Gender and Development | GAD101
Week 7: Gender Communication
Communication
— the process of exchanging ideas and information through words or ac-
tions
— verbal communication is related words and non-verbal communica-
tion is related to actions and gestures
SIMPLE DEFINITION OF GENDER
Gender
— is a socially constructed definition of men and women. The differ-
ences among women and men based on some factor.
GENDER COMMUNICATION
Definition
Gender communication is a specialization of the communica-
tion field that focuses on the ways we, as gendered beings, communicate.
Language is one of the most powerful means through which
sexism and gender discrimination are perpetrated and reproduced.
Sexism in language exists when language devalues members of
a certain gender. Sexist language, in many instances, promotes male supe-
riority. It affects consciousness, perceptions of reality, encoding and trans-
mitting cultural meanings and socialization.
Although the use of GENDER-FAIR LINGUISTIC EXPRES-
SIONS can effectively prevent these negative consequences and promote
gender equality, there are even more implicit forms of gender bias in lan -
guage that are difficult to suppress.
By choosing terms at different levels of abstraction, people can
affect the attributions of the receiver in a way that is consistent with their
stereotypical beliefs.
Linguistic abstraction, thus, is a very subtle resource used to
represent women in a less favorable way and thus to enact gender dis-
crimination without meaning to discriminate or even be aware that this
linguistic behavior has discriminatory results.
In order to reduce gender bias, it is necessary to change peo-
ple’s linguistic habits by making them aware of the beneficial effects of
gender-fair expressions.
GENDER-FAIR LANGUAGE
Gender-Fair Language
— minimizes unnecessary concern about gender in your subject mat-
ter, allowing both you and your reader to focus on what people do
rather than on which sex they happen to be
For example, the practice of using he and man as generic terms
poses a common problem.
Rather than presenting a general picture of reality, he and man
used generically can mislead your audience.
Research by Wendy Martyna has shown that the average reader's
tendency is to imagine a male when reading he or man, even if the rest of
the passage is gender- neutral.
Much has been written about gender differences—particularly between
men and women—in regard to communication.
Wendy Martyna
— has shown that the average reader's tendency is to imagine a male
when reading he or man, even if the rest of the passage is gender-
neutral.
Pearson (1981)
— presented the terms masculine rhetoric versus feminine rhetoric,
with the first one being decisive, direct, rational, authoritative, logi-
cal, aggressive, and impersonal, and the second being cautious, re-
ceptive, indirect, emotional, conciliatory, subjective, and polite
(Baker in Management Communication Quarterly 5:36, 1991).
Some of the most frequently mentioned differences in gender
communication are that:
1) women are more vocal than men;
2) women are more verbally skilled than men;
3) men are more action oriented in their use of language, while women
are more relationship oriented;
4) men are more competitive in their language use, while women are
more cooperative; and
5) the above differences lead to regular communication frictions be-
tween men and women (Cameron, 2007).
Some other communication differences often highlighted are:
a) men mainly communicate to support their prominence, while
women do so to build relationships;
b) men smile less than women, women use more paralanguage (non-
verbal indicators of listening and understanding) than men do; and
c) men will use communicative touching more to confirm their domi-
nance (pat on the back or shoulder), while women will touch for
connection (arm-touching or offering a hug), and women use more
eye contact than men (Admin/Public Relations ..., 2017).
COMMUNICATION DIFFERENCES BASED ON GENDER
It’s been said that men and women are so different, they must be
from different planets.
John Gray’s famous book (over 15 million copies sold world-
wide) “Men Are From Mars, Women Are From Venus”, popularized this
theory through the title alone.
In reality, we all came from Earth, but men and women do have
different ways of speaking, thinking, and communication overall.
Rationality
All humans are highly emotional, men and women simply tend
to show it in different ways. While a woman may cry when she’s flooded
with emotions, a man is more likely to get angry and become violent and
stupid.
Biologically speaking, considering men are the physically
stronger than the two, this makes sense. Men are likely to want to fight if
they are angry or emotional. Women are the emotional ones because men
can’t express their emotions in the way they want to.
OUR BRAINS ARE DIFFERENT
In relation to intelligence, women develop more white brain
matter, and men develop more grey brain matter (University of Califor-
nia, Irvine, 2005). In other words, a male brain represents more informa-
Gender and Development | GAD101
tion processing centers, and female brain represents more networking
between these processing centers.
This doesn’t mean that men are smarter than women or vice
versa. It simply represents that men and women tend to do things differ-
ently.
Verbal Communication Differences based on Gender
— to connection, women will talk more about feelings, relationships
and people. They will include more emotional elements in their talks
and encourage others to do the same.
Private and Public
— women talk more in private conversations. In public, there is less
opportunity for creating individual relationships and so they may
talk less.
— men may talk more in a public forum, where their audience has the
power to recognize and give them the status they seek

