used in this study contain the followings
materials:
• Tap water as the base fluid
• Bentonite as viscosifier and filtration control material
• Xanthan gum (XG) as rheology control material with two different
concentrations (0, 1 g)
• Silicon oxide nanoparticles with two different concentrations (0,
1 g)
The bentonite nanoclay (NC) was purchased from Mistral Industrial
Chemicals Company; Silicon oxide was provided by US Research
Nanomaterials, Inc with a uniform particle size distribution (99+%,
20–30 nm, amorphous). Xanthan gum was supplied by Sigma-Aldrich.
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Preparation of XG/SiO2 nanoparticle-based fluid
The polymer nanofluid was prepared by direct mixing (solution
method), which is suitable for a water-based mud (WBM). In this way,
the specified amount of xanthan polymer was added to a pre-prepared
aqueous SiO2 Nanofluid and mixed for 1 h by using an overhead high
shear speed mixer at 11000 rpm.
M. Al-Yasiri, et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 179 (2019) 504–512

Table 1 was examined via the dynamic light scattering (DLS) method. Zetasizer
Composition of the prepared drilling fluid samples. nano zs manufactured by Malvern (UK), was used for this purpose.
Product WBM XG-WBM SiO2-WBM XG/SiO2-
(Sample 1) (Sample 2) (Sample 3) WBM (Sample
4) 2.3.3. XRD analysis
The mineralogical compositions of xanthan gum, nano-SiO2, and
Water 350 ml 350 ml 350 ml 350 ml
Bentonite 17 g 17 g 17 g 17 g
SiO2-Xanthan mixtures were investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD),
Xanthan Gum 0g 1g 0g 1g generated using a Bruker D8 producing x-rays of 1.5406 Å wavelength
SiO2 nanoparticles 0g 0g 1g 1g from a generator working at 40 keV and 40 mA. Uniform layers of
powders xanthan gum, nano-SiO2, and SiO2-Xanthan mixtures were
applied on to the silicon holder making sure the surface is smooth and
2.2.2. Preparation of XG/SiO2 WBM flat. Each sample was analysed for 15 min with the reflection peaks
Here 17 g of sodium bentonite NC was added to 350 ml of prepared range (2θ) between 10° and 70°. The data obtained was analysed using
XG/SiO2 solution while being stirred at 11000 RPM by a commercial High Score Plus software.
Hamilton Beach stirrer for 20 min to prepare a stable mud as evidenced
in Fig. 2. Water based, XG based, and SiO2 based drilling fluid were
formulated as shown in Table 1 and Fig. 1. 2.3.4. FTIR analysis
In order to identify underlying factors as to why adding SiO2 na-
2.3. Characterization noparticles could increase the fluid performance, FTIR spectroscopy
was used to analyse potential bonding formed between the silica and
2.3.1. Morphological studies xanthan gum. The structure analysis of xanthan gum, nano-SiO2, and
The optimal dispersion and distribution of nanoparticles in the nano-SiO2-xanthan were investigated by Fourier transform infrared
polymer matrix is key to obtaining new materials with synergy of the (FTIR), with spectra obtained using a Nicolet iS10 FT-IR Spectrometer
constituent compounds’ properties. This synergy depends on the degree within the range of 500–4000 cm−1. Background was collected every
and nature of intermolecular interactions between the polymer matrix 7 min and the dry powder samples were used making sure they applied
and the nanoparticles. The morphology of the prepared nanofluid and uniformly in order to get the better resolution peaks. The equipment
xanthan gum were studied using a scanning electron microscopy using was cleaned in between the samples in order to avoid the chances of
Hitachi SU8230: high performance cold field emission (CFE) SEM, Ultra contamination.
high resolution with nanoscale resolution to examine the filler disper-
sion and the compatibility between polymer and nanoparticles. Drops
of liquid samples were applied onto the aluminium stubs and they were 2.3.5. Thermogravimetric analysis
vacuum dried overnight at 40 °C. The samples were then carbon coated Thermal stabilities of the xanthan gum, nano SiO2, and SiO2-
prior to SEM analysis. Xanthan based drilling fluids were investigated using thermogravi-
metric analysis (TGA) with a Netzsch-STA 449 Jupiter (Germany). A
2.3.2. Particle size distribution total of 15 mg sample sealed in aluminium pans was scanned from 30 °C
The hydrodynamic particle size distribution of SiO2 nanoparticles to 500 °C at a rate of 10 °C/min under a nitrogen gas environment.

