CONTENT CHAPTER: | - INDIA & THE WORLD... CHAPTER: 2 - NORTHERN INDIA: AGE OF THE THREE EMPIRE (800-1000)... CHAPTER: 3 - SOUTH INDIA: THE CHOLA EMPIRE (900-1200) 9 CHAPTER: 4 - ECONOMIC & SOCIAL LIFE, EDUCATION AND RELIGIOUS BELIEF (800-1200)... 11 CHAPTER: 5 - AGE OF CONFLICT (CIRCA 1000-1200)... CHAPTER: 6 - THE DELHI SULTANAT =I (CIRCA 1200 - 1400) ..rnsctcunennennnnenneeneniennesies 19 THE MONGOLS AND THE PROBLEM OF THE NORTH-WEST FRONTIER 20 CHAPTER: 7 - THE DELHI SULTANAT—II (CIRCA 1300-1400) CHAPTER: 8 - GOVERNMENT, AND ECONOMIC & SOCIAL LIFE DURING THE SULTANATE ...29 CHAPTER: 9 - THE AGE OF VIAYNAGARA AND THE BAHAMANIDS AND THE COMING OF THE PORTUGUESE (CIRCA 1350 - 1565: CHAPTER: 10 - STRUGGLE FOR EMPIRE IN NORTH INDIA (1400-1525) CHAPTER: 11 - CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA (1200 - 1500) 42 CHAPTER: 12 - STRUGGLE FOR EMPIRE IN NORTH INDIA ~ II MUGHALS AND AFGHANS (1525- 1555) 47 CHAPTER: 13 - CONSOLIDATION OF MUGHAL EMPIRE AGE OF AKBAR 50 CHAPTER: 14 - THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH (UP TO 1656) i 53 CHAPTER: 15 - INDIA IN THE FIRST HALF OF 17TH CENTURY..... 55 CHAPTER: 16 - ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL LIFE UNDER MUGHALS, 357 CHAPTER: 17 - CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS... 60 CHAPTER: 18 - CLIMAX AND DISINTEGRATION OF MUGHAL EMPIRE - | 63 CHAPTER: 19 - CLIMAX AND DISINTEGRATION OF MUGHAL EMPIRE - Il ....csssesnennensee 65 CHAPTER: 20 - ASSESSMENT AND REVIEW OF MEDIEVAL INDIA. 68 i iCHAPTER: 1 - INDIA & THE WORLD ‘* New social and political forms rose in |. The new forms also Europe as well as As had profound effects on the thinking and living patterns of the peoples. ‘© These changes had an impact on India also since India had long-standing trade and . cultural relations with countries around the Mediterranean Sea, and the various empires which arose in the area, including the Roman and Persian empires. EUROPE * Roman empire broken into two by 6th century: co West, with capital at Rome, overwhelmed by Slav and Germanic tribesmen coming from the side of . Russia and Germany. It followed Catholic Church, © Bast, with capital at Constantinople, encompassed Eastern Europe, Turkey, Syria and North Africa. (Byzantine Empire). The church of the east was called Greek Orthodox Church which later spread to Russia. © Byzantines acted as a bridge between Greco- Roman civilization and Arabs. Byzantine Empire disappeared in middle of 15th century when Constantinople fell to Turks. . ‘© After collapse of Western Roman Empire cities disappeared and trade declined (dark ages). Revival occurred around 10th century. . © 12th to 14th century saw rapid progress and prosperity and a new outlook towards life. Universities were established and helped in dissemination of knowledge and growth of new ideas. This eventually led to dominated by landed aristocracy which was, hereditary. Features of feudal system © Landed aristocracy ©. Serfiom and Manor system © Military organization Serfs: Peasants who had to compulsorily work on the land. © Manor: The house where the landlord lived. Serfs had to cultivate the lands surrounding the manor and give a part of the produce to the landlord. Landlord was tasked with dispensing justice and maintaining law and order. This system disappeared from Western Europe after 14th century. Cavalry gained popularity in warfare because of iron stirrup and a new harness which allowed the horse to pull twice the weight it pulled earlier. These inventions came to West from East Asia and were introduced in India from 10th century. As king was unable to manage the growing size, army was decentralized and the feudal lords got to the responsibility of the army. In most cases, fiefs collected taxes from peasantry, gave tribute to the king, maintained the army and used the rest for personal consumption In India, local fiefs (Samantas) exercised similar powers, with the peasantry dependent upon them, Catholic Church took on political functions and moral authority shaping Cultural life in Europe. Many monastic orders and ed from denominations were establis revenue obtained from tax free land grants by feudal chiefs and kings. : i i i : Renaissance. * Churches served the poor and needy, gave GROWTH OF FEUDALISM medical aid and shelter to travellers and ‘* Most powerful elements were the chiefs who served as centres for education and learning. dominated large tracts of land with military THE ARAB WORLD power and played an important part in Islam united warring Arab tribes into a powerful government. King was in effect the most empire powerful feudal chief controlling chiefs by * Prophet Muhammad (570-632 A.D) making them take oath of loyalty as vassals © Heis the founder of Islam. to the king. © He grew up in the deserts of Arabia. ‘© Tensions arose time and again between the kking and vassals (fiefs) Government was thus © His first converts were the Arabs.© Sind and Multan were conquered by the Arabs by 712. A.D. Abbasids came to power as Caliphs at Baghdad in middle of 8th century. Claimed to belong to same tribe as Prophet ‘Muhammad. Most powerful empire for nearly 150 years. Controlled parts of North Africa, Egypt, Syria, Iran and Iraq and important trade routes connecting India and China with the Mediterranean. Region attained prosperity by levying taxes on trade and due to enterprising Arab merchants Arabs assimilated scientific knowledge and administrative skills of empires they had overrun. Many Chinese inventions like compass, paper, printing, gun powder reached Europe from China through Arabs. Bait-ul-hikmat: House of wisdom translating literature from various empires into Arabic. India did not enjoy close cultural contact with Arabs until Sindh was conquered in 8th century. Decimal system reached Arabs from India after this and was popularized by Al Khwarizmi. Suryasiddhanta (Astronomy - Aryabhatta) and Charaksamhita, Sushrutsamhita were also translated. Arab Invasion in India Muhammad-bin-Qasim © Al-Hajjaj, the Governor of Iraq sent Muhammad-bin-Qasim to India. o He Conquered Sind with the permission of Caliph Walid. Battle of Rewar © Fought between Muhammad-bin- Qasim and Dahir the ruler of Sind. © Dahir was defeated. Sind and Multan was captured. © Muhammad-bin-Qasim called Multan as The City of Gold’. Administrative System © Sind and Multan were divided into number of Iqtas or districts by Muhammad-bin-Qasim and Arab tary officers headed the Iqtas. © The sub-divisions of the districts were administered by the local Hindu Officers. ©. Jizya was imposed on non-Muslims. Muhammad bin Qasim's Army © 25,000 troops with 6000 Camels, 6000 Syrian horses, 3000 Bactrian Camels and an artillery force with 2000 men, advanced guards, and five catapults. End of Muhammad-bin-Qasim © Caliph Walid was succeeded by Caliph Sulaiman, © He was an enemy of Al-Hajjaj, the Governor of Iraq, © Muhammad-bin Qasim was the son-in- law of Al-Haijaj, so he dismissed him and sent to Mesopotamia as a prisoner where he was tortured to death. For more than 150 years, Sind and Multan continued to remain as the part of the Caliph's Empire. Rani Bai's heroic defence against Muhammad bin Qasim © The wife of Dahir and the other women of Sind put up a heroic defense within the Fort of Rewar. Effects of Arab Conquest © The subjugation of Sind made way for Islam into India. © The art of administration, astronomy, music, painting, medicine and architecture were learnt by Arabs from our land and they spread astronomy, Indian Philosophy, and numerals to Europe. Indian Impact, o Brahma Siddhanta - A Sanskrit work of Brahma Gupta was translated into Arabic in which the names of Indian Scientists like Sindbad, Bhala, and Manaka are mentioned. © Inahospital at Baghdad, Dhana was appointed as a chief Medical officer. © A serious disease of Caliph Harun-al- Rashid Manaka, a physician cured Europe stagnated due to rigid views of Catholic Church. India also did not progress m afier 14th century due to growing orthodoxy and other political developments. i i |. Arab science declined AERICA (Upscsummarynotes.Com)© The Arabs also brought Africa more closely into the Indian Ocean and Middle Eastern trade. Arab migrations and mercantile activity along the east coast of Africa increased enormously, extending upto Malindi, Zanzibar ete. ‘© However, the Arab trade included large scale export of slaves, as also gold, ivory, ete. ‘There was in Africa a powerful Ethiopian kingdom of long standing which had many towns. The Ethiopians were engaged in the Indian Ocean trade across Aden to India. ‘© The Ethiopians, called Habshis, were Christians. They were closely allied to the Byzantine empire in the Indian Ocean trade. Their economic position weakened with the decline of the Byzantine empire EAST AND SOUTH EAST ASIA. © China: Attained climax in 8" and 9" centuries under Tang dynasty. Exported countless goods to the West through Silk Route. Tangs were replaced by Sung dynasty 10th century and then growing weakness led to Mongol invasion in13th century. Mongols unified north and south china with help