Conflict
— conflict, for a woman, is a process where connections are reduced,
and so they will work hard to avoid them
— men, on the other hand, will use conflict as a short-cut to gaining
Non-verbal Communication Differences based on Gender status. A short fight quickly establishes they ranking that they prefer,
Body Language Men Women establishing who has more status and position.
Facial Expression Less More
Eye Contact Avoid Prefer Goals of Genderlect
Attitude More relaxed More tense — the main goal of this theory is mutual respect and understanding
Use of Gestures Average Too much — this theory was in contrast to feminist viewpoints that criticize men
for inferior communication that extinguishes women
Female Communication Style — genderlect theory simply identifies the difference between us and
 complex encourages us to acknowledge and accept the communicative culture
 literate of the other
 socio-intellectual
ROLE OF CULTURE
 aesthetic value
Culture
 detailed
— culture is all socially transmitted behaviors, arts, languages, signs,
 more questions symbols, ideas, beliefs, which is learnt and shared in a particular so-
 facilitate conversation cial group of the same type
— culture is handed down from one generation to another. A single
Male Communication Style culture may have many sub-cultures.
 argumentative
 aggressive Effects of Cultural Differences
 forceful — cultural differences cause behavior and personality differences like
 blunt body language, thinking, communication, manners
 intense language — these differences create problems in normal communicating envi-
 control ronment between two different genders of different cultures
 individualism
Culture at Work Place
Men and women can learn so much from each other if only the — in an organization, it may happen that a variety of people are working
gender communication barriers can be broken. These disappear with together. They may be different by their languages or by their cul-
time, understanding, and effort. An investment of time is necessary to tures
evaluate personal communicative style. — but a point to be noted that two people of the same culture (regard-
Though life is busy and personal styles are comfortable, but less of gender) will communicate very well
adaption to gender communication promotes individual growth. — an Indian woman will feel hesitation to communicate with an Ameri-
can man but in the case of Indian, she will be happy to talk and work
INTRODUCTION TO GENDERLECT with him
Deborah Frances Tannen
— is an American professor of linguistics at the Georgetown University Cultural Norms
of Washington, D.C. — different cultures own different communicating etiquettes
— her book “You Just Don’t Understand” was published in 1960
— in her book, she presented a theory named Genderlect about cross- Example:
gender communication Western culture: hand shake, hugging, etc.
Eastern culture: hand shake, hugging is considered improper
Genderlect
Deborah Tannen coined the term ‘genderlect’ to describe the How to Overcome
way that the conversation of men and women are not right and wrong, — by understanding cultural norms, we can overcome the communi-
they are just different. cating barriers of other gender belonging to different cultures
She says that they are as different as cultures. Thus, as a Japa- — by giving reasonable space to each other, we can develop trust and
nese and French person conversing would take account of each other’s dif- can be used to each other
ferent cultural styles, so also should men and women to understand and take
account of the very real differences of the other. The fact is, women and men tend to have vastly different communication
She described her theory by describing some major differences styles – styles that often cause more friction than fraternity.
between men and women explained below.
COMMUNICATION BETWEEN GENDERS
Connection and Status
— the fundamental difference is that women have deep desire to seek
connection, while men have a deep desire to seek status
— of course, there are other goals that men and women seek, but this is
a significant source of difference