Fig. 1. Experimental work flowchart process.

506
M. Al-Yasiri, et al.
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram showing the preparation of novel water-based drilling fluids.
2.4. Rheological testing and evaluation of rheological models
The rheology of the formulated drilling fluids were measured using
a Fann Model 35 Viscometer and an Anton Paar rheometer. Rheological
properties such as apparent viscosity (AV), plastic viscosity (PV), yield
point (YP), 10-s and 10- min gel strengths (GS) were determined at
room temperature. Either the Fann cup, or the Anton Paar cell, was
filled with the prepared drilling fluid. The rotor was immersed precisely
to the scribe line. Shear stresses and viscosities were measured at 600,
300, 200, 100, 6 and three rotations per minute (RPM). Each RPM was
recorded when the viscometer dial reached a steady reading. Flow
properties were determined with the help of equations:
AV = θ600 /2
PV = θ600 - θ 300
YP = 0.511 (θ300 – PV)
10 s gel strength (GS) was determined after the drilling fluid was
stirred for 10 s and subsequently left undisturbed for 10 s. Then, dial
reading was turned to 3 PRM; the initial dial reading is the required
10 s GS. A similar procedure was carried out for determination of
10 min GS. However, stirred time was then 10 s and the undisturbed
period extended to 10 min.
Fluids are described as Newtonian or non-Newtonian depending on
their response to shearing as shown in Fig. 3. The shear stress of a
Newtonian fluid (upper left) is proportional to the shear rate. Most
drilling muds are non-Newtonian fluids, with viscosity decreasing as
shear rate increases. Some drilling fluids display Bingham plastic
rheological behaviour (lower left), requiring a certain minimum stress
Fig. 3. Rheological models.
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 179 (2019) 504–512
to initiate flow and it makes the assumption that the shear rate is a
straight line function of the shear stress. It can be described mathe-
matically as follows:
τ = YP + PV (γ) (4)
The model parameters YP and PV for Bingham Plastic model were
computed from the 300 and 600 RPM readings. The power law model is
another fluid model used to describe a characteristic of non-Newtonian
fluid in which the shear stress and shear rate curve, called “a con-
sistency curve,” has the exponential relationship between the shear
stress and the shear rate (upper right). It can be described mathema-
tically as follows:
(1) τ = Kγ n (5)
(2) The model parameters K and n were computed by linearized the
above equation as follows:
(3)
log10 τ = log10 K + log10 γ (6)
Most drilling fluids conform to the Herschel-Bulkley fluid model,
requiring a certain minimum stress to initiate flow, but less stress with
increasing shear. Herschel Bulkley is an improvement model from
Power Law fluid model in order to match the actual behaviour of
drilling fluid at a low shear rate by assuming an initial shear stress value
(lower left). It can be described mathematically as follows:
τ = τ° + Kγ n (7)
Same as power law, the model parameters K and n were computed
by linearized the above equation as follows:
log10 (τ − τ°) = log10 K + log10 γ (8)
τ° is shear stress at 3 rpm. These rheological models were used to predict
shear stress as a function of shear rate for the prepared drilling fluid
sample.
2.5. Filtration testing and differential sticking testing
The stuck pipe tendency coefficients and filtrate losses of the pre-
pared drilling fluids were measured by using a Differential Sticking
Tester (OFI Testing Equipment, Inc.). By measuring the area of filter
cake accreting during a test, the bulk sticking coefficient was obtained
and read directly at the conclusion of the test. This coefficient took into
account both the friction or “stickiness” of the filter cake, and the
amount of cake building that would occur to stick the pipe in the hole.
The coefficient is determined by running a timed filtration test. By
measuring the area of filter cake building up during a test, the “Bulk
Sticking Coefficient” is obtained and read directly at the conclusion of
the test.
2.6. Shale swelling testing
It is necessary to design drilling fluids to give maximum inhibition
and wellbore stability to manage the swelling characteristics of shale
formations. During drilling of a well, a clay mineral rich formation will
507
M. Al-Yasiri, et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 179 (2019) 504–512

