Addis Ababa Science and Technology University

Unit operation For Environmental Engineering

(ChEg3102)
Department: Environmental Engineering

By: Tayto Mindahun (MSc in Process Engineering)

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
 Chapter 2
Motion of particles in a fluid
Introduction: particles and particle technology?
Particle:
▪ Is an extremely tiny piece of matter, and scientists believe that everything in the universe is
made up of particles.
▪ Particles can range in size, from larger subatomic particles, like electrons, or much smaller
microscopic particles like atoms or molecules.
▪ The terms particles, powder, and particulate solids are often used interchangeably, and thus
particle technology is often also referred to as powder technology.
Particle technology:
▪ Particle technology deals with the handling, processing, characterization, and utilization of these
particles in a wide range of applications.
▪ Most of the industrial practices that engage in energy, chemicals, petroleum, agricultural, food,
minerals, pharmaceuticals, environmental, and advanced materials, utilize particles, or powders in
the course of operation.
❑ Hence, understanding particle science and technology is essential to ensuring successful particle
synthesis and handling, particulate process design, and optimization in operation.
Particle characterization and analysis
❑ Particle characterization is the process of identifying the particle size, particle shape, and surface
properties.
▪ Analyzing particle behavior is a critical factor for quality control and product performance in many
different industries.
▪ Individual solid particles are characterized by their size, shape, and density.
▪ Not all solid particles are the same size in a sample and generally, we deal with collections of particles,
with a distribution of properties,
▪ Size: Affects the settling rate and surface area to volume ratio.
▪ Composition: Determines density, conductivity, porosity etc.
▪ Shape: Can be regular (crystals, spheres) or irregular
▪ Size and shape are easily specified for regular particles, such as spheres and cubes, but for irregular
particles (such as sand grains or mica flakes) the terms size and shape are not so clear and must be
arbitrarily defined.
❑ An understanding of the characteristics and features of minute solids populations is needed for designing
processes and equipment dealing with streams containing such solids.
Reasons for particle characterization
❑ There are two key reasons why industries employ particle characterization,
1. Better control of product quality to:
▪ Charge higher quality for products
▪ Reduce customer rejection rates
▪ Demonstrate agreement in regulated markets
2. Better understanding of products, ingredients, and processes to
▪ Improve product performance
▪ Troubleshoot manufacturing issues
▪ Optimize the efficiency of or design manufacturing processes
(1) Particle Shape
❑ Particle shape refers to the geometric characteristics of individual particles. It describes the external
form or appearance of particles, which can vary widely depending on the manufacturing process,
material properties, and environmental factors.

❑ The shape of an individual particle is conveniently expressed in terms of the sphericity ∅𝒔 which is
independent of particle size.
Sphericity
❑ Sphericity, ∅𝒔 , is the measure of how closely the shape of an object approaches to that of a
mathematically perfect sphere.
▪ This is defined as the ratio of the surface area of a sphere with the same volume as the particle
(Ss) to the surface area of the particle (Sp),

❑ The equivalent diameter is sometimes defined as the diameter of a sphere of equal volume. For fine granular
materials, however, it is difficult to determine the exact volume and surface area of a particle, and Dp is
usually taken to be the nominal size based on screen analyses or microscopic examination.
(2) Particle size
❑ Particle size is the physical property that describes the size of individual particles in a
material.
Why we study about particle size?
❑ Particle size indeed has a significant influence on various material properties. Some of the key
material properties affected by particle size include:

▪ Surface Area
▪ Porosity
▪ Strength and Toughness
▪ Optical Properties
▪ Mechanical Properties
▪ Rheological Behavior
▪ Reactivity and Kinetics
▪ Particle Packing
Mixed particle sizes and size analysis
❑ In a sample of uniform particles of diameter Dp, the total volume of the particles is m/ 𝜌𝑝 , where m and
𝜌𝑝 are the total mass of the sample and the density of the particles, respectively. Since the volume of one
particle is vp the number of particles in the sample N is given by:

▪ The total surface area is the surface area per particle times the number of particles,

2
Mixture of particles
❑ To apply Eqs. (1) and (2) to mixtures of particles having various sizes and densities, the mixture is
sorted into fractions, each of constant density and approximately constant size.
▪ Each fraction can then be weighed, or the individual particles in it can be counted or measured by
anyone of a number of methods.
▪ Particle size analysis can be done in two different ways: differential analysis and
cumulative analysis.