Emotion and Rapport

— in seeking connection, in seeking status, men will prefer solid facts
Gender and Development | GAD101
Female Communication Style
Women generally adopt a collaborative communication style
i.e., like to get input from others, talk about ideas out loud and ensure that
everyone is on the same page when it comes to a project.
Male Communication Style
Men, on the other hand, don’t need to have everyone on board,
e.g., ‘If you’re not on the bus, get off the bus.’ Command and control.
EXPLORING CASE STUDY
The Difference Between Men and Women:
How the sexes handle the same situation in very different ways
using 4 examples.
Example 1: Goals: People/Process vs. Tasks/Results
Michael, Rod, Amy and Christina are in a business meeting dis-
cussing an effective approach for the latest project. During the meeting,
Michael and Rob’s interaction becomes noticeably heated. The two women
immediately wish to calm the dispute and become very uncomfortable dur-
ing the exchange.
Group Dynamic
Women: Women’s thought process works like a web – everything is inter-
connected. When it comes to a project, the people and process are just as
important as the end result. Amy and Christina were concerned with
Michael and Rob, and how the group is arriving at its conclusion.
Men: Men, on the other hand, are more task-oriented and fixated on the re-
sult; the process is less important to them as long as the result is adequate.
Michael and Rob’s heated discussion had nothing to do with their relation-
ship. It was merely a way for them to hash out a conclusion.
Resulting Clash
Men become annoyed with women’s tendency to discuss every-
thing related to a project as a means of finding a solution. On the flip side,
women become very concerned when co-workers clash.
Solution
Recognize the differences for what they are and figure out what
style(s) work best for the individual situation and group dynamic.
Example 2: Feelings vs. Facts
Michael and Amy are working together on a project, as are Rob
and Christina. The problem is that Michael and Christina are always late
and never offer input. Amy tells her boss, “This simply isn’t fair. I’m get-
ting overworked and he isn’t doing anything.” Rob tells his boss, “Christina
is consistently 2 hours late, and I had to take on her responsibilities AND
mine.”
Group Dynamic
Women: Women focus on feelings. Amy told her boss how she felt regard-
ing the situation. Essentially, she stuck to the value judgments.
Men: Men focus on facts. Rob told his boss the concrete realities of the sit-
uation and remained objective.
Resulting Clash
Men consider feelings irrelevant in the workplace, so they be-
come confused and/or frustrated when a woman airs grievances that have
emotional foundations.
Solution
When it comes to work, stick to the facts. Your co-worker might
have made you feel taken advantage of, but your boss can only correct con-
crete problems.
Example 3: Questions: Asking vs. Withholding
During a weekly scheduling meeting, Amy’s boss gives her a
new assignment and explains the project. Amy asks several questions to
clarify the purpose of the project and make sure she understands the tasks.
Rob steals a look at the clock and gives a subtle sigh. The boss then turns to
Rob with a different assignment. After hearing explanation, Rob nods and
the meeting continues.
Group Dynamic
Women: “Women ask questions to gather information. It’s how they attack
problems and come up with solutions.” Amy asked questions because she
felt it would improve her performance on the job and prevent communica-
tion problems from arising down the line.
Men: Men, on the other hand, talk to give information. They do not think
aloud, sharing nascent ideas, but think to themselves until they have devel-
oped plan of action. What’s more, Rob was actually annoyed that Amy
asked so many questions.
Resulting Clash
Men view question as a sign of weakness and assume the ques-
tioning co-worker to be incompetent. On the other hand, “women assume
that men know exactly what they’re doing because they don’t ask ques-
tions”.
Solution
Do what is needed to accomplish the task. If you ask 20 ques-
tions upfront and turn out a stellar result, there won’t be anyone questioning
your competency.
Example 4: Talking: Weak Language vs. Direct Language
Michael and Christina’s assignment is to create a print ad for the
company’s new product. During brainstorming, Christina says, “I don’t
know how much you’ll like this idea, but maybe we could use a light blue
background.” Michael considers this and says, “A white background will
make it look cleaner.”
Group Dynamic
Women: Women often discredit themselves in speech through disclaimers,
such as Christina’s. Weak language also includes tag lines (“That’s a big
success, don’t you think? or “That doesn’t look right, does it?”) and modi-
fiers (“I’m just thinking…” or “Hopefully we can…”).
Men: Men tend to be more direct when they talk. “They cut to the chase.”
Notice how Michael didn’t use any tag lines or modifiers to undermine his
idea. He spoke with confident authority.
Resulting Clash
When women use weak language, men view them as weak em-
ployees. Her lack of confidence is [viewed] as a danger to accomplish the
task.
Solution
Eliminate weak language from your vocabulary. Period.
Bridging additional barriers of communication in the workplace
1. Getting interrupted
Solution: Take control.
Say: “Excuse me, I wasn’t finished,” or “Just a minute, I’m still talk-
ing.”
2. Someone takes credit for your idea
Solution: Correct that co-worker!
Say: “I just said that a second ago,” or “Thank you for reiterating my
point.”
3. You have to critique someone else’s work
Solution: Forget the fancy talk. Be direct.
Say: “This section doesn’t accomplish what we need it to.”
NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
What Your Behaviors Say About You
Gender and Development | GAD101
Communication isn’t only about speaking. In fact, your move-
ment and presentation can actually speak volumes.
Check for these Non-Verbals
Nodding: Women nod to show that they understand something – “I see.”
Men interpret nodding and concurrence – “I agree.” Too much nodding
causes communication clashes.
 Confusion. “Man” is often associated with the adult male and
it is difficult to distinguish if it is used in the literal sense or in
the generic sense.
 Inequality. It reflects gender inequality because women are
never seen in terms of general or representative of humanity.
 Othering. “Man” represents the universe and human while
woman is the “other”.