Fig. 4. Scanning electron micrographs of (a) the SiO2-xanthan fluid, and (b) Xanthan gum.

potentially rapidly start to swell if the drilling fluid is not sufficiently

well-suited to the formation. Many challenges can result from clay
swelling, such as bit balling, pipe drag, hole sloughing, or other related
problems. Accordingly, choosing the appropriate drilling fluid before,
or during the drilling wellbore, can be very helpful in attaining a stable
wellbore. A ZNP-01 expansion quantity meter was used to examine the
communication between water-based fluids and sodium bentonite clay
to determining shale hydration or dehydration by gauging the increase
or decrease in length over time of intact shale core on normal tem-
perature and pressure and to assess the ability of SiO2/XG inhibition to
shale. Swelling was recorded in millimetres and percentage of expan-
sion based on original length. The working principle of the apparatus is
that pressed shale powder in the fluid cup expands and pushes against
the piston. The expansion value is displayed by the percentage gauge.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Micrography and chemical structure of prepared fluid

The SEM images of the SiO2-XG nanofluid and XG polymer are

shown in Fig. 4. The SEM images show the polygonal polymer matrix of
the xanthan gum, and bridges between polymer structures. SEM ana-
lysis of the dried SiO2-xanthan fluid allows distinguishing between the
xanthan polymer and SiO2 nanoparticles. Distribution of nanoparticles
and their orientation, as well as the aggregation of nano-particles, could
clearly be observed in the SEM of the SiO2-xanthan.
Fig. 5 shows the particle size distribution by number for SiO2 na-
noparticles. The contributions in terms of Number% are shown as a
function of particle diameter. For the SiO2 nanofluid shows two peaks at
50.75 nm (37%), 164 nm (1%). It is therefore clear that is hydro-
dynamic particles size disruption of employed nanoparticles in nano
size. However, the DLS results show a larger size of nanofluid, in
comparison with manufacturing size, due to agglomeration and clus-
tering, as there is no surfactant used to stabilize the nanoparticles.
The XRD patterns of three samples (starting SiO2, starting xanthan
gum, and the prepared SiO2-xanthan nanofluid) are shown in Fig. 6.
From the SiO2 XRD pattern, the diffraction peak centred on 22° (2θ)
was visibly very broad, and with the absence of other reflections Fig. 6. XRD Spectrum for Xanthan, SiO2 nanoparticles and SiO2-Xanthan.

Fig. 5. Particle size distribution of SiO2 nanoparticles.
confirm its amorphous nature (Sun et al., 2017). For the xanthan gum,
the XRD pattern shows two peaks focused on 20 and 37° (2θ). The
presence of peaks centred at 22° (2θ) and 37° (2θ) in the SiO2-xanthan
gum XRD pattern confirmed the prepared nanocomposite contained
both starting materials. The FTIR spectrum of Xanthan, SiO2, and SiO2-
Xanthan nanocomposite are shown in Fig. 7. In the spectrum of xan-
than, the peaks from 2500 to 3300 and 3423 cm−1 attributed to
stretching vibrations OeH (Pal et al., 2012). The peaks at 1423 to 1622
cm−1 are assigned to stretching vibrations of the COO− group (Mittal
et al., 2015; Thakur et al., 2016). The presence of a peak at 1047 cm−1
is correspond to the acetyl group and the peak at 1724 cm−1 is due to

508
M. Al-Yasiri, et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 179 (2019) 504–512

Table 2
Rheological properties of the prepared drilling fluids samples.
Fluid Reference WBM XG-WBM SiO2-WBM SiO2/XG-WBM