Differential analysis:
▪ Information from such a particle-size analysis is
tabulated to show the mass or number fraction in each
size increment as a function of the average particle size
(or size range) in the increment.
Mixture of particles
Cumulative analysis
▪ Obtained by adding, consecutively, the individual increments, starting with that containing the smallest
particles, and tabulating or plotting the cumulative sums against the maximum particle diameter in the
increment.

▪ Cumulative analysis are more precise than those

based on the differential analysis, since when the
cumulative analysis is used, the assumption that all
particles in a single fraction are equal in size is not
needed.
Specific surface area of mixture
▪ If the particle density 𝝆𝒑 and sphericity ∅𝑠 are known, the surface area of the particles in each
fraction may be calculated from Eq. (2) and the results for all fractions added to give 𝑨𝒘 , the specific
surface (the total surface area of a unit mass of particles).
▪ If 𝜌𝑝 and ∅𝑠 are constant, Aw is given by:
Average particle size for a mixture of particles
❑ The average particle size for a mixture of particles is defined in several different ways.
▪ Volume –surface mean diameter (𝑫𝒔 )
▪ Arithmetic- mean diameter(𝑫𝑵 )
▪ Mass-mean diameter 𝑫𝒘 and
▪ Volume mean diameter (𝑫𝑽 )

(1) Volume –surface mean diameter(𝑫𝒔 )

▪ This mean may be calculated from the number of particles Ni in each size range or from the mass
fraction in each size range Xi:

▪ Substitution for the value of 𝐴𝑤 : we may have the following

expression;

❑ If the number of particles in each fraction Ni is known instead

of the mass fraction, (𝑫𝒔 ) is given by:
(2) The arithmetic mean diameter:

▪ The arithmetic mean diameter 𝐷𝑁 is:

(3) Mass-mean diameter 𝑫𝒘

❑ The Mass-mean diameter 𝐷𝑤 , can be obtained from the following relation:

(4) Volume mean diameter (𝑫𝑽 )

❑ Dividing the total volume of the sample by the number of particles in the mixture (see below) gives
the average volume of a particle.
▪ The diameter of such a particle is the volume mean diameter 𝑫𝑽 , which is found from the relation:

▪ For samples consisting of uniform particles these average diameters are, of course, all the same.
❑ For mixtures containing particles of various sizes, however, the several average diameters may differ
widely from one another.
Number of particles in mixture
❑ To calculate, from the differential analysis, the number of particles in a mixture, Eq. (1) is used to
compute the number of particles in each fraction, and Nw, the total population in one mass unit
of sample, is obtained by summation over all the fractions.
▪ For a given particle shape, the volume of any particle is proportional to its "diameter" cubed, or

▪ where a is the volume shape factor. From Eq. (1), then, assuming that a is independent of size,

▪ The specific surface area, the various average diameters, and the number of particles are readily
calculated from the particle-size analyses through the use of simple computer programs.
❑ Many measuring instruments for very fine particles are programmed to report these quantities
directly.
Particle size Measurement Methods
❑ A number of particle measurement methods and their measurement size ranges are given in Table
below. The correct method must be selected for the application of interest.

❑ Instrumental Particle size analyzers: Electronic particle counter, Laser diffraction analyzers,
Xray or photo sediment meters, dynamic light scattering techniques.
(1) Screen analysis (Sieving)
❑ Screen is an open container usually cylindrical with uniformly spaced
openings at the base.
❑ It is normally made of wire cloth, the wire diameter and interspacing
between wires is carefully controlled.
Screening and its terminology
❑ Screening is a method of separating particles on the basis of their size.
 Aperture Size of screen

❑ The size of a square opening (length of clear space

between individual wires) is called the aperture
size of screen.
Mesh
❑ Mesh is defined as the number of openings in one linear inch width of a screen. For example, a
50 mesh screen will have 50 openings in linear width per inch.
▪ The higher the mesh number, the smaller the screen openings. it is also used to indicate the
particle size of the particles that can pass through the screen. The higher the mesh number, the
smaller the particle size.
Screen interval

❑ Screen interval is a factor by which aperture size of a screen is to be divided to get

the aperture size of next successive screen.