Smiling: Women smile more that men do, as a part of their expressive na - Avoid using the generic masculine
ture. So, what’s the problem? A woman is more likely to be interrupted is — Alternative:
she’s smiling.  replace “man” with specific nouns or verbs that say explic-
itly what you mean (“labor”, “human resources”, “personnel”
Posture: Sometimes, women engage in weak body posture, such as a limp instead of “manpower”)
handshake, shoulder shrugging and averting the eyes. Men make more eye  use nouns that encompass both man and woman (“human-
contact and stand tall, which projects a stronger visual image. ity” instead of “mankind”)
 in making general statements, add “women”
Clothing: Speaking of visual images, make sure you’re dressed profession-
ally and look the part. Professionally attractive is much preferred over Example:
provocatively adorned. “Man is vulnerable.” Say, “Women and men are vulnera-
ble.” instead.
Week 8: Gender-Fair Language
STANDARDS OF GENDER-FAIR COMMUNICATION
The Generic “He” or “His”
 Portrayal — The Problem:
 Representation There is no gender-neutral singular pronoun in the English
 Stereotyping language. So, by default, “he” and “his” are often used in the generic
 Language sense. However, these pronouns, when used to replace generic “man”,
pose the same problem.
Language articulates consciousness
— as children, we learn to use language to express our basic needs and Use gender-neutral pronouns
feelings Example: “A manager is responsible for his employees.”
— as we grow older, we use language to form our opinions and order our — Alternatives:
thoughts  Plural: “Managers are responsible for their employees.
 Drop it: “A manager is responsible for employees.”
Language reflects culture  Drop and replace with an article: “A manager is responsible
— cultural meanings and values are verbalized and transmitted through for the employees.”
language  Repeat the noun: “A manager is a responsible officer. A man-
— as a result, language becomes a tool for perpetuating stereotypes ager is accountable for employees’ actions.’
 Use a neutral word: “A manager is responsible for one’s em-
Language affects socialization ployees.”
— we learn the norms of the society or group that we are in, and conform  Use second-person pronouns: “If you are a manager, you are
to these norms responsible for your employees.”
— children learning a language absorb all the underlying meanings of  Recast: “Employees are the responsibility of managers.”
words
— inequalities can affect the child’s beliefs and behaviors Terms ending in “man” but refers to functions performed by either sex
— The Problem:
WHAT IS SEXISM IN LANGUAGE?  some professions and occupations have become gendered, of-
Gender-Based Discrimination ten excluding, or at least discouraging the other sex from pur-
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimina- suing the profession
tion Against Women (CEDAW): it is any distinction, inclusion, or re-  paints the picture of the ideal person for the profession or oc-
striction made on the basis of sex, which has the purpose or effect of deny- cupation as a man (most often); as a result, women have diffi-
ing equal exercise of human rights and fundamental freedoms in all culty entering the profession or advancing their career
fields of human endeavor.
Eliminate stereotyping: Avoid terms in titles that refer to sex
Elements of Gender-Based Discrimination — when writing titles or terms referring to occupations, avoid using
— Action – that distinguishes, excludes, or restricts a person words that suggest the job is not normally or properly performed
— Basis – the sex, gender identity or expression, sexual orientation of by one sex or the other
a person
— Purpose or Effect – person discriminated is denied the equal exer- Example:
cise of human rights and fundamental freedoms  Policeman  Police officer
 Fireman  Firefighter
Sexism in Language  Congressman  Representative, Legislator
— use of language that devalues members of a sex or gender, and thus  Chairman  Chairperson
fosters gender inequality  Councilman  Councilor
 Spokesman  Spokesperson
Why is sexism in language considered gender-based discrimination?
— renders members of one sex or gender invisible or trivializes them Language use that refers to men by default
— perpetuates notions of male supremacy — generic words are used to refer exclusively to men
— promote gender role stereotyping — The Problem:
 it results in inaccurate depiction of the situation
WHAT ARE THE KINDS OF SEXIST LANGUAGE?  the generic term does not leave room to acknowledge exis-
Language which excludes members of one sex or gender or renders tence of women
them invisible
Generic “Man” Example:
— all humanity is subsumed in the terms “man”, “father”, “brother”, Example Corrected
“master” “Exacuees moved west taking “Exacuees moved west taking
— The Problem: their wives and children with their families with them.”