Apparent Viscosity (AV) 6.5 22.5 7 23.5

Plastic Viscosity (PV) 4 7 3 9
Yield Point 2.5 15.8 4 14.8
Gel Strength 10 Sec 6 17 8 19
Gel Strength 10 min 14 37 16 23
θ600 13 45 14 47
θ300 9 38 11 38
θ200 8 34 9.5 34
θ100 6.5 29 7.5 28.5
θ6 4.5 19 6.5 18
θ3 4 18 5.5 16

Fig. 7. FTIR Spectrum for Xanthan, SiO2 nanoparticles and SiO2-Xanthan.
the CeO axial deformation (Thakur et al., 2017). For SiO2 nano-
particles, the peak of 1047 cm−1 is attributed to the SieOeSi stretching.
The peaks 1375, 1415 and 3355 cm−1 correspond to hydrogen boned-
OeH groups. SieOHeSi bending vibration observed at 796cm−1 . The
presence of peaks 1048 and 790 cm−1 in SiO2-xanthan spectrum in-
dicate the formation of SiO2-Xanthan nanocomposite. Also, the dis-
appearance of some xanthan peaks with SiO2-xanthan indicate the
participation of xanthan in the formation of the silica nanoparticles.
The TGA curves of xanthan gum, SiO2 nanoparticles and SiO2-xan-
than fluid are presented in Fig. 8. It is clear from the TGA results that
the weight loss of the SiO2-Xanthan nanocomposite with a temperature
increase is lower than xanthan gum while there is no weight loss for just
SiO2 nanoparticles.
This means the thermal stability of sio2 is very stable at a wide range
of temperature changing, and the addition of these nanoparticles to the
xanthan polymer enhanced the thermal stability of the nanocomposite.
This could be due to the incorporation of nanoscale dispersed sio2 and
xanthan polymer matrix. TGA curve of xanthan gum displayed that the
degradation of xanthan gum is happening at about 230 °C. The rate of
weight loss increased with temperature increasing. About 11% weight
loss occurred under 130 °C, and this was due to the desorption of water.
Nearly 57% weight loss happened at 330 °C; then, the rate of weight
loss reduced and the xanthan gum showed just a single-step degrada-
tion process (Banerjee et al., 2006). The SiO2-xanthan exhibited similar
behaviour as xanthan gum on its own, but with less weight loss per-
centage owing to the mass contribution from the SiO2. About 7.5%
weight loss happened under 130 °C, and this also was due to desorption
of water.
Nearly 32% weight loss happened at 330 °C; then, the rate of weight
loss reduced. The total weight loss of the xanthan gum in the range of
30 °C–500 °C is 70% while the total weight loss for sio2-xanthan nano-
composite around 40%. These results show that nanocomposite has a
worthy characteristics of temperature resistance. These results match
with previous studies regarding the thermal stability enhancement by
nanocomposites (Sahoo et al., 2010; Mao et al., 2015; Jain et al., 2016).
3.2. Effect of XG/SiO2 on drilling fluid rheology properties
The drilling fluid rheology is a crucial property which impacts dif-
ferent significant parts of the drilling operation. The most significance
rheological properties are apparent viscosity, plastic viscosity, yield
point and gelling properties of the fluid. These rheological parameters
are well achieved in nanocomposite-based drilling fluids. The effect of
nanocomposite on the rheological parameters including plastic visc-
osity and gelling properties of developed drilling fluid formulations is
shown in Table 2, Fig. 9 and Fig. 10.
The viscosity affects hole cleaning efficiency. It's clear from Fig. 9
and Table 2 that the viscosity of water-based drilling fluids slightly
increases with 1 g SiO2 nanoparticles addition and sharply increase
with 1 g xanthan polymer addition. As a result, dramatically increase
with nanocomposite. This viscosity increasing behaviour of xanthan
polymer is normal because its work as viscosifier, but with nano-
composite, the nanoparticles work as chain joiner points that post
viscosity increasing. In order to support this hypothesis, FTIR spectro-
scopy was used to check whether there were some potential bonding
effects formed between silica nanoparticles and xanthan. Also, scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) was employed to examine the inter-
molecular interaction between the polymer matrix and nanoparticles.
Both FTIR and SEM results support the hypothesis why viscosity in-
crease with nanoparticles addition.