of highly disciplined and mobile cavalry. They also ruled over Vietnam and Korea for some time, Marco Polo spent some time at the court of famous Mongol ruler Kublai Khan. Visited Malabar on his way back to Italy by sea. © Sailendra dynasty: Palembang (Sumatra), Java, Malay Peninsula and parts of Thailand, Sanskrit and Buddhist centres of learning Borobudur Temple (Buddha) carved into 9 terraces surmounted by a Stupa. © Kambuja dynasty: Cambodia and Annam (South Vietnam) group of temples near mountain Angkor Thom, 200 temples in 3.2 sq km area; largest Angkor Vat Temples contain statues of gods, goddesses & nymphs. ‘© Temples in the above-mentioned locations had panels containing scenes from Ramayana and Mahabharat. These were also the inspiration for literature, folk dances, songs, puppets and statues. Temple building here coincided with temple building in India Buddhism declined in India and flourished here, Buddha was brought into Hinduism later in India whereas Hindu Gods were brought under Buddhist fold in SE Asia. Religious tolerance existed and Indonesia and Malaya were converted to Islam only afier its consolidation in India, Elsewhere, Buddhism continued to flourish. Commercial and cultural contacts were snapped only after the Britishers and Dutch came in the 17th century. i iCHAPTER: 2 - NORTHERN INDIA: AGE OF THE THREE EMPIRE (800-1000) ‘A number of powerful empires arose in northern India and the Deccan between AD 750 and 1000. The medieval period can be divided into two stages: © Early medieval period: 8" - 12" century A.D. Later Medieval period: 12" - 18" century. ‘THE STRUGGLE FOR DOMINATION IN NORTH INDIA: THE PALAS ‘© The Tripartite Struggle for Kanauj was between the Pratiharas of Central India, the of Bengal and the Rashtrakutas of n © Asall these three dynasties wanted to establish their supremacy over Kanauj and the fertile Gangetic Valley. ‘© The Tripartite Struggle lasted for 200 years and weakened all of them which enabled the Turks to overthrow them, © Gopala © Founder of Pala Dynasty and he also restored order, probably in AD 750 when he was elected king by the notable men of the area to end the anarchy prevailing there. Ruled over Northern and Eastern India. He expanded the Pala dynasty and extended his power over Magadha. © Gopala was succeeded in AD 770 by his son. Dharmapala © Dharamapala, who ruled till AD 810. © Heis the son of Gopala and succeeded his father. He brought Bengal, Bihar, and Kanauj under his control. © He defeated the Pratiharas and became the master of Northern India. © He was a steadfast Buddhist and founded the famous Vikramasila University atop a hill near Ganga in Magadh and several monasteries. © He also restored the Nalanda University and set aside 200 villages for its expenses. © Had close cultural relations with Tibet and with the Sailendra dynasty. Devapala (815 - 855 A.D.) ‘© Devapala is the son of Dharmapala who succeeded his father. © He kept the Pala territories intact. © He captured Assam, Orissa. ‘© Mahipala (998 - 1038 A.D.) © The Palas became powerful during his reign. © The Pala dynasty declined after the death of Mahipala © Govinda Pala: He is the last Pala King. THE PRATIHARAS © The Pratiharas were also called as Gurjara. ‘They ruled between 8th and 1 1th century A.D. over northern and western India. © The Pratiharas stood as a fortification of India's defence against the hostility of the Muslims from the days of Junaid of Sind (725.A.D.) to Mahmud of Ghazni. Rulers: + Nagabhatta I (725 - 740 A.D.) © Founder of the Pratihara dynasty with Kanauj as its capital. © Vatsaraja and Nagabhatta II © Played a vital role in merging the empire, * Mihirabhoja © The most powerful Pratihara king. © During his period, the empire expanded from Kashmir to Narmada and from Kathiawar to Bihar. © Was a devotee of Vishnu and took the title "Adivaraha". © Mahendrapala (885-908 A.D.) © Son of Mihirabhoja, was also a powerful ruler. © He extended his control over Magadha and North Bengal. © Decline of the Pratiharas co Rajyapala was the last Pratihara king. © Vast empire was reduced to Kanauj. © The Pratihara power began to decline after Mahmud of Ghazni attacked the kingdom in 1018 A.D. © After the decline of the Prathiharas : i i i : their feudatories Palas, Tomars, Chauhans, Rathors, Chandellas.© Guhilas and Paramaras became independent rulers. © There was complete anarchism in Bengal between 750-760 A.D. Pratiharas were patrons of learning - Great poet Rajashekhar lived at court of Mahipala, Bhoja's grandson. Al-Masudi visited Gujarat from Baghdad in 915 and tells about Pratihara kingdom. INDIA DURING | ap 700— ap 1030 tne. {rasan THE RASHTRAKUTAS Dantidurga: Founded the kingdom with capital at Malkhed (near Solapur). Dominated northern Maharashtra Govinda III annexed Kanauj, Malwa and turned south and defeated Lankan rulers. Amoghvarsha: Preferred pursuit of literature and religion than that of war. Wrote first Kannada book on poetics. Faced many rebellions in far-flung areas of empire. Empire weakened hereafter. Indra TIT: Amoghvarsha's grandson (915 - 927) re-established it. He was the most powerful ruler after death of Mahipala and sacking of Kanauj. Balhara or Vallabhraja: Al-Masudi says he ‘was the greatest king of India and most Indian rulers accepted his suzerainty, Krishna III (934 - 963) was the last ruler. Rashtrakutas patronized Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Jainism. Rock-cut Shiva temple at Ellora Rashtrakuta king Krishna 1. ‘They were great patrons of arts and literature. Great apabhramsha poet Svayambhu resided at Rashtrakuta court. Palas warred with Pratiharas for control over, Banaras to South Bihar. Dharampal was defeated by Rashtrakuta Dhruva and failed to consolidate power over Kanauj Pratiharas was revived under Nagabhatta IL Dharampal fell back and was killed. Devapala diverted energies towards east and conquered parts of Assam, Orissa and Nepal. Palas were restricted to east India more often than not Earlier pratihara rulers failed to control upper Ganga valley and Malwa due to Rashtrakutas, who defeated Pratiharas twice and later retreated to Deccan. Bhoja revived the Pratiharas Empire, recovered Kanauj in 836 and made it the capital for a century. Went east but stopped by Devapala, went south for Malwa and Gujarat but stopped by Rashtrakutas. Finally turned west and conquered till east bank of Sutlej. Had the best cavalry with horses imported from central Asia. Spread empire to east after death of Devapala, Rashtrakuta king Indra I attacked Kanauj between 915 and 918 and weakened Pratiharas. Gujarat also passed in Rashtrakuta hands. Loss of coast led to decline in revenues from sea trade and led to dissolution of the Pratiharas Empire. Later rashtrakutas Fought constantly with eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, Pallavas of Kanchi and Pandyas of Madurai Krishna TIT (last rashtrakuta) fought eastern chalukyas of Vengi and annexed northern part of Chola Empire, built a temple at Rameswaram. All opponents united after his death and Malkhed was sacked and burnt in 972. Rashtrakuta Empire Lasted the Longest. It ‘Was Not Only the Most Powerful Empire, But Also Acted as Bridge between North and South. POLITICAL IDEAS & ORGANIZATION i i‘* Administrative system was based on Gupta Empire, Harsha’s kingdom in the north and Chalukyas in the Deccan. King: Head administrator and commander- chief of armed forces. Usually the eldest. son succeeded, younger sons were made provincial governors, brothers fought to gain throne. Princesses were rarely appointed, but Chandrobalabbe, Amoghvarsha 1's daughter, administered Raichur doab for some time. © Kings were aided by ministers, who were also hereditary. There were ministers for foreign affairs, revenue, treasurer, armed forces chief, chief justice and purohit. More than one post could be combined. There were also officials of the household (antahpur), © Court was a centre of dispensing justice, policy making and cultural events. King's position was hereditary. Wars were frequent. ‘© Bearing arms for self-protection was the right of an individual, according to writer Medhatithi. © Territories were: 1. Directly administered. 