Gender and Development | GAD101
them.” Mafiina and Jimmy
“The town fiesta revelers men and women; boys and
“The town fiesta revelers men and girls
dressed in feathered costumes girls
dressed in feathered costumes
and acented their faces with
and acented their faces with
dyes. Women too painted their Address men and women uniformly
dyes.”
faces.” — in formal correspondence, don’t use “Dear Messrs.”, “Dear Sirs”,
“People don’t give up power. “People don’t give up power. or any similar format when addressing a body of several individu-
They’ll give up anything else They’ll give up anything else als
first, money, home, wife, but first, money, home, spouse, but — instead, use gender-neutral opening statements
not power.” not power.”
Example:
Language that trivializes women, diminishes their stature
“Dear board member,” or “Dear councilors,”
Feminine suffixes (-ess, -ette, -trix, -enne)
— The Problem:
— use the corresponding title for females whenever a title is appropriate
 unnecessary reference is made to the person’s sex
for males
 usage suggests triviality, unimportance, or inferiority of
women occupying such a position
Example:
“Dr. Gina Ramos” or “Prof. Maria Cruz”
Example:
Current Usage Alternative — in letters to unknown persons, be specific instead of using “Dear Sir”,
actress actor
“Gentlemen” and assuming that the recipient is a male
aviatrix aviator
— Alternatives:
comedienne comedian
 “Dear Colleague” or “Editor” or “Professor”
heroine hero
usherette usher
Use parallelism
— same goes for couples
Use of sex-linked modifiers
 Wrong: “Mr. and Mrs. Manny Pacquiao”
— The Problem:
 Correct: “Mr. and Mrs. Manny and Jinkee Pacquiao”; “Mr. and
 sounds gratuitous, is patronizing and suggests that the norm
Mrs. Pacquiao”; “Manny and Jinkee Pacquiao”; “Manny and
for some occupations is for a particular sex
Jinkee”
 implies that they are not real doctors, lawyers, etc.
— even in work relationship where one is superior than the other, stick to
 when you need to point out the female aspect of the person oc-
parallelism
cupying the position, use “female” or “woman” instead of
 Wrong: “Rep. Arcillas and her assistant Girlie”
lady
 Correct: “Rep. Arcillas and her assistant Ms. Santos”
Example:
Use of term that call attention to a particular sex in designing concepts,
Current Usage Alternative
roles, occupations, etc.
lady doctor, doctora doctor
— The Problem:
lady lawyer lawyer
 calls unnecessary attention to the sex of the subject
male secretary secretary
 makes unnecessary distinction between women and men,
heroic women heroes
thereby perpetuating stereotypes
male nurse nurse
Example:
Language that disparages and marginalizes women
Language that disparages and marginalizes women (or persons of an- Current Usage Alternative
other gender) motherhood, fatherhood parenthood
stewardess, steward flight/cabin attendant
— The Problem:
headmaster, headmistress principals
 some commonly used terms inherently represent women as
girl watching street harassment
having less worth than men
cleaning women, cleaning lady cleaners
 some words and phrases have, over time and usage, become
Chambermaid Housekeeper
associated with negative connotations
Gender polarization of meaning in the use of adjectives
Example:
Gender Polarization
Current Usage Alternative
— The Problem:
salesgirls saleswoman
 the terms “womanly”, “manly”, “feminine”, and “masculine”
bachelor girl, spinster, old
unmarried woman depict each sex as being solely associated with particular at-
maid
tribute, and therefore perpetual stereotypes
minority women ethnic women
— Alternative:
house husbands, housewives housemakers
girl Friday  use specific words instead to express every shade of meaning
starlet aspiring actor — The Problem:
young girls teenage women  some words have “manly” and “womanly” versions
— Alternative:
Language that fosters unequal gender relations  use a generic word not associated with gender stereotypes
Lack of parallelism
— The Problem: Example:
 language that puts one sex at an unequal footing with the Attributes Male Adjective Female adjective
other and thus perpetuates gender inequality forcefulness charismatic domineering
light-headedness easygoing frivolous
Example: forgetfulness absent-minded scatterbrained
anger outraged hysterical
Current Usage Alternative
interested in things curious nosy
man and wife husband and wife
ordinary appear-
men and women; ladies and homely or plain
men and ladies ance
gentlemen
thoughtfulness concerned high-strung
President Bush and Mrs. Ar- President Bush and President
royo Arroyo
Maffina and Connors Navratilova and Connors, Sexually derogatory meaning attached to words referring to women
 Mistress vs. Master
Gender and Development | GAD101
 Hostess vs. Host As adults, our beliefs about gender may have grown more nu-
 Madam vs. Sir anced and flexible, but gender socialization can still affect our behavior,
 Matron vs. Patron whether in school, the workplace, or our relationships.