Fig. 8. TGA Curves for Xanthan, SiO2 nanoparticles and SiO2-Xanthan. Fig. 9. Viscosities of the prepared drilling fluids samples.

509
M. Al-Yasiri, et al.
Fig. 10. Gel Strength of the prepared drilling fluids samples.
The gel strength is also significant property as it measures the ability
of the drilling fluid to hold the drill cuttings in suspension.
Experimentally, it was observed that the SiO2/XG WBM also exposed
appropriate gel strength both at 10 s and 10 min as shown in Fig. 10.
The 10 s gel strength for water-based drilling fluid was 7pa, and it's
increased with 1 g of SiO2 nanoparticles to 10pa. Furthermore, it was
found to be 23pa with nanocomposite addition. The reason behind this
enhancement could be the nanoparticles work as chain joiner points
between the polymer matrix, which support the gelation behaviour of
nanocomposite drilling fluid (Jung et al., 2011). By the same way, the
10 min gel strength of water-based drilling fluid was 19pa, and it's in-
creased with 1 g of SiO2 nanoparticles to 20pa. Furthermore, it was
found 35pa with nanocomposite addition. It is quite evident from the
results that synthesised nanocomposite has a relatively higher effect on
the rheological parameters of the developed drilling fluid system than
the xanthan polymer and silicon oxide nanoparticles. Our outcomes are
consist with previous results (Li et al., 2015; Halali et al., 2016).
Rheological models are frequently used to predict the shear stress as
a function of shear rate behaviour of drilling fluids. However, none of
these models can accurately predict the rheological behaviour of all
drilling fluids over all ranges of shear rates. Three rheological models
(Power law, Bingham and Herschel Bulkley) were used to evaluate
rheological behaviour of SiO2/XG-WBM. Fig. 11 shows the plot of ex-
perimental shear stress as a function of shear rate for SiO2/XG-WBM as
well as Power law, Bingham and Herschel Bulkley models. The para-
meters of each model were computed from experimental rheological
data given in Table 2. The rheological models were then employed to
predict shear stress as a function of shear rate. It appears from
Fig. 11that Herschel Bulkley model provides the best overall fit of the
observed shear stress at all shear rate ranges. Power Law model deviate
substantially from the observed data at low shear rates. Bingham model
deviates sharply from the experimental data.
Fig. 11. Experimental and predicted rheology models for SiO2/XG-WBM.
510
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 179 (2019) 504–512
Fig. 12. Filtrates of the prepared drilling fluids samples.
3.3. Effect of XG/SiO2 on fluid filtration properties
Fig. 12 shows the effect of SiO2 nanoparticles, xanthan polymer and
SiO2-Xanthan nanocomposite on the filtrate volume compared to the
conventional water-based drilling fluid. It can be seen that not only
xanthan gum decreases the filtrate volume, but SiO2 nanoparticles ad-
dition also decrease the filtrate volume with less percentage in com-
parison to xanthan gum. The results show that the combination of SiO2
NPs and Xanthan polymer exhibits better reduction in filtrate loss vo-
lume than the addition of SiO2 NPs and Xanthan polymer alone. Micro-
Nano particles in SiO2-xanthan nanocomposite drilling fluid could
bridge together under the polymer matrix molecular chain which could
block the matched micro-pore. Thus, it improves rheological and fil-
tration properties. The above results indicate that SiO2-xanthan nano-
composite was efficient filtrate lost reducer. These findings concur well
with (Huang et al., 2018) and also confirm Rajat Jain et al. previous
findings (Jain and Mahto, 2015; Jain, Mahto et al. 2015, 2016).
3.4. Effect of XG/SiO2 on fluid swelling behaviour
Fig. 13 displays the expansion quantity meter results reported for
the sodium bentonite shale exposed to four various drilling fluids; fresh
