Atomic Combinations

Molecular Structure

A chemical bond

• A chemical bond is a mutual attraction between two atoms resulting from the simultaneous
attraction between their nuclei and the outer electrons.

There are electrostatic forces between protons and electrons

There are repulsive forces between protons of atoms that are about to form bonds, as well as
the electrons
As the total force experienced by the atoms changes, the amount of energy in the system also
changes.

The energy of the combined atoms is lower than that of the individual atoms resulting in
higher stability
Why atoms form bonds

Atoms form bonds to try to achieve the same electron configuration as the noble gases.
The noble gases have a full valence electron orbital.
Atoms with a full valence electron orbital are less reactive and stable.
Not all atoms that come together will form a bond
 Two H atoms form a H2 molecule

Lets consider two atoms approaching each, where one is fixed and the other one moves
closer to it.
As they move closer the energy of the system decreases
Attractive forces are stronger than repulsive forces and this results in negative potential
energy

At point X, the attractive and repulsive forces acting on the two hydrogen atoms are balanced.
The energy of the system is at a minimum
If the atoms come even closer than this, the repulsive forces become stronger than the
attractive forces and the energy of the system increases.
For hydrogen the energy at point X is low enough that the two atoms stay together and do not
break apart again.
This results in this covalent bond which is stable

He does not form He2

Each helium atom has a filled outer energy level
The minimum energy for two helium atoms is very close to zero as shown in the diagram.

The energy minimum at point X is not low enough that the two atoms stay together as a
result they move apart again.
There is no bond that forms
Helium already has a full outermost energy level and so no compound forms.

Lewis diagrams

Valence electrons

• Valence electrons or outer electrons are the electrons in the highest energy level of an
atom in which there are electrons.

• Valence electrons correspond to the group number in which the element is found on
the periodic table
Group I II III IV V VI VII V
I
I
I
Valence e- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
 Lewis dot diagrams of elements

 A Lewis dot diagram is a structural formula in which valence electrons are

represented by dots or crosses.
 It is also known as an electron dot formula, a Lewis formula, or an electron
diagram.
 Example;

 Lithium - Li• Carbon -

 Covalent bond
 A covalent bond is the sharing of electrons between two atoms to form
a molecule.
 Molecule: A group of two or more atoms covalently bonded and that
function as a unit.
 When different atoms bond they make use of the unpaired valence
electrons
 E.g. Two H atoms form a H2 molecule by sharing an electron pair

Atoms with unpaired electrons

 Atoms use unpaired electrons to form single bonds by sharing one pair of
electrons between atoms

HCl – hydrogen chloride

CH4 – methane

Atoms with lone pairs

 Different atoms with paired valence electrons, called lone pairs, cannot share
these electrons and cannot form bonds
 Water as an example
 Oxygen has two unpaired electrons and two electron pairs
 A bonding pair is a pair of electrons that is shared between two atoms in a
covalent bond.
 Water has two bonding pairs of electrons
 A lone pair is a pair of electrons in the valence shell of an atom that is not shared
with another atom
 Water has two lone pairs of electrons which is not involved in bonding

Atoms with multiple bonds

 Different atoms, with unpaired valence electrons, can share these electrons and
form a chemical bond for each electron pair shared.
 The two atoms can form multiple bonds between them.
 If two pairs of electrons are shared, a double bond is formed,

E.g. between two O atoms to form O2.

Another Example is hydrogen cyanide

+ +
+
 Then there is carbon dioxide CO2

Dative Covalent bond

NH4+ and H3O+

Dative covalent bond

 Atoms with an empty valence shell can share a lone pair of electrons from another
atom to form a coordinate covalent or dative covalent bond.
 The conditions for this bond to form are:
 One atom must have an empty orbital
 The other atom or molecule must have a lone pair of electrons
Example – NH4+

 In NH4+ the lone pair of nitrogen is shared with 𝐻+

 +

 This can also be shown as,

Example - 𝐻3 𝑂+

 In 𝐻3 𝑂+ the lone pair of oxygen is

shared with 𝐻+

 This can be represented as

 Summary on bonding

• Any electron on its own will try to pair up with another electron.

• So in theory atoms that have at least one unpaired electron can form bonds with any
other atom that also has an unpaired electron.

• This is not restricted to just two atoms

• If an atom has an electron pair it will normally not share that pair to form a bond.

• This electron pair is known as a lone pair.

• If an atom has more than one unpaired electron it can form multiple bonds to
another atom.

• In this way double and triple bonds are formed.

• A dative covalent bond can be formed between an atom with no electrons and an
atom with a lone pair.