2. Ruled by vassals. ‘TERRITORIAL DIVISIONS © PALAS & PRATIHARAS © Bhukti (province) under Uparika (governor). © Mandala/Visaya (district) under Visayapati (head). © Pattala (unit for realization of land revenue and law and order). © Bhukti > Visaya > Pattala + INRASHTRAKUTA EMPIRE co Rashtra (province) under Rashtrapat © Visaya (dist) under Visayapati. © Bhukti (unit for realization of land revenue and law and order). co Rashtra > Visaya > Bhukti ced below these * Village was pl administrative units. Its administration was carried out by village headman whose posts were hereditary. They were paid by rent-free land grants. © The head man was often helped in his duties by the village elders called grama mahajana or grama mahattara. Law and order in the towns and in areas in their immediate vicinity was the responsibility of the koshta pala or kotwal - a figure made familiar through many stories. ‘An important feature of the period was the rise in the Deccan of hereditary revenue officers called nad gavundas or desa gramakutas. State was essentially secular. Kings were worshippers of Shiva, Vishnu, Jainism and Buddhism but they never persecuted non - followers and patronized all religions equally. i iCHAPTER: 3 — SOUTH INDIA: THE CHOLA EMPIRE (900-1200) ‘© Powerful kingdoms had risen in south India during the sixth and eighth centuries. The most important among them were the Pallavas and the Pandyas who dominated modern Tamil Nadu, the Cheras of modern Kerala, and the Chalukyas who dominated the Maharashtra area or the Deccan. _Itwas the Chalukyan king, Pulakesin II, who had defeated Harsha and not allowed him to expand his kingdom towards the Deccan. Some of these kingdoms, such as the Pallava and Pandya, had strong navies ‘© The Chola empire which arose in the ninth century brought under its control a large part of the peninsula. The Cholas developed a powerful navy which enabled them to conquer Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Its impact was felt even by the countries of Southeast Asia. RISE OF THE CHOLA EMPIRE ‘© Arose in 9th century. Developed large navy and conquered SL and Maldives. Climax in South Indian history. © Founder: Vijayalaya, a feudatory of Pallavas. Captured Tanjore in 850. Pandyas and Pallavas defeated by 9th century and ‘Tamil land brought under control. AGE OF RAJARAJA & RAJENDRA I Rajaraja (985 - 1014) * Rajaraja spread kingdom EVERY WHERE. Quilon, Madurai, parts of SL, Maldives, NW parts of Ganga region in Ktaka and Vengi. © Built many temples to commemorate victories. Famous: Rajarajeshwara temple Tanjore completed in 1010. Long victory narratives inscribed on walls of the temples. Rajendra (1014 - 1044) © Rajendra | continued annexation: SL, Pandya and Chera countries totally overrun © Exploits of Rajendra I: Marched across Kalinga, crossed Ganga and captured two kings - assumed title Gangaikondachola and founded a city Gangaikondacholapuram on mouths of Kaveri. Captured Kadaram and parts of Malay Peninsula by mounting an expedition on revived Sri Vijaya Empire. Both had cordial relations but Cholas wanted to remove barriers to trade with Chinese and also increase trade. Contemporaries avanisea (CHOLA GOVERNMENT - LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT Fought constantly with Chalukyas (not of Badami, but of Kalyani) over Vengi (Rayalseema), Tungabhadra doab and NW Karnataka, Destroyed Pandya cities and Sri Lanka capital Anuradhapur. However, once conquered, Cholas set up sound administration in these cities. Stressed on local self-government. ‘The place of Cholas was taken by Pandyas & the Hoyasalas in the south and later Chalukyas replaced by the Yadavas and Kakatiyas. Infighting amongst each other weakened them and ultimately, they were destroyed by the Sultans of Delhi, sur oF NGA (CHOLA KINGDOM, ‘ap 1200 The king was the most important person in the administration. All decisions taken in by the king but advised by the council of ministers. In the Chola kingdom, nadus were grouped into valanadus. The Chola state was divided nto four mandalams or provinces. ‘Sometimes, princes of the royal family were appointed governors of provinces. Officials ‘were generally paid by giving them assignments of revenue- bearing lands. i iThe Chola rulers built a network of royal roads which were useful for trade as well as for the movement of the army. Trade and commerce flourished in the Chola empire, and there were some gigantic trade guilds which traded with Java and Sumatra. ‘We hear of two assemblies, called the ur, and the sabha or mahasabha. The ur was a general assembly of the village. However, we know more about the working of the mahasabha. This was a gathering of the adult ‘men in the Brahman villages which were called agraharams. These were villages with Brahman settlements in which most of the land was rent-free. These villages enjoyed a large measure of autonomy. CULTURAL LIFE Kings maintained large palaces and built huge monuments, Temple architecture attained climax under cholas. Called "Dravida" style because it ‘was confined to south India. Main features: multi-storeyed chief-deity room (garbhagriha) in the Vimana style. Pillared hall: mandap placed in front of garbhagriha and served as audience hall and place for cultural activities like dances performed by devdasis - women dedicated to service of gods. An early example of the Dravida style of temple architecture is the eighth century temple of Kailasanath at Kanchipuram. One of the finest and most elaborate examples of the style is, however, provided by the Brihadiswara temple at Tanjore built by Rajaraja 1 Oe CRC ae © After the fall of the Cholas, temple building activity continued under the Chalukyas of Kalyani and the Hoy salas. The district of Dharwar and the Hoysala capital, Halebid, had a large number of temples. The most magnificent of these is the Hoysalesvara temple. It is the best example of what is called the Chalukyan style. Fig. A panel in Haysaleswara temple, Halebid © One example of this was the giant statue of Gomateswara at Sravana Belgola. Another aspect was image-making which reached its zenith in the dancing figure of the Siva, called Nataraja. Local language literature saw growth Nayanars and Alvars composed works in Tamil. Sanskrit regarded language of high culture, Writings of Nayanars and Alvars compiled Tirumurais fifth Vedas in 12" century. Age of Kamban: golden age of Tamil literature. Kannad literature also grew. Rashtrakuta, Chalukya and Hoysala rulers patronized. Kannada and Telugu. Jain scholars Pampa, Ponna and Ranna - 3 gems of Kannada poetry. Also wrote on themes of Ramayan and Mahabharat 10CHAPTER: 4 - ECONOMIC & SOCIAL LIFE, EDUCATION AND RELIGIOUS BELIEF (800-1200) ‘Although we have not yet studied political ° developments in north India from 1000 to 1200, the entire period from 800 to 1200 may be regarded as one for the purpose of studying economic and social life, and . religious beliefs. Economic and social life, ideas and beliefs change much more slowly than political life, . ‘That is why many of the earlier features which existed before the ninth century . continued during this period also. ‘TRADE AND COMMERCE Disintegration of Roman Empire and of the old Sassanid Empire after rise of Islam and disruption of overland trade China became the focus of trade after decline of Roman Empire. Spices from SE Asia, ivory from Africa, glassware from west Asia, medicinal herbs, lac, incense etc. Were . traded. Due to India's monsoon climate, ships had to wait for long periods to travel directly from . Africa to China, So, India, and chiefly Malabar port became . an important staging centre for goods from Africa, China and SE Asia. Famous Chinese . port - Canton (Kanfu). Due to less population of north India, there ‘was a gradual decline of intemal trade too and led to languishing of trade guilds . (shrenis and sanghas). Guilds: People belonging to different castes, having own rules of conduct which they were legally bound to obey, entitled to lend or borrow money or receive endowments. . In the course of time, some of the older shrenis emerged as subcastes. For example, the Dvadasashreni, which was a guild, became a subcaste of the Vaishyas. Jainism, which was patronized by the mercantile sections, also received a set back in north India. REVIVAL: With emergence of Arab empire in West Asia and North Africa. Demand for spices led to revival of trade with India and Southeast Asia (Spice Islands) from middle of 10th century onwards. Malwa and Gujarat benefited the most. Also believed that material prosperity of SE Asia was based on introduction of irrigated rice-cultivation from Indi Jainism also received a setback due to declining trade, Dharmashastras placed a ban on crossing certain areas or going abroad. Although several traders continued to go to different countries for busin: ‘were meant to dissuade people from going to areas dominated by Islam in the west or Buddhism in the east and bringing back heretical ideas which were unsuited to brahmanical way of life. Peculiar features of language and dresses of SE Asia mentioned in Brihatkatha- kosh by Harisena. Indian merchants were organized into gi (Manigraman and Nandesi guilds). Japanese records give credit of introducing cotton in Japan to two Indians. Eventually by 13th century, Chinese govt. Tried to restrict the export of gold and silver and stem their negative balance of trade with other countries. ‘While India's trade with the western parts, declined, trade with South East Asia and China grew steadily. This led to increasing prosperity of Bengal and Gujarat. SOCIETY Rise of samantas, ranak, rautta (Rajput) ete, © They were govt servants paid by providing revenue-bearing villages, defeated rajas, local hereditary chiefs, tribal leaders. © So, large tracts of land within a kingdom consisted of old rulers who looked to reassert their independence. © These rulers took to administering justice and subletting land to people : i i i : ibelow