water, xanthan, Nano SiO2 and SiO2-Xanthan fluids. After 16 h ex-
posure to these systems, the SiO2-Xanthan shows less than 4% expan-
sion happened to the bentonite. Nevertheless, about 13% expansion
occurred to the bentonite with fresh water in 16 h. The experimental
outcomes confirm that the shale swelling of the water-based drilling
fluid is brought down to less than 4% in the presence of nanocomposite.
The enhancement in the shale inhibition is to be observed from about
13 to 10 with xanthan due polymer matrix plug the void space and
repels water molecules to absorb into bentonite (Laird, 1997). On the
Fig. 13. Swelling Percentage of Sodium Bentonite Exposed to Fresh Water and
prepared drilling fluids.
M. Al-Yasiri, et al.
other hand, the sio2 addition reduce the swelling percentage to 9% and
this is because of nanoparticles potential to plug the Nano pores of clay
and that prevent shale swelling (Akhtarmanesh et al., 2013). It's clear
that the swelling reduction percentage not too high with nanoparticles
addition due to stability problem and this can mitigate by addition
polymer with nanoparticles (nanocomposite). It's appears that the
bentonite absorbed less amount of water in the nanocomposite system
to get the expansion because of synergetic properties of nanoparticles
and polymer and this behaviour weakend the clay swelling and en-
henced the shale strength. These values fairly well with (Aftab et al.,
2016) and further support the concept that nanoparticles have potential
to plug nano-pore throat size of shale for protection of shale
(Akhtarmanesh et al., 2013).
4. Conclusion
In this work, we formulated and evaluated four samples of water-
based drilling muds, which contained xanthan, SiO2 nanoparticles, and
xanthan-SiO2, besides the base drilling fluid, in order to compare and
assess the drilling fluid properties enhancement by the SiO2 nano-
particles. Based on the obtained results, the following conclusions were
drawn:
❖ A novel SiO2-Xanthan water-based mud was formulated and suc-
cessfully characterised by using SEM and TGA.
❖ The SEM and TGA results indicated that SiO2-xanthan nanofluid is
able to improve the chemical and thermal stability of drilling fluids
at high temperature.
❖ SiO2-Xanthan enhance the rheological properties better than other
additives that used in this study due to the presence of nanofiller
and the entangled polymer matrix of xanthan gum.
❖ The filtrate loss volume was reduced with the prepared nanofluid.
❖ Swelling inhibition properties of prepared drilling fluids was en-
hanced with nanocomposite fluids and it's showing better swelling
reduction among other fluids.
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the Higher Committee for Education
Development in Iraq for the financial support of this work and Prof. H.
Chris Greenwell (Department of Earth Sciences, Durham University) for
access to equipment and laboratory space.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2019.04.081.
References
Abdo, J., et al., 2014. ZnO–clay nanocomposites for enhance drilling at HTHP conditions.
Surf. Interface Anal. 46 (10–11), 970–974.
Aftab, A., et al., 2016. Novel zinc oxide nanoparticles deposited acrylamide composite
used for enhancing the performance of water-based drilling fluids at elevated tem-
perature conditions. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 146, 1142–1157.
Akhtarmanesh, S., et al., 2013. Improvement of wellbore stability in shale using nano-
particles. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 112, 290–295.
Al-Yasiri, M.S., Al-Sallami, W.T., 2015. How the drilling fluids can be made more efficient
by using nanomaterials. Am. J. Nano Res. Appl. 33, 41–45.
Alizadeh, S., et al., 2015. Synthesis of Alumina/Polyacrylamide nanocomposite and its
influence on viscosity of drilling fluid. Int. J. Nano Dimens. (IJND) 6 (3), 271.
Alyasiri, M., et al "Enhancement of Drilling Fluid Rheology by Nanoparticles".