Lexical Gap Gender

Lexical Gap — roles assigned by society to males and females
— The Problem: — activities deemed by society as appropriate for males and females
 in the English language, there is an absence or lack of words — behaviors expected of males and females
that refer to women’s experiences — characteristics expected of males and females

Hidden Assumption Majority of behavioral scientists agree: Gender roles are not inborn.
Compare the statements They are learned.
— Statement 1: “men can care for children just as well as women.” — gender roles in our society are acquired via the process of socializa-
— Statement 2: “women can care for children just as well as men.” tion rather than biologically determined

Other practical Tips Socialization starts the moment the doctor says “It’s a boy!” or “It’s a
Eliminate sexism when addressing people formally girl!”
— use “Ms.” Instead of “Miss” or Mrs.” even when a woman’s marital
status is known Socialization happens in “social interactions”
— use a married woman’s first name instead of her husband’s (e.g., — these institutions:
“Ms. Annabelle Lee” not “Mrs. Herman Lee”)  perpetuate the assignment of characteristics associated with
— use the corresponding title for females (“Ms.”, “Dr.”, “Prof.”) when- women and men
ever a title is appropriate for males  Influence gender roles socialization
 provide a mechanism of social control that maintain gender
Eliminate sexism in symbolic representations of gender in words, sen- roles
tences, and texts
— Sexism in contexts: take the context, analyze the meaning and, find a Socialization
non-sexist alternative — the process by which an individual learns to conform to the norms
of the group where one:
Example: “feelings of brotherhood”, “feelings of fraternity”  is born with
 Alternative: “feelings of kinship”, “feelings of solidarity”  internalizes these norms
 acquire status
Example: “founding father”  plan corresponding roles
 Alternative: “founder”, “founding leader”
Social Institutions
Example: “Father of Modern Medicine”
 Alternative: “founder of Modern Medicine”

Preferred Pronouns
— Preferred Pronoun: A term used to describe gender pronouns that a
person wants other to use when referring to them, such as: he/
him/his, she/her/hers, or they/them/theirs. Pronouns may not con-
form to societal norms
 Rule #1: If you know the person’s gender identity, use the ap-
propriate pronoun and title.
 Rule #2: If you don’t know, feel free to ask.
 Rule #3: If you make mistake and are asked to correct it, do so.