them without informing the king, resulting in feudal society «© Pros © Provided security to peasants in a conflict prone society. © Feudal chiefs saw and as their own and some consequently took efforts to extent cultivation and irrigation. * Cons © Weakened royal authority. Large feudal armies could turn against the king at any time. © Small states discouraged trade and promoted local village economy. © Feudal domination also weaked local government. CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE ‘* No decline in handicrafts and agriculture and metallurgy. © Feudal chiefs assumed large titles like mahasamantadhipati. © Big merchants also aped the ways of the ing, and sometimes their living was quite royal, Of a millionare (Kotisvara) in the Chalukyan empire, we are told that huge banners with ringing-bells were hoisted over his house, and that he owned a large number of horses and elephants. © Revenue from peasants: 1/6th of produce; but there were many other additional taxes and cesses, ‘© They also had to undergo forced labour vishti. © Crops, granaries and homes were frequent in times of war and increased the burden on the common man. ‘THE CASTE SYSTEM © Caste System was the basis of society. Disabilities suffered by lower castes iereased. © Inter-caste marriages were frowned upon. © Almost all professions were now labelled as castes (jati). © Handicrafts were considered low occupations and these people were treated as untouchables along with tribals. Rajputs emerged as a new caste. Traced their origin to solar and lunar dynasties of Mahabharats but are believed to be descendants of Scythians and Hunas. Over time, all ruling cla any caste were termed Rajput and made Kshatriyas, Castes were not rigid, they could rise or fall in their Varna. Earlier, people from various castes working in palaces - kayasth. Later, they were recognized as a single caste. Several tribes, Jain and Buddhist followers were hinduized and religion and society became more complex. -s not affiliated to CONDITION OF WOMEN, Considered mentally inferior. ‘Meant to obey husbands blindly. Matsya Purana authorizes husband to beat wife. Were not allowed to study Vedas. Marriageable age reduced. Remarriage was allowed, but rarely. Distrusted in general and kept in seclusion ‘Women, including widows, were given wider property rights. Growth of feudal society strengthened the concept of private property. Sati was practiced in some places. EDUCATION, SCIENCE AND LEARNING ‘Mass education did not exist. People learnt what was necessary. Reading and writing was confined to upper classes. Temples made arrangements for higher level education. Main responsibility to provide education ~ respective guilds or families. Branches of ‘Vedas and grammar were studied. ‘More formal education with emphasis on secular subjects provided in Buddhist monasteries. Nalanda, Vikramshila and Uddandapura in Bihar were famous. Kashmir was another important centre. Shaiva sects flourished there. Matths (Madurai and Sringeri) were set up in South India, Science declined. Surgery did not advance because dissection was considered the job for lower varnas. Lilawati of Bhaskar II was a standard text for Maths. i i 12* Medicine advanced a little but no method for breeding fine horses was found, leaving India dependent on central Asia. ‘* Reasons for decline in science: Society stagnated, narrower world view, increasing orthodoxy, setback to urban life, insular nature of Indians. © Ab-biruni describes Brahmins of that time as haughty, conceited, foolish and vain. FOOD (Upsesummarynotes.Com) * Vegetarianism was mainly practiced but meat-eating was lawful on certain occasions. © Wine was drunk on ceremonial occasions, even by women. © Pairs, festivals, excursions were common amongst common people. ‘© Kings and princes indulged in dicing, hunting and royal polo. RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS AND BELIEFS © Revival and expansion of Hinduism and continued decline of Jainism and Buddhism. ‘© Shiv and Vishnu became popular and others became subordinate. * Religion played a positive role in the age of disintegration, Outbreaks of violence and forcible occupation at Buddhist and Jain temples ‘© Buddhism confined to eastern India. ‘Mahayan School rose and adopted elaborate rituals and mantras ete., making it indistinguishable from Hinduism. ‘* Jainism was popular, Most magnificent temples built during 9th and 10th centuries. High watermark for Jainism in south India Later, growing rigidity and loss of royal patronage led to decline. Dilwara temple Mt Abu, Jainalayas as resting places for travellers, basadis (temples) and mahastambhs. © Revival also increased power and arrogance of brahmanas, resulting in popular Vedic worship movements such as: Nathpanthi © Bhakti movements in south India - Nayanars and Alvars. Lingayat or Vir Shaiva movement (12th cent). © Its founders were Basava and his nephew, Channabasava, who lived at the court of the Kalachuri kings of Karnataka. © They strongly opposed the caste system, and rejected fasts, feasts, pilgrimages and sacrifices. In the social sphere, they opposed child marriage and allowed remarriage of widows. © Intellectual movements against Jainism and Buddhism also emerged, such as: Sankara’s philosophy is called advaitavada or the doctrine on non-dualism. oA Hindu revivalist movement giving a new placement to Hinduism was started by Sankara. © Kaladi in Kerala is his birthplace. © His doctrine of Monoism or Advaita ‘was too abstract to appeal to the common people. © The Advaita Concept of Nirgunabrahman (God without altributes) received contradictory reaction with the emergence of the idea of Sagunabrahman (God with attributes). © Ramanuja: In the eleventh century, another famous acharya, Ramanuja, tried to assimilate bhakti to the tradition of the Vedas, © Heargued that in order to attain salvation, grace of God was more important than knowledge about Him. © Ramanuja emphasized that the path of prapatti or total reliance on, or surrender to God was open to all, including the Shudras and the Dalits © Thus, Ramanuja tried to build a bridge between the popular movement based on bhakti, and the upper caste movement based on the Vedas. | Madhvacharya © The tradition established by Ramanuja was followed by a number of thinkers such as Madhvacharya (tenth century), and in north India by Ramananda, Vallabhacharya and others. © In this way, bhakti in its popular form became acceptable to all sections of Hindu society by the early sixteenth century. i i 13CHAPTER: 5 - AGE OF CONFLICT (CIRCA 1000-1200) ‘© Rapid changes occurred in west and central took over the task of defending the Islamic Asia and therefore in north India. Abassid lands from the Central Asian tribesmen, caliphate declined by end of 9th century. ‘* Mahmud ascended Ghazni throne in 998, © The Turks had entered the Abbasid empire till 1030. during the ninth century as palace-guards and © Associated with Iranian renaissance, ‘mercenary soldiers. Soon they emerged as © In 1000 A.D. Mahmud of Ghazni the king-makers, © As the power of the central government declined, provincial governors started assuming independent status, though for sometime the fiction of unity was kept up by the caliph formally granting the title of amir- ul-umra (Commander of Commanders) on generals who were able to carve out a separate sphere of authority. These new rulers assumed the title of ‘amir’ at first, and of ‘sultan’ later on. ‘Turkish tribesmen excelled in lightning raids and plunders due to excellent horses and ability to cover incredible distances on horseback. Moved towards NW India, where the breakup of Gurjara - Pratiharas had created uncertainty and weakness. THE GHAZNAVIDS © Towards the end of the ninth century, Trans- Oxiana, Khurasan and parts of Iran were being ruled by the Samanids who were Iranians by descent. The Samanids had to battle continually with the non-Muslim ‘Turkish tribesmen on their northern and eastern frontiers. It was during this struggle that a new type of soldier, the ghazi, was bom. ° © The battle against the Turks, most of whom worshipped the forces of nature and were S heathens in the eyes of the Muslims, was a struggle for religion as well as for the safety of the state. © Turks gradually became Islamized and strongest defenders of Islam but ghazi struggle against non-Islamic tribes continued. © Among the Samanid governors was a Turkish slave, Alp-tigin, who, in course of time, established an independent kingdom with its capital at Ghazni, The Samanid kingdom soon ended, and the Ghaznavids invaded India. He was the first Turkish to invade India, In a furious battle near Peshawar in 1001, Jayapala was again defeated. Mahmud advanced to the Shahi capital, and thoroughly ravaged it. Peace was made by ceding the territory west of the Indus to Mahmud. Soon after, Jayapala died and was succeeded by his son, Anandpala. © Mahmud of Ghazni's Character Estimation Mahmud of Ghazni was one of the greatest Muslim rulers of Asia He patronised art and letters and scholars like Firdausi and Alberuni