▪ The ratio of actual aperture size of any screen to that

of the next smaller screen is √2 =1.41
▪ The area of openings in any one screen in the series is
exactly twice that of the openings in the next smaller
screen.
 Material flow in the screen
▪ The material passing through a given screen is termed
undersize, fines or minus (−) material, while the material
retained in a given size screen is called oversize, tails or
plus (+) material.
▪ Materials which passes through 16 mesh screen and gets retained
on 20 mesh screen is represented as 10/20 or -10/+20

▪ Mesh is the number of opening per linear inch counting from

the center of any wire to a point exactly one inch distant (e.g., a
200 mesh screen will have 200 opening per linear inch).

The higher the Mesh size, the smaller the particles must be to
pass through.

For example, 6/8 refers to the particles passing through the 6-mesh and remaining on
an 8-mesh screen.
Tayler Standard Screen Series
❑ Size of the upper screen must be larger by a factor √2 and that of lower screen must be
smaller by a factor √2.
Sample data sheet for sieve analysis
Example 1
▪ A mixture contains three sizes of particles: 25% by volume of 25 mm size,40% of
50 mm and 35% of 75 mm. The sphericity is 0.68. Calculate the volume surface
mean diameter (𝑫̅𝒔).

Example 2:
▪ A spherical solid powder was screen analyzed, the analysis
results are shown in the table below:
a. Calculate the mass fraction of the particulate material.
b. Calculate volume-surface mean diameter (𝑫̅𝒔)
c. Calculate the specific surface area (Aw) of the mixture if
the particle density was 2,500 kg/m³.
d. Calculate the total number of particles if the particle
shape factor was 2.5.
Example 3
The size analysis of a powdered material on a mass basis is represented by a straight line from 0 per
cent mass at 1 µm particle size to 100 per cent mass at 101 µm particle size as shown in Figure shown
below. Calculate the surface mean diameter of the particles constituting the system
Example 4
▪ Wheat flour is made by grinding the dry wheat grains. Particle size is an important characteristic in many of the
wheat products. For example, in making wafers, if the flour is too fine; light and tender products are formed. On the
other hand, incomplete sheets of unsatisfactory wafers are formed if the flour is too coarse.

▪ Therefore, it is important to test the grinding performance of flour by sieve analysis in wafer producing factories.
▪ Determine:
a. The volume surface mean diameter,
b. Mass mean diameter, and
c. Volume mean diameter of wheat flour by differential analysis using the data given in the following table.
Example 5
The size analysis of a powdered material measured by sieve analysis on a mass basis is represented by
the table below. Calculate the volume mean diameter of the particles constituting the system. [Show
detailed calculations]
Mass fraction Particle size
(𝝁𝒎)
0 1
0.1 11
0.2 21
0.3 31
0.4 41
0.5 51
0.6 61
0.7 71
0.8 81
0.9 91
1 101
(2) Sedimentation Methods
❑ These methods rely on the principle that particles settle at
different rates in a fluid medium based on their size and
density.
▪ The sedimentation techniques utilize the dependence of the
terminal velocities of particles on their size either in a gravitational
field or in a centrifugal field.

▪ Gravitational sedimentation (originally called the pipette

method) measures the settling rate of particles in liquid
medium and relates this rate to the particle mass (hence size)
by use of the Stokes law.

❑ According to Stokes’ law, it is possible to calculate the mean particle diameter d from the
sedimentation rate v :
(3) Particle Counting
▪ Originally images of particles would be counted and measured by hand, now this process is
often automated by computer. Individual particle images are captured from dispersed samples
and analyzed to determine their particle size, particle shape and other physical properties.

▪ Different size particles can be analyzed using

different imaging techniques, although typically used
with a microscope, it can be used with Scanning
Electron Microscopy.

▪ Illuminator plays a crucial role in providing adequate

lighting for the detection and counting of particles.
▪ A flow cell is a component of a particle counting system or
cytometer that facilitates the controlled passage of fluid (such as a
liquid sample containing particles) through a chamber or channel
where the particles are analyzed or counted.
❑ Lenses are used to magnify, and direct light onto detectors
or sensors.
(4) Laser Diffraction
❑ It involves passing samples, which can exist either as liquid suspensions or dry dispersions, through a
laser beam, which then scatters light.
▪ Detectors strategically positioned at fixed angles capture the intensity of scattered light at various
points.
▪ Subsequently, a mathematical model is employed to calculate the particle size distribution. The
outcome is typically presented based on Equivalent Spherical Diameter Volume.
 (5) Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS)
❑ Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS, also known as Photon Correlation Spectroscopy or Quasi-Elastic
Light Scattering) is one of the most popular light scattering techniques because it allows particle
sizing down to 1 nm diameter.
▪ Typical applications are emulsions, micelles, polymers, proteins, nanoparticles, or colloids.
▪ The sample is illuminated by a laser beam and
the fluctuations of the scattered light are
detected at a known scattering angle θ by a fast
photon detector.