Anawe, P.A.L., et al., 2014. The effect of rice husk and sawdust on the properties of oil-
based mud at varied temperatures. J. Energy Technol. Policy 4 (2).
Banerjee, J., et al., 2006. Synthesis and characterization of xanthan gum‐g‐N‐vinyl for-
mamide with a potassium monopersulfate/Ag (I) system. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 101 (3),
1637–1645.
Barry, M.M., et al., 2015. Fluid filtration and rheological properties of nanoparticle ad-
ditive and intercalated clay hybrid bentonite drilling fluids. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 127,
338–346.
511
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 179 (2019) 504–512
Biltayib, B.M., et al., 2018. Experimental analysis on rheological and fluid loss control of
water-based mud using new additives. J. Pet. Gas Eng. 9 (3), 23–31.
Blkoor, S., Fattah, K., 2013. The influence of XC-polymer on drilling fluid filter cake
properties and formation damage. J. Pet Environ. Biotechnol. 4 (5), 157.
Contreras, O., et al., 2014. Application of in-house prepared nanoparticles as filtration
control additive to reduce formation damage. In: SPE International Symposium and
Exhibition on Formation Damage Control. Society of Petroleum Engineers.
Estes, J.C., 1986. Role of Water-Soluble Polymers in Oil Well Drilling Muds. ACS
Publications.
Halali, M.A., et al., 2016. The role of carbon nanotubes in improving thermal stability of
polymeric fluids: experimental and modeling. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 55 (27),
7514–7534.
Hassani, S.S., et al., 2016. The effect of nanoparticles on the heat transfer properties of
drilling fluids. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 146, 183–190.
Hoelscher, K.P., et al., 2012. Application of nanotechnology in drilling fluids. In: SPE
International Oilfield Nanotechnology Conference and Exhibition. Society of
Petroleum Engineers.
Huang, X., et al., 2018. Application of core-shell structural acrylic resin/nano-SiO2
composite in water based drilling fluid to plug shale pores. J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng. 55,
418–425.
Institute, A.P., 2003. Recommended Practice for Field Testing Water-Based Drilling
Fluids. American Petroleum Institute.
Jain, R., et al., 2016. Rheological investigations of water based drilling fluid system de-
veloped using synthesized nanocomposite. Korea Aust. Rheol. J. 28 (1), 55–65.
Jain, R., Mahto, V., 2015. Evaluation of polyacrylamide/clay composite as a potential
drilling fluid additive in inhibitive water based drilling fluid system. J. Pet. Sci. Eng.
133, 612–621.
Jain, R., et al., 2015. Evaluation of polyacrylamide-grafted-polyethylene glycol/silica
nanocomposite as potential additive in water based drilling mud for reactive shale
formation. J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng. 26, 526–537.
Japper-Jaafar, A., et al., 2010. Laminar, transitional and turbulent annular flow of drag-
reducing polymer solutions. J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 165 (19–20), 1357–1372.
Javeri, S.M., et al., 2011. Mitigating loss circulation and differential sticking problems
using silicon nanoparticles. In: SPE/IADC Middle East Drilling Technology
Conference and Exhibition. Society of Petroleum Engineers.
Jung, Y., et al., 2011. Effect of nanoparticle-additives on the rheological properties of
clay-based fluids at high temperature and high pressure. In: AADE National Technical
Conference and Exhibition. American Association of Drilling Engineers Houston, TX.
KOK, M.V., Alikaya, T., 2005. Effect of polymers on the rheological properties of KCl/
polymer type drilling fluids. Energy Sources 27 (5), 405–415.
Laird, D.A., 1997. Bonding between polyacrylamide and clay mineral surfaces. Soil Sci.
162 (11), 826–832.
Li, G., et al., 2012. Nanotechnology to improve sealing ability of drilling fluids for shale
with micro-cracks during drilling. In: SPE International Oilfield Nanotechnology