Sexist language in quoted material

— paraphrase the quote using non-sexist language, and give the original
author credit for the idea
— quote directly and add sic after sexist part
— partially quote the material, rephrase the sexist part and name the
source
SETTING
Family
OUR GOAL
Parents are typically a child’s first source of information about
Means to an end
gender. Starting at birth, parents communicate different expectations to
— beyond using non-sexist language in our work-related communica-
their children depending on their sex.
tion, acknowledge that all human beings:
 have equal abilities
Example:
 must be given equal opportunities
A son may engage in more roughhousing with his father,
 must be equally empowered to access these opportunities, un-
while a mother takes her daughter shopping. The child may learn from
hampered by stereotypes
their parents that certain activities or toys correspond with a particular
gender (think of a family that gives their son a truck and their daughter a
Week 9: Gender Roles and Socialization
doll). Even parents who emphasize gender equality may inadvertently rein-
DEFINITION
force some stereotypes due to their own gender socialization.
As children, we develop gender-related beliefs and expectations
through our observations of and interactions with the people around us. An
— primary source of socialization
“agent” of gender socialization is any person or group that plays a role
— has the most influence because the formative years of every individ-
in the childhood gender socialization process. Gender socialization is a
ual is almost always spent with and develop by the family
lifelong process. The beliefs about gender that we acquire in childhood can
affect us throughout our lives. The impact of this socialization can be big
Socialization in the Family
(shaping what we believe we are capable of accomplishing and thus poten-
tially determining our life’s course), small (influencing the color we choose
for our bedroom walls), or somewhat in the middle.
Gender and Development | GAD101
— question of power relations as well as access to and control over re-
sources

Manipulation
— refers to ways by which parent deter or encourage behavior on the
basis of appropriateness as regards gender
— parent encourage “normal” behavior through praise and rewards,
and discourage “abnormal” behavior through punishment or disap-
proval
Canalization
— refers to the way by which parents channel the child’s interests in
activities in conjunction with gender as deemed appropriate
Verbal Appellations
— use of language to label children in a way that reinforces appropri-
ate gender identification
— telling children what they are and what expectations we have of
them
Activity Exposure
— boys and girls are encouraged to do different activities to familiar-
ize them with gender-appropriate tasks
— activities’ conformity to norms and practices reinforces appropriate
gender identification
Mass Media
Media, including movies, TV, and books, teaches children
about what it means to be a boy or a girl. Media conveys information
about the role of gender in people’s lives and can reinforce gender stereo-
types.
Peer Group
Peer interactions also contribute to gender socialization. Chil-
dren tend to play with same-gender peers. Through these interactions, they
learn what their peers expect of them as boys or girls. These lessons may
be direct, such as when a peer tells the child that a certain behavior is or is
not “appropriate” for their gender. They can also be indirect, as the child
observes same- and other-gendered peers’ behavior over time. These com-
ments and comparisons may become less overt over time, but adults con-
tinue to turn to same-gendered peers for information about how they are
supposed to look and act as a man or a woman.
In Western societies, peer groups are important agents of so-
cialization.
Example:
As teens, boys tend to gain prestige through athletic ability,
their sense of humor, and by taking risks and defying norms. Girls, on
the other hand, tend to gain prestige through social position and physical
attractiveness.
Religion
Many religious institutions also uphold gender norms and con-
tribute to their enforcement through socialization. From ceremonial rites of
passage that reinforce the family unit to power dynamics that reinforce
gender roles, organized religion fosters a shared set of socialized values
that are passed on through society.
— reinforces gender stereotypes through religious symbols, teachings,
doctrine and their interpretations
State
The State, similar with religion, is what governs the people and
sets laws that dictate what is and what is not, what should and should
not be.
— creates laws and policies that ensure the maintenance of the system
— instrumental in passing laws that are discriminatory to women and
other sexual orientations
State as a participant
The State reinforces and regulates appropriate behavior
through the use of rewards and sanctions.

Example:
Consider an animated film that depicts two female characters: a
beautiful but passive heroine, and an ugly but active villain. This media
model, and countless others, reinforces ideas about which behaviors are ac-
ceptable and valued (and which are not) for a particular gender.

— reinforces gender stereotypes and sex-based discrimination through

media portrayal of men and women

School
Teachers and school administrators model gender roles and
sometimes demonstrate gender stereotypes by responding to male and
female students in different ways.

Example:
Separating students by gender for activities or disciplining
students differently depending on their gender may reinforce children’s de-
veloping beliefs and assumptions.

Educational Institutions
— the formal school system promotes and encourages the different
gender roles between men and women in many ways

Workplace
Organizational cultures shape and reinforce socially appropri-
ate roles for men and women. Drawing on a performativity framework,
which assumes that gender is socially constructed through gendered
“performances”.

— gender discrimination in relation to occupation and pay

— balance of family life and work