▪ Simple DLS instruments that measure at a fixed

angle can determine the mean particle size in a
limited size range.
▪ More elaborated multi-angle instruments can
determine the full particle size distribution.
Density of solid particles
Drag force
❑ Processes for the separation of particles of various sizes and shapes often depend on the variation in
the behavior of the particles when they are subjected to the action of a moving fluid.
▪ Drag force can be defined as the resistance force experienced
by an object as it moves through a fluid.
▪ It arises due to the interaction between the object and the
fluid, where the fluid exerts forces on the object that oppose
its motion.
▪ Drag force acts in the direction opposite to the object's
motion relative to the fluid.
▪ For a rigid particle moving in a fluid, there are three
forces acting on the body:
Equation for One-dimensional Motion of Particle through Fluid
▪ Consider a particle of mass m moving through a fluid under the action of an external force 𝑭𝒆 .
▪ Let the velocity of the particle relative to the fluid be u, let the buoyant force on the particle
be 𝐹𝑏 and let the drag be 𝑭𝑫 , then;

▪ The external force (𝑭𝒆 ) - Expressed as a product of the mass (m) and the acceleration (𝒂𝒆 ) of the
particle from this force:
Equation for One-dimensional Motion of Particle through Fluid
▪ Buoyant Force:
▪ This force acts in the upward direction, opposing the force of gravity.
▪ It is exerted on an object immersed in a fluid and is caused by the pressure difference between
the top and bottom of the object due to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.

▪ Based on Archimedes’ law, it is the product of the mass of the fluid displaced by the
particle and the acceleration from the external force.

❑ In simpler terms, the buoyant force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.
Equation for One-dimensional Motion of Particle through Fluid
The drag force (FD)
▪ Drag force arises due to the interaction between the particles and the fluid as they move through it.
▪ It opposes the motion of the particles relative to the fluid and can significantly affect their path,
velocity, and distribution within the fluid.
Equation for One-dimensional Motion of Particle through Fluid

❑ There are two cases to do this:

Equation for One-dimensional Motion of Particle through Fluid

▪ A centrifugal force appears whenever the direction of

movement of a particle is changed.
▪ The acceleration from a centrifugal force from circular
motion is

❑ In this equation, u is the velocity of the particle relative to the fluid and is directed outwardly along a
radius.
Terminal velocity
❑ Terminal velocity, is the constant velocity that an object in a fluid achieves when the drag force acting
on it (due to the resistance of the fluid) becomes equal in magnitude to the gravitational force acting
on it (due to its weight).
▪ If a spherical particle is allowed to settle in a fluid under gravity, its velocity will increase until the
accelerating force is exactly balanced by the resistance force. At this point the particle falls with its
terminal velocity.

▪ Terminal velocity occurs when the sum of the drag force (Fd) and Fb Fd
the buoyancy is equal to the downward force of gravity (FG) acting on the
object. Since the net force on the object is zero, the object has
zero acceleration.
d
𝑭𝒈 = 𝑭𝒃 + 𝑭𝒅
Or, it can be expressed as:

W=mg
Terminal velocity: For spherical particle
Terminal velocity: Centrifugal force
❑ In motion from a centrifugal force, the velocity depends on the radius. The acceleration is not
constant if the particle is in motion with respect to the fluid.

▪ In many practical use of centrifugal force, is small.

▪ Thus, it can be neglected to give:
Drag coefficient (CD)
❑ Quantify the resistance an object encounters as it moves through a fluid. It depends on
various factors including the shape of the object, the Reynolds number of the flow, and
surface roughness.
▪ It is determined experimentally for different shapes and flow conditions.
▪ It is a measure of how efficiently the object can penetrate the fluid without being slowed down by
drag.
▪ From dimensional analysis, the drag coefficient of a smooth solid in an incompressible fluid depends
upon a Reynolds number and the necessary shape factors. For a given shape:
𝑪𝑫 = ∅ 𝑵𝑹𝒆
▪ Reynolds number can be defined as:
Drag coefficient (CD): Drag curve

❑ The drag curve applies only under restricted

conditions:
▪ The particle must be a solid sphere;
▪ The particle must be far from other particles
and the vessel wall so that the flow pattern

𝑢2 𝜌𝐴𝑝
2𝐹𝐷
around the particle is not distorted;
▪ It must be moving at its terminal velocity with

𝐶𝐷 =
respect to the fluid.