Conference and Exhibition. Society of Petroleum Engineers.
Li, M.-C., et al., 2015. Cellulose nanocrystals and polyanionic cellulose as additives in
bentonite water-based drilling fluids: rheological modeling and filtration mechan-
isms. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 55 (1), 133–143.
Mao, H., et al., 2015. Hydrophobic associated polymer based silica nanoparticles com-
posite with core–shell structure as a filtrate reducer for drilling fluid at utra-high
temperature. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 129, 1–14.
Mittal, H., et al., 2015. Synthesis of co-polymer-grafted gum karaya and silica hybrid
organic–inorganic hydrogel nanocomposite for the highly effective removal of me-
thylene blue. Chem. Eng. J. 279, 166–179.
Muhsan, A.S., et al., 2017. Nano Additives in Water Based Drilling Fluid for Enhanced-
Performance Fluid-Loss-Control. Springer, pp. 669–675 ICIPEG 2016.
Nguyen, P.-T., et al., 2012. Evaluation on the EOR potential capacity of the synthesized
composite silica-core/polymer-shell nanoparticles blended with surfactant systems
for the HPHT offshore reservoir conditions. In: SPE International Oilfield
Nanotechnology Conference and Exhibition. Society of Petroleum Engineers.
Okon, A.N., et al., 2014. Evaluation of rice husk as fluid loss control additive in water-
based drilling mud. In: SPE Nigeria Annual International Conference and Exhibition.
Society of Petroleum Engineers.
Olivier, P.A., 2004. The Rice Hull House. Engineering, Separation, & Recycling,
Washington, LA. .
Pal, S., et al., 2012. Carboxymethyl tamarind-g-poly (acrylamide)/silica: a high perfor-
mance hybrid nanocomposite for adsorption of methylene blue dye. Ind. Eng. Chem.
Res. 51 (48), 15546–15556.
Riley, M., et al., 2012. Wellbore stability in unconventional shales-the design of a nano-
particle fluid. In: SPE Oil and Gas India Conference and Exhibition. Society of
Petroleum Engineers.
Sadeghalvaad, M., Sabbaghi, S., 2015. The effect of the TiO2/polyacrylamide nano-
composite on water-based drilling fluid properties. Powder Technol. 272, 113–119.
Sahoo, N.G., et al., 2010. Polymer nanocomposites based on functionalized carbon na-
notubes. Prog. Polym. Sci. 35 (7), 837–867.
Singh, S.K., et al., 2010. Vital role of nanopolymers in drilling and stimulations fluid
applications. In: SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition. Society of
Petroleum Engineers.
Srivatsa, J.T., Ziaja, M.B., 2011. An experimental investigation on use of nanoparticles as
fluid loss additives in a surfactant-polymer based drilling fluids. In: International
Petroleum Technology Conference, International Petroleum Technology Conference.
Sun, J., et al., 2017. Effect of nano-SiO2 on the early hydration of alite-sulphoaluminate
cement. Nanomaterials 7 (5), 102.
Sun, Y., et al., 2014. Study and application of polymer film-forming shielding plugging
drilling fluid system. J. Petrol. Eng. 2014.
Taha, N.M., Lee, S., 2015. Nano graphene application improving drilling fluids
M. Al-Yasiri, et al.
performance. In: International Petroleum Technology Conference, International
Petroleum Technology Conference.
Thakur, S., et al., 2016. Development of a sodium alginate-based organic/inorganic su-
perabsorbent composite hydrogel for adsorption of methylene blue. Carbohydr.
Polym. 153, 34–46.
Thakur, S., et al., 2017. Sol-gel derived xanthan gum/silica nanocomposite—a highly
efficient cationic dyes adsorbent in aqueous system. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 103,
512
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 179 (2019) 504–512
596–604.
Vryzas, Z., Kelessidis, V.C., 2017. Nano-based drilling fluids: a review. Energies 10 (4),
540.
William, J.K.M., et al., 2014. Effect of CuO and ZnO nanofluids in xanthan gum on
thermal, electrical and high pressure rheology of water-based drilling fluids. J. Pet.
Sci. Eng. 117, 15–27.