High watermark: Mahmud! poet laureate Firdausi’s Shah Namah. cepted Arabic language and culture patronised Persian language. Raided India 17 times and directed the plunder at Hindustani rulers and temples. Gained a toe-hold in Punjab by battling the Hindushahi rulers at Peshawar; gaining Punjab, he plundered temples to fund his central Asian campaigns Posed as “destroyer of images" for glory of Islam, Plundered Kanauj in 1018 and Somnath in 1025. Overran whole of north India (ine. Bundelkhand) because of absence of a strong state and presence of cavalry with mounted archers. Did not annex any areas, only looted and plundered. Died at Ghazni in 1030. Death resulted in rise of Seljuk Empire encompassing Syria, Iran and Trans- oxiana, Masud, Mahmud's son was Iranians never a : i i i : 14defeated by Seljuks and had to retreat. Ghaznavids now confined to Ghazni and Punjab and posed no real threat to India. ‘THE RAJPUT STATES © They are the descendants of Lord Rama (Surya vamsa) or Lord Krishna (Chandra vamsa) or the Hero who sprang from the sacrificial fire (Agni Kula theory). © The Rajput Period (647A.D - 1200 A.D), © From the death of Harsha to the 12th century, the destiny of India was mostly in the hands of various Rajput dy sties. © They belong to the ancient Kshatriya families. © They are foreigners. There were nearly 36 Rajput' clans. The major clans were: 1. The Pratiharas of Avanti 2. The Palas of Bengal 3. The Chauhans of Delhi and Ajmer 4. The Rathors of Kanauj 5. The Guhilas or Sisodiyas of Mewar 6. The Chandellas of Bundelkhand 7. The Paramaras of Malwa 8. The Senas of Bengal 9. The Solankis of Gujarat * Simultaneous expansionist urges and frequent quarrels amongst the Rajputs prevented them from uniting against Ghaznavids. Feudal organization based on clans prevailed. © Advantages of Rajput society: Sense of brotherhood and egal ‘© Disadvantages - Difficult to maintain discipline, feuds continued for several ‘generations, formed exclusive groups and no brotherhood with common people who were non-Rajputs. © Treated war as sport. This and struggle for land and cattle led to continuous warfare. ‘Most Rajputs were champions of Hinduism. Stood as protectors of brahmanas and caste system. Gave concessions and privileges to brahmanas who in return recognized rajputs as descendants of solar and lunar dynasties of kshatriyas. *¢ Brahmanism revived and Sanskrit replaced Prakrit and Apabhramsha among upper classes, but literature was closer to local languages and continued to be produced in Prakrit and apabhramsha. Local languages - ‘Marathi, Bengali etc. Emerged in this period. The Tomars of Dell The Tomars were the feudatories of the Pratiharas. © They founded the city of Delhi in 736 A.D. © Mahipala Tomar captured Thaneshwar, Hansi and Nagarkot in 1043 A.D. * Chauhans captured Dethi in middle of the 12th century and the Tomars became their feudatories. ‘The Chauhans of Delhi and Ajmer The Chauhans declared their independence in the 1101 century at Ajmer and they Delhi and Ajmer were the feudatories of the Pratiharas © They captured Ujjain from the Paramaras of Malwa and Delhi in the early part of the 12th century. © They shifted their capital to Delhi © Prithviraj Chauhan was the most important ruler of this dynasty Rathors of Kanauj (1090 - 1194 A.D.) © The Rathors established themselves on the throne of Kanauj from 1090 to 1194 A.D. ‘© Jaichand was the last great ruler of this dynasty, He was killed in the battle of Chandwar in 1194 A.D. by Muhammad of Ghori. The Chandellas of Bundelkhand Established them in the 9th century, ‘© Mahoba was the capital of Chandella during the period of Chief Yasovarman. * Kalinjar was their important fort © The Chandellas built the most famous Kandariya Mahadeva Temple in 1050 A.D. and a number of beautiful temples at Khajuraho. © Paramal the last Chandella ruler was defeated by Qutb-ud-din Aibak in 1203 A.D. i i 15INDIA AROUND ab 1200 BAY OF BENGAL ‘The Guhllas Sisodiyas of Mewar © The Rajput ruler Bapa Rawat was the founder of the Guhila or the Sisodiya dynasty and Chittor was its capital. During the period of Rana Ratan Singh of Mewar. © In 1307 A.D. Ala-ud-din khi territory and defeated him. © Rana Sangha and Maharana Pratap & the Sisodiya rulers gave a tough fight to the Mughal rulers of India. The Paramaras of Malwa invaded his © The Paramaras were also the feudatories of Pratiharas. They declared their Malwa independence in the 10" century and Dhara was their capital Raja Bhoja (1018 - 1069) ‘© He was the most famous ruler of this period © He constructed beautiful lake more than 250 sq. miles near Bhopal © He set up a college at Dhara for the study of Sanskrit Literature ‘© The reign of the Paramaras came to an end with the invasion of Ala-ud-din Khilji. Nature of the Rajputs © The Rajputs were great warriors and chivalrous by nature. ‘© They believed in protecting the women and the weak. Religion ‘© The Rajputs were staunch followers of Hinduism, * They also patronized Buddhism and Jainism. ‘© During their period the Bhakti Cult started. Government ‘© The Rajput government was outdated in character. Each kingdom was divided into a large number of Jagirs held by the Jagirdars. Major literary works of this period © Kalhana's Rajatarangin © Jayadeva's Gita Govindam © Somadeva's Kathasaritasagar ‘© Chand Bardai, the court poet of Prithviraj Chauhan, wrote Prithviraj Raso in which he refers to the military exploits of Prithviraj Chauhan, © Bhaskara Charya wrote Siddhanta Shiromani, a book on astronomy. © Rajasekhara: The court poet of Mahendrapala and Mahipala. His best known works were Karpu ramanjari, Bala and Ramayana. Art and Architecture © Temples: Centres of cultural life. Climax in temple building activity in north India. ‘* Nagara style of temples in North India and Deccan. Tall, curved, spiral roof over chief deity room (garbhagriha, deul). Mandapa (anteroom) in front of sanctum, High walls and lofty gates. © The Chandella built Parsvanath ‘Temple, Vishvanath Temple and Kandarya Mahadeo temple at Khajuraho in MP. © Lingaraj Temple (11th cent) and Konark Sun Temple (13th cent) at Orissa (Bhuvaneshwar. © Jagannath temple at Puri also belongs to this period. © Vastupal: Vastupala, the famous minister of the Chalukyan ruler Bhima in Gujarat, was a writer and a patron of scholars and the builder of the beautiful Jain temple at Mt. Abu. ‘© Mural paintings and Miniature paintings ‘were popular. i i 16Fig. Visvanatha temple, Khajuraho Fig. Sun Temple, Konark End of the Rajput Power ‘© There was no strong military power during the Rajput period to keep the warring princes in check and to coordinate their activities against foreign invasions. TURKISH CONQUEST OF NORTH INDIA ‘© Towards the middle of the twelfth century, another group of Turkish tribesmen, who were partly Buddhist and partly pagan, shattered the power of the Seljuk Turks. In the vacuum, two new powers rose to prominence, Khwarizmi Empire in Iran and Ghurid Empire in Ghur (NW Afghanistan), Former dominated central Asia, forcing the latter to move towards India. © End of Ghazni's rule in India: Ghazni’s rule declined by 1186 A.D. and the Mahmud of Ghori grew up. * Muhammad of Ghori (1149-1206) He was the third Muslim ruler who invaded India. © He became the ruler of Ghori. Muhammad of Ghori invasions © He first invaded India in 1176 A.D ‘* Meanwhile, Chauhans of Ajmer overshadowed others and also killed a lot of Turks who tried to invade Rajasthan from Punjab, ‘THE BATTLE OF TERRAIN First Battle of Tarain (1191 A.D.) ‘© He seized the fortress of Bhatinda in 1189 A.D. and then progressed into the kingdom of Prithviraj Chauhan, * Muhammad of Ghori was defeated by Prithviraj in the first Battle of Tarain in 1191 A.D. and recovered Bhatinda. Second Battle of Tarain (1192 A.D.) In the second battle of Train, the joined forces of the Rajput rulers under Prithviraj were defeated by Muhammad of Ghori. * Prithviraj was held as a prisoner and later put to death. ‘TURKISH CONQUEST OF GANGA VALLEY, BIHAR AND BENGAL. In order to establish rule over Ganga valley, Ghori had to defeat Gahadavala of Kanauj. © Battle of Chandwar (1194 A.D): © Muhammad of Ghori defeated Jaichandra, the greatest Rajput ruler of Kanauyj and killed him in the battle. © Battles of Tarain and Chandawar laid foundation of Turkish rule in India. © Qutb-ud-din Aibak was appointed as the commander by Muhammad of Ghoti. ‘© Conquest of Bengal and Bihar: © Muhammad-bin-Baktiyar Khilji, was appointed the charge for some provinces in the east. © He gathered an army and stealthily moved towards Nadia, the capital of Sena kings of Bengal and captured Nadia (in 1204) but could not hold on (o it due to large number and size of rivers. Withdrew and fixed his capital at Lakhnauti in north Bengal while Lakshman Sena continued to rule in the south. © Khalji foolishly attempted an invasion of Assam, was ambushed by Assamese rulers and lost the battle. Was killed soon afterwards one of the commanders of Muhammad of Ghori a7destroyed Vikramasila in 1202 and Nalanda Universities in 1203 A.D. © Raiput Uprisings: ©. There were many Rajput mutinies between 1193 and 1198 A.D. © Qutb-ud-din-Aibak defeated them and brought many regions under his control. © Muhammad of Ghori made Delhi as the capital. © Death of Muhammad of Ghori © He was assassinated on 25th March 1206 A.D. in Central Asia by some Shia rebels and Khokhars. © He is considered to be the real founder of the Turkish Empire in India because of his various invasions and subjugations of the Rajput territories in North India © Aibak: © Captured Khajuraho and Kalinjar from Chandellas. © Gujarat from Bhima II, which threw of Turkish rule soon afterwards. Turks were more successful in the east. (CAUSES OF DEFEAT OF THE RAJPUT ‘© The weakness of the Indians were social and organizational. The growth of feudalism, ice, tise of the local landed elements and chiefs had weakened the administrative structure and military organisation of the Indian states. The rulers had to depend more on the various chiefs who rarely acted in coordination, and quickly dispersed to their areas after battle. The social and organizational structure of the Turks also gave them many advantages. The iqta system which grew slowly in West Asia, implied that a Turkish chief was allotted a piece of land as iqta from which he could collect the land revenues and taxes due to the state. In return, he had to maintain a body of troops for the service of the ruler. The grant ‘was not hereditary, and was held at the pleasure of the sultan who could transfer him to any place © Interms of personal bravery, the Rajputs were in no way inferior to the Turks. In this context, the role of religion and caste in the military organization should not be unduly exaggerated. While the Turks were imbued with the ‘ghazi” spirit, the Rajputs considered retreat in battle to be a dishonour. Finally, the Rajput defeat at the hands of Muizzuddin Muhammad should be seen in the context of the past few centuries. From the end of the tenth century, the Turks had started reconnoitering India, The Rajputs did put up spirited and prolonged resistance, and defeated the Turkish armies a number of times. But the Rajputs lacked what might be called ‘strategic vision’, i i 18CHAPTER: 6 - THE DELHI SULTANAT — I (CIRCA 1200 - 1400) ‘THE MAMELUK SULTANS (THIRTEENTH CENTURY) © Some of the factors which enabled the Turks to extend their conquest from the Punjab and Multan into the Ganga valley and even to overrun Bihar and parts of Bengal have been mentioned in the previous chapter. © For almost one hundred years after that, the Delhi sultanat, as the state ruled over by these invaders was called, was hard pressed to maintain itself in the face of foreign invasions, internal conflicts among the Turkish leaders and the attempts of the dispossessed and subordinate Rajput rulers and chiefs to regain their independence and, possible, to oust the Turks. The Turkish rulers were successful in overcoming these difficulties, and by the end of the century, were in a position to extend their rule over Malwa and Gujarat, and to penetrate into the Deccan and south India. © The effects of the establishment of the Turkish rule in northern India, thus began to be felt within a hundred years all over In and resulted in far-reaching changes in society, administration and cultural life. STRUGGLE FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A STRONG MONARCHY © Muizzuddin (Muhammad of Ghur) was succeeded by Qutbuddin Aibak, a Turkish slave in 1206; he had played an important part in the expansion of the Turkish Sultanat in India after the battle of Tarain. Another slave of Muizzuddin, Yalduz, succeeded at Ghazni. © As the ruler of Ghazni, Yalduz claimed to rule over Delhi as well. This, however, was not accepted by Aibak who ruled from Lahore. But from this time, the Sultanat severed its links with Ghazni. ‘© This was fortunate, since it helped to prevent India being drawn into Central Asian polities. It also enabled the Dethi Sultanat to develop on its own without depending on countries outside India. ILTUTMISH (1210 - 36) ‘Aram Shah who suceeded Aibak was a weak ruler. It is not clear whether he was a son of Aibak or not. He was conspired against by a group of nobles who invited Shamsuddin Thtutmish to be the ruler. Thutmish was a son Delhi. He shifted his capital from Lahore to Delhi. He defended his empire agains Mongol invaders and also resisted the Rajputs. In 1221, he stopped an invasion led by Chenghiz. Khan. He completed the construction of the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque and the Qutb Minar. He set up an administrative machinery for the kingdom. He built mosques, waterworks and other amenities at Delhi, making it fit to be the seat of power. He introduced the two coins, the silver tanka and the copper jital. Also introduced the Igtadari system in which the kingdom was divided into Iqtas which were assigned to nobles in exchange of salary. He died in 1236 and was succeeded by his daughter Razia Sultana as he did not consider his sons equal to the task RAZIYA (1236-39) Born in 1205 as Ilutmish’s daughter. Was given a sound education by her father. She was the first and last Muslim woman to rule over Delhi. Also known as Razia al-Din. Before ascending to the throne of Delhi after her father’s death, the reign was briefly handed over to her half-brother Rukn ud-din Firuz. But after Firuz’s assassination within 6 months of his ascendency, the nobles agreed to place Razia on the throne. She was known as an efficient and just ruler. ‘She was married to Malik Ikhtiar-ud-din Altunia, the governor of Bathinda, She was reportedly killed by her brother's forces Her brother Muizuddin Bahram Shah succeeded her. Her rule marked the struggle : i i i : 19between monarchy and Turkish chiefs (chahalgani). ° ‘SULTANATES OF DEA fi INTHE 13” CENTUR uth lent ‘\ ERA OF BALBAN (1246 - 87) © The next notable ruler after Ra Sultan in the Mamluk dynasty. © He was the wazir of the grandson of Ttutmish, Nasir-ud-din-Mahmud. ‘© Bom of Turkish origins, his original name ‘was Bahauddin, ‘© He was purchased as a slave by Itutmish, He rose up the ranks quickly. He carried out sucessful military campaigns as an officer. «After Nasir's death, Balban declared himself the Sultan as the former did not have any male heirs. © He carried military and civil reforms in administration which earned him the position of the greatest Sultanate ruler after Htutmish and Alauddin Khalji. ‘© alban was a despot and followed blood and iron policy to maintain law and order. Reorganized military (diwan-i-ara) and sisted on sijada and paibos (prostration and kissing King's feet). ‘* He refused to share power with anyone and ‘was determined to break the influence of chahalgani © He laid out severe punishments to the slightest of offences by his courtiers. He had a spy system to keep his nobles in check. © He introduced the Persian festival of Navroz India. Punjab saw large-scale conversions during his rule. He died in 1286. Incompetent successors of Balbans were overthrown by Khalji dynasty. a, Ninth ‘The Mongols and the Problem of the North- ‘West Frontier Changez Khan was a Mongol leader, who prided in calling himself "I the scourge of God’. ‘The Mongols attacked the Khwarizmi Empire in 1218, They ruthlessly sacked flourishing cities from the Jaxartes to the Caspian Sea and from Ghazni to Iran ‘The Mongols deliberately used terror as an instrument of war. ‘The Mongol threat to India appeared in 1221. After the defeat of the Khwarizmi ruler, the crown prince, Jalaluddin, fled and was pursued by Changez Khan. Thutmish, who was ruling at Delhi at the time, tried to appease the Mongols by politely refusing a request from Jalaluddin for asylum, In 1245, the Mongols invested, and only a speedy march by Balban saved and situation. Although Balban fought against the Mongols stoutly, the frontiers of Delhi gradually receded from the river Jhelum to the Beas. Balban adopted a policy of both force and diplomacy. He repaired the forts of Bhatinda, Sunam and Samana, and posted a strong force in order to prevent the ‘Mongols from crossing the river Beas He sent diplomatic feelers to Halaku, the Mongol II Khan of Iran and the neighbouring areas. Envoys from Halaku reached Delhi and were received with great honour by Balban. Balban tacitly agreed to leave the major portion of the Punjab under the Mongol control. He was successful in wresting Multan, and placed it as an independent charge under his eldest son, Prince Mahmud. It was in the effort at holding the Multan-Beas line that Prince Mahmud, the heir apparent of Balban, was killed in an encounter. In 1292, Abdullah, a grandson of Halaku, advanced on Delhi with 1,50,000 horses. In 1299, a Mongol forces of 2,00,000 under his son, Qutlugh Khwaja, arrived to i iconquer Delhi, Alauddin Khalji, who was ruling over Delhi, decided of face the Mongols outside Delhi. In 1303, the Mongols appeared again with a force of 1,20,000. Alauddin Khalji, who ‘was campaigning in Rajputana against Chittor, rushed back and fortified himself at his new capital, Siri, near Delhi. ‘The two armies camped