𝐷𝑝 𝑢𝜌
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
Navier–Stokes equation
Stokes Law

𝐅𝐃 = 𝟑𝛑𝛍𝐃𝐩 𝐮

❑ Stokes's law, mathematical equation that expresses the drag force resisting the fall of small spherical
particles through a fluid medium.
Drag coefficient (CD): Drag curve
Criterion for settling regime
❑ To identify the range in which the motion of the particle lies, the velocity term is eliminated
from the Reynolds number (𝑅𝑒 ) by substituting 𝑢𝑡 from Stokes’ law and Newton’s law.

▪ To determine the settling regime, a convenient criterion 𝑲 is introduced.

Criterion for settling regime
Criterion for settling regime
❑ Thus, based on the given expression above, we have the following:
 Drag coefficients (CD) for spheres and irregular particles
❑ In general case, the terminal velocity, can be found by try and error after guessing 𝑵𝑹𝒆 to get an initial
estimate of drag coefficient CD .

▪ Normally for this case the particle

diameter 𝑫𝒑 is known.
Drag coefficients (CD) determination procedures
 Example 1
1. Estimate the terminal velocity for 80 - to 100-mesh particles of limestone (𝜌𝑝 = 2800
kg/𝑚3 ) falling in water at 30 ℃.
2. How much bigger would be the velocity in centrifugal separator when the acceleration is
50g?
Example 2
1. Oil droplets having diameter of 20 μm are to be settled from air with a density of 1.137
kg/𝑚3 and viscosity of 1.9 x10−5 Pa.s. Meanwhile, the density of the oil is 900 kg/𝑚3 .
Calculate the terminal velocity of the droplets if the droplets is assumed to be a rigid
sphere.
Summary: Factors affecting drag force
▪ The drag force experienced by particles moving in a fluid is a crucial concept in fluid dynamics
and is determined by several factors.
▪ Velocity of the Particle:
▪ Density of the fluid
▪ Viscosity of the fluid
▪ Cross-sectional Area of the Particle:
▪ Shape of the particle and
▪ Reynolds Number
Summary: Factors affecting CD
❑ The drag coefficient depends on various factors including the shape of the object, the
Reynolds number of the flow, and surface roughness.
▪ It is determined experimentally for different shapes and flow conditions.
▪ From dimensional analysis, the drag coefficient of a smooth solid in an incompressible fluid depends
upon a Reynolds number and the necessary shape factors. For a given shape:

𝑪𝑫 = ∅ 𝑵𝑹𝒆
▪ Reynolds number can be defined as:
 Flow of fluid through a granular bed
❑ Some industries often encounter processes that require flow of fluids through beds composed of
stationary granular particles. For example: Absorption and filtration process

▪ In all of these processes, the presence of particles causes resistance to

flow of fluids that results in pressure drop across the beds.
▪ It is therefore necessary to estimate the size of the equipment
required, and design expressions are required for the drop in pressure
for a fluid flowing through a packing, either alone or as a two-phase
system.

❑ The drop in pressure for flow through a bed of small particles provides
a convenient method for obtaining a measure of the external surface
area of a powder.
 Flow of fluid through a granular bed
❑ A granular bed refers to a collection of solid particles that are packed together in a confined
space.
▪ The flow of fluid through a granular bed refers to the movement of a fluid
(liquid or gas) through a bed of solid particles, such as sand, gravel, or
catalyst particles.
▪ Understanding the behavior of fluid flow through granular beds is crucial
for optimizing processes, predicting pressure drops, and designing
efficient systems in industries like chemical engineering, environmental
engineering, and petroleum engineering.

❑ The arrangement and properties of the granular bed play a

significant role in determining the flow behavior of fluids through
the bed, as well as in processes like adsorption, filtration, and heat
transfer.
Flow of a Single Fluid through a Granular Bed

❑ Studying the flow of a single fluid through a granular bed

involves analyzing factors such as pressure drop, flow rate,
resistance to flow, and overall system performance.
▪ Understanding how the fluid interacts with the particles in the
bed is crucial for designing efficient processes, estimating
pressure gradients, and optimizing equipment size and
operation.