facing each other for wo months. During this period, the citizens of Delhi had to suffer many hardships. There were daily skirmishes. Finally, the Mongols retreated again, without having achieved anything. It will, thus, be seen that during the entire thirteenth century, the Sultanat of Delhi had to face a serious danger from the north-west. After the death of Balban in 1286, there ‘was again confusion in Delhi for some time, Balban’s chosen successor, Prince Muhammad, had died earlier in a battle with the Mongols, A second son, Bughra Khan, preferred to rule over Bengal and Bihar although he ‘was invited by the nobles at Delhi to assume the throne. Hence, a grandson of Balban was installed in Delhi Many non-Turks, such as the Khaljis, had come to India at the time of the Ghurid invasion. ‘They had never received sufficient recognition in Delhi, and had to move to Bengal and Bihar for an opportunity for advancement. a i iCHAPTER: 7 - THE DELHI SULTANAT—II (CIRCA 1300-1400) THE KHALJIS AND THE TUGHLAQS ‘After the death of Balban in 1286, there was again confusion in Delhi for some time Balban’s chosen successor, Prince Mahmud, had died earlier in a battle with the Mongols. © A second son, Bughra Khan, preferred to rule over Bengal and Bihar although he was invited by the nobles at Delhi to assume the throne. © Many non-Turks, such as the Khaljis, had come to India at the time of the Ghurid invasion. They had never received sufficient recognition in Delhi, and had to move to Bengal and Bihar for an opportunity for advancement. * Balban’s own example of setting aside the sons of Nasiruddin Mahmud had demonstrated that a successful general could ascend the throne by ousting the scions of an established dynasty, provided he had sufficient support in the nobility and the army. ‘THE KHALIIS (1290-1320) JALAL-UD-DIN FIROZ KHILII (1290 - 1296 AD.) * He was the founder of Khilji Dynasty. He ‘was also called as "Clemency Jalal-uddin" as he followed peace and wanted to rule without violence. ‘© Rebelled against Balban's incompetent successors and ascended the throne. Khaljis were soldiers in Balban’s army but were not given due recognition. ‘* He reasoned that majority of population was Hindu, so rule could not be Islamic. Believed that state should be based on the willing support of the governed. « Allowed non-Turks to hold high offices. Domestic Policies of Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khil © He suppressed Malik Chhajju's revolt at Kara. © He appointed Ala-ud-din Khilji as the Governor of Kara. Alauddin was his son-in- law and also nephew. Mongol Invasion © In 1292 A.D. Jalal-ud-din defeated the Mongols who had come up to Sunam. End of Jalal-ud-din © Jalal-ud-din was treacherously murdered by Ala-ud-din Khilji his son-in-law. ‘© Jalal-ud-din’s policy of peace was not liked by many. ALAUDDIN KHALJI © Alauddin Khalji (1296 - 1316) used ruthlessness and repression to quell internal rebellion, ‘* He even gave harsh punishments to wives and children of the rebels and massacred the Mongols who had settled in Delhi Framed a series of regulations for the nobles no festivities or marriage alliances without his permission, banning of wine and intoxicants etc., making the nobles subservient. © In 1296 A.D. Ala-ud-din Khilji succeeded Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khilji and ascended the throne. Ala-ud-din Khilji Invasions in the North © Ala-ud-din Khilij's generals namely, Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan conquered Gujarat © He captured Ranthambore and killed Hamir Deva its ruler. ‘© He also captured Malwa, Chittor, Dhar, ‘Mandu, Ujjain, Marwar, Chanderi and Jalor. Ala-ud-din Khilji Invasions in the South ‘© He was the first Sultan who attacked South India. ‘© He sent his confidante and general Malik Kafuur against the rulers of the south. © Prataprudra-II of Warangal, Ramachandra Deva, the Yadava king of Devagiri, and Vira Ballala-II the Hoysala king were defeated. © He constructed a mosque in Rameswaram. ‘* The kingdoms of the south acknowledged the power of Alauddin Khilji and paid his monetary tributes. ‘The Mongol Invasion © Ala-ud-din successfully resisted the Mongol invasion more than 12 times. Domestic Policies of Alauddin Khilji : i i i : 2* Ala-ud-din followed the Divine Right Theory of Kingship. He introduced four ordinances to prevent repeated revolts. © He impounded pious grants and free grants of lands. ‘© He restructured the spy system. * He banned social parties and wine. © He introduced a permanent standing army. ‘© He started the system of branding of horses and descriptive roster of individual soldiers to inhibit corruption, ‘He fixed the prices of necessary commodities which were below the normal market rates. © He strictly prohibited black marketing. Revenue was collected in cash and not in kind. © He followed discriminatory policies towards the Hindus and imposed the Jizya, a grazing tax and a house tax on the Hindu community. Marketing System © Officers called Diwan-i-riyasat were ‘appointed in the offices called Shahana- mandi to standardize the market. © Merchants should have to register themselves in the office (Shahana-i-mandi) before selling their goods at the fixed rates. Ala-ud-din-Khilji's Estimate ‘© He was the first to bring the standing army system. ‘* He constructed Alai Darwaza, the Palace of a thousand pillars and the Fort of Siri Successors after Ala-ud-din-Khilji © Qutb-ud-din Mubarak Shah (1316 - 1320 AD) © Nasir-ud-din Khusrav Shah (1320 A.D.). ‘© Nizamuddin Auliya acknowledged Khusrau’s rule. Muslims of Delhi were no longer swayed by racial considerations and were accepting of anyone. ‘* This widened social base of the nobility. © His successors were weak. End of the Dynasty © Ala-ud-din Khilji died in 1316 A.D. © Successors of Ala-ud-din-Khilji were weak rulers, © Eventually, in 1320 A.D. the Governor of Punjab Ghazi Malik led a group of nobles, conquered Delhi and captured the throne. © Ghazi Malik assumed the name 'Ghiyasuddin Tughlug' at Delhi and founded the Tughlug Dynasty, a dynasty of rulers. @2666 28 ®©e@e@ 86 @ e866€2@808 @08e606eG0 @@G eee © Fig. Coins of the Sultan of Delhi THE TUGHLAQS (1320—1412) GHIYASUDDIN TUGHLUG OR GHAZI MALIK (1320-1325 A.D.) © Ghiyasuddin Tughlug or Ghazi Malik was the founder of the Tughlug dynasty. ‘© He rose from a humble origin. Domestic and Foreign Policies ‘© Ghiyasuddin reinstated order in his empire. © He gave more importance to postal arrangements, judicial, irrigation, agriculture, and police © In 1320 A.D. he ascended the throne. ‘© He brought Bengal, Utkala or Orissa, and ‘Warangal under his control. The Mongol leaders who invaded North India were seized and confined by him. End of Ghiyasuddin Tughlug rule In 1325 A.D. Ghiyasuddin was crushed to death while attending an event for his victories in Bengal. * Junakhan, the crown prince succeeded him. MUHAMMAD-BIN-TUGHLAQ (1325- 1351 ALD.) * In 1325 A.D. Junakhan, the crown prince sworn the title Muhammad-bin-Tughlug. © Muhammad-bin-Tughlag stood for the administrative and political unity of India. © In 1327 A.D. he captured Warangal. Domestic Policies of Muhammad-bin-Tughlug 23 i iTo fill the empty treasury, he raised taxes in the Doab region. Many people ran away to the forests to avoid heavy taxes due to which cultivation was neglected and severe food shortage occurred. He shifted his capital from Delhi to Devagiri to protect his capital and ordered the common people and government offici shift to Devagiri, after many difficulties he ordered them to return to Delhi He introduced the copper currency system. ‘The value of coins dropped; hence he had to withdraw the copper token currency. To conquer Khurasan, Iraq, and Transoxiana, he raised an army of 3,70,000 men. Mohammed-bin-Tughlug's national treasure had a great burden due to the policy of huge presents given to Tamashirin, the Mongol leader in order to avoid Mongol Invasion. Mohammed-bin-Tughluq's domestic policies were good but due to faulty implementation measures, they failed The decline of the Dethi Sultanate is claimed due to his hasty decisions and defective policy implementation. Fig. Daulatabad Fort FIROZ TUGHLAQ (1351-1388 A.D.) In 1351 A.D. Firoz, Tughlag was the son of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq’s younger brother. He succeeded the throne, Administrative Reforms He withdrew all Taquavi (agricultural) loans granted by Mohammed-bin-Tughlag. He raised the salary of the revenue officers. He brought to an end to all unlawful and unjust taxes. ‘* He collected four important taxes which are:- 1. Kharaj: 1/10 of the produce of the land 2. Khams: 1/5 of the war booty 3. Jizya: Poll Tax 4. Zakat: Tax on Muslims for specific religious purposes © He constructed 150 wells, 100 bridg 50 dams, and also dug many irrigation canals. and * He constructed towns like Firozabad, Hissar, Jaunpur, and Fatehabad, © Firoz banned all kinds of damages and torture. Foreign Policy * Firoz Tughlag surrounded Bengal in 1353 AD. and 1359 A.D. © He seized Jainagar. * He devastated the Jagannath Temple at Puri