▪ The flow of a fluid through a porous medium, such as a granular

bed can be described by Darcy's law .
Darcy's law and Permeability
❑ It establishes a linear relationship between the flow rate of the fluid, the pressure drop across the
medium, and the properties of the medium itself.

Darcy's law

▪ Used to describe flow of liquids

through porous media.

❑ Permeability is the property of porous material that permits the flow of water or any other liquid
through it by its interconnecting voids.
▪ It quantifies the ability of the porous medium (the granular bed in this case) to transmit fluids.
Darcy's law: Permeability coefficient
❑ The permeability coefficient in the context of fluid flow through a porous medium, such as a
granular bed, indicates the ease with which a fluid can flow through the medium.
▪ It is a measure of the medium's ability to transmit fluids and is a crucial parameter in
understanding and predicting fluid flow behavior in porous materials.

▪ The permeability coefficient is influenced by various factors, including:

▪ The porosity of the medium,
▪ The size and shape of the pores,
▪ The tortuosity of the flow paths, and
▪ The viscosity of the fluid.
▪ A higher permeability coefficient indicates that the medium offers less resistance to fluid flow,
allowing for easier passage of the fluid through the porous structure.
Specific surface and voidage

▪ Voidage, also known as porosity or fractional voidage, represents the fraction of the total volume of a material that
is not occupied by solid particles. It quantifies the amount of empty space or voids within the material.
❑ Specific surface represents the amount of surface area available for interaction with fluids or other substances in
relation to the volume of the material.
Specific surface and voidage

▪ where 𝑫𝒑 is diameter in m. For a packed bed of nonspherical

particles, the effective particle diameter Dp is defined as:
Note that:
General expressions for flow through beds
 General expressions for flow through beds: Pressure drop
Case 1: for laminar flow conditions
❑ For laminar flow, the Hagen-PoiseuiIIe which is given below can be employed for estimating the
pressure drop in the granular bed.

❑ Where: D is equivalent diameter for the channel, v is average velocity and it is given by:

𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑡𝑜𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣′

𝑣= =
𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜀
▪ The true ∆L is larger because of the tortuous path and use of the hydraulic radius predicts too large a 𝒗, .
Experimental data show that the constant should be 150, which gives the Blake-Kozeny equation for
laminar flow, void fractions less than 0.5, effective particle diameter 𝐷𝑝 and 𝑵𝑹𝒆𝒑 < 10.
 General expressions for flow through beds: Pressure drop
Case 2: for turbulent flow conditions
❑ For turbulent flow conditions, the pressure drop is given by:
∆𝐋 𝟐
∆𝐏 = 𝟐𝐟𝛒 𝐯
𝐃

▪ For highly turbulent flow the friction factor should approach a constant value. Also, it is assumed that all
packed beds should have the same relative roughness. Experimental data indicated that 3f = 1.75.
▪ Hence, the final equation for turbulent flow for 𝑁𝑅𝑒,𝑝 > 1000, which is called the Burke-Plummer
equation, becomes:
Example 3
1. A packed bed is composed of cylinders having a diameter D=0.02 m and a length h= D. The
bulk density of the overall packed bed is 962 kg/𝑚3 and the density of solid cylinders
is 1600 kg/𝑚3 :
A. Calculate the void fraction
B. Calculate the effective diameter of the particles.
C. Calculate the value a
(Hint: do the calculations for a unit volume)

Example 4
A packed bed is composed of cubes 0.020 m on a side and the bulk density of the packed bed
is 980 kg/𝑚3 . The density of the solid cubes is 1500 kg/𝑚3 .
A. Calculate 𝜀, effective diameter 𝐷𝑝 , and a.
B. Repeat for the same conditions but for cylinders having a diameter of D = 0.02 m
and a length h = 1.5D.
Factors affecting the flow of fluid through granular bed
❑ Several factors can affect the flow of fluid through a granular bed. Some of the key factors
include:

▪ Particle Size and Shape

▪ Porosity: Particle Packing
▪ Interparticle Interactions
▪ Fluid Properties
▪ Flow Rate
▪ Bed Height
▪ Temperature and Pressure
Example 5
1. A water moving trough a packed column of granulated silica gel at 20 ℃. The average size of the
particles is around 3 mm and covered for 65% of the beds volume. Determine the specific surface
area of the bed and the equivalent diameter of the pore channels through the bed.

2. If the Reynolds number is given by 0.89, calculate the average velocity of the water moving trough
the channel of the bed.

3. Find the pressure drop if the length of the bed is given by 2m?
End of chapter 2