Fig. Tomb of Firuz Tughlag, Hauz khas Delhi Importance of Firoz Tughlaq in Medieval Indian History ‘© His generous measures and contributions to the affluence of the people. © Futuhat-i-Firoz Shahi is an autobiography of Firoz Tughlaq, © He patronized scholar Zia-ud-din Barani. © During his reign, a number of Sanskrit books on medicine, science and arts were translated into Persian. © Kutab- Feroz Shahi - a book which dealt with Physics. LATER TUGHLAQS SUCCESSORS OF FIROZ, ‘© Ghiyasuddin Tughlag Shah II. Abu Bakr Shah, Nasir-ud-din Mohammed Tughlag. END OF TUGHLUG DYNASTY ‘© The successors of Firoz were not very strong or competent. i i* By the end of the 14th century, most of the territories became independent. © Only Punjab and Delhi remained under the . Tughlags. © Timur’s invasion took place during the Tughlug period. Timur's Invasion (1398 A.D.) . © The fabulous wealth of India attracted Timur the ruler of Samargand. . © During the period of Nasir-ud-din Mohammed Tughlag, he invaded India. © In 1398 A.D. Timur captured Dethi and . caused the annihilation of the Tughlaq dynasty by pillaging and slaughtering people. . ‘SULTANATES OF DEHLI Mp 14"™ CENTURY oN THE SAYYID DYNASTY (1414-1451 A.D.) KHIZR KHAN (1414- 1421 A.D.) ‘© He was the founder of Sayyid Dynasty; He did not swear any royal title, ‘* He was the Governor of Multan. He took advantage of the disordered situation in India after Timur's invasion. In 1414 A.D. he. ‘occupied the throne of Delhi © He brought parts of Surat, Dilapur, and Punjab under his control. But he lost Bengal, Deccan, Gujarat, Jaunpur, Khandesh and Malwa. In 1421 he died. Mubarak Shah Khizr Khan's son succeeded him. MUBARAK SHAH (1421-1434.D.) Mubarak Shah crushed the local chiefs of the Doab region and the Khokhars. He is first SIKANDAR SHAHI (1489 - 1517 A.D.) Sultan ruler to appoint Hindu nobles in the court of Delhi. He constructed "Mubarakbad" City on the banks of the river Jamuna, Muhammad Shah Mubarak's nephew succeeded him. MUHAMMAD SHAH (1434-1445 A.D.) He defeated the ruler of Malwa with the help of Bahlul Lodi the Governor of Lahore. He conferred Bahlul Lodi with the title Khan-i-Khanan for helping in defeating the ruler of Malwa, Later Alauddin Shah succeeded him. ALAUDDIN SHAH (1 445-1457 A.D.) He was a weak ruler. In 1457 A.D, Bahlul Lodi the Governor of Lahore captured Delhi and made Alauddin Shah to step down from the throne and sent him to Badaun, In 1478 A.D. Alauddin Shah died in Badaun. LODI DYNASTY (1451 TO 1526) BAHLUL LODI (1451 -1489 A.D.) Bahlul Lodi was the founder of Lodi Dynasty. The Lodi Dynasty is the last ruling dynasties of the Sultanate period. He was a wise statesman who knew his limi He took various measures to gratify his nobles. He conquered Etawa, Gwalior, Mewat, Sakit, and Samthal. He died in 1489 AD. Bahlul Lodi was a wise ruler, he never sat on the throne and he used to sit on the carpet in front of the throne with his nobles to gain their recognition and support. Sikandar Shahi was the son of Bahlul Lodi. He swore the title Sikandar Shah and ascended the throne. He set up a well- organized spy system. He developed agriculture and industry. He ‘was an orthodox Muslim. He put severe i i restrictions on the Hindus. Sikandar Shah enjoyed "Shehnai" Musi work on music names "Lahjati-Sikandar Shahi" was created during his reign. A END OF LODI DYNASTY (1517 - 1526 A.D.) Ibrahim Lodi succeeded ‘was an intolerant and a andar Lodi. He lamant ruler. 25He had humiliated many nobles and killed some nobles cruelly. He also treated his son Dilwar Khan Lodi cruelly. © Daulat Khan, the most powerful noble of Punjab, who was discontented with Ibrahim Lodhi, invited Babur the ruler of Kabul to invade India. © Babur invaded India and defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of Panipat in 1526 AD. EXPANSION, REFORMS IN AND DISINTEGRATION OF DELHI SULTANATE EXPANSION © Dynasties of Gujarat, Rajasthan and Malwa were always at war. In Maratha region, Deogir was at war with Warangal in Telangana and Hoysalas in Karnataka. Hoysalas were at war with Pandyas in Tamilnadu. ‘© Turkish wanted to conquer Gujarat because of fertile area and access to sea-trade due to western ports. Access to large amounts of gold and silver as well as access to good quality horses to counter rise of Mongols was the need for controlling Gujarat ports. ‘© Alauddin sent two generals to conquer Gujarat. They sacked Anhilwara, Jaisalmer and Somnath and collected large booty. Gujarat became a part of the empire, except, South Gujarat. © Then came consolidation of Rajasthan, Successors of Prithviraj Chauhan ruled. Mongol soldiers of Khalji’s army rebelled and sought refuge with Chauhan king Hamirdeva, Khalji ordered Hamirdeva to kill or expel them. On refusal, he marched to Ranthambore. © Amir Khusrau went with him and has given a graphic description of the fort. Jauhar (women sacrificing themselves in funeral pyre) happened and men came out to fight. This is the first description of Jauhar in Persian. Dated 1301 ‘© Khalji invested Chittor under Ratan Singh - in 1303, Rajput rulers were allowed to rule but had to pay regular tribute and obey orders, * Then came Deccan and South India. First campaign against Rai Karan, erstwhile ruler of Gujarat and second against Rai Ramachandra, ruler of Deogir. Malik Kafur led the second charge and was victorious. Alliance was forged with Rai Ramachandra. ‘Two campaigns by kafur in South India b/w 1309 - 11. One against Warangal and second against Dwar Samudra and Mabar and Madurai (Tamil Nadu). Khusrau wrote about these campaigns and the Malwa campaign. Kafur was appointed malik-naib (vice regent) of the empire by Khalji. Within 15 years, all these territories were brought under direct administration of Delhi After death of Khalji, successive rulers also adopted forward policies. Territories of Sultanate reached upto Madurai by 1324. Last Hindu principality - Kampili in South Karnataka was annexed in 1328, This extensive expansion created numerous administrative and financial problems. These were tackled through. REFORMS IN THE SULTANATE, Alauddin’s policy of market control: Tried for the first time in the known world. Controlled prices of all commodities. Set up three markets at Delhi one for foodgrains, second for costly cloth and third for horses, slaves and cattle. Each market under control of officer called shahna. Need to control prices because - 1. To enjoy popularity among citizens. 2. Less and stable prices: enough food for large army. 3. Low prices of horses: increased efficiency of army 4, Barani says major objective of market control - punishing Hindus who formed a majority of local traders that profited from increased foodgrain prices. Khalji ordered that revenue of Ganga doab ‘would be raised to half of produce and paid to state and not given as igta to anyone. ‘Supply chain was managed. Peasants were asked to pay in cash, they sold at low prices to banjaras who sold it at fixed prices in markets. All agents were registered and their families held responsible in case of violation of law. i iRaising revenue in cash: paying soldiers in cash, being the first sultan to do so. Unclear market control applied only to Delhi or to other cities as well Land revenue administration: © First sultan to insist that revenue would be decided on basis of assessment of land under cultivation. © Landlords (khuts and mugaddams) had to pay same taxes as others like taxes, on milch cattle, houses. © Amils and other officials were given sufficient salaries, their accounts were strictly audited and severe punishment ‘was given to ensure honesty. Muhammad bin Tughlag’s reforms: © Paid a keen interest in agriculture. © Well-versed in religion and philosophy and conversed with Jain saints like Jinaprabha Suri, in addition to Muslim clerics. Was hasty and impatient. © Termed "ill-starred idealist”. © Transferred capital from Delhi to Deogir (Daulatabad) in order to have a better control over south India. Caused lots of deaths and discontent and he could not control north India from Deogir. The experiment ultimately failed. ©. Several religious divines had settled in Deogir afier this experiment. They spread the cultural, religious and social ideas of Turks to South India and caused a new process of cultural interaction. © Tughlag introduced token currency. China's Qublai Khan had successfully experimented with it earlier. Muhammad Tughlag introduced a bronze coin equivalent to silver tanka, He couldn't stop people from forging new coins, which resulted in devaluation of the currency. It had to be withdrawn, Failure of these two experiments led to wastage of money and reduction in sovereign’s prestige. Since early times, attempts had been made by Indian kings to secure the "scientific frontier" Hindukush and Kandahar. This was needed because once invaders crossed the passes in Hindukush, it was easy for them to breach Indus and reach Delhi. A strong amy at the scientific frontier would help in repelling the invaders. ‘© Muhammad bin Tughlag's also recruited a large army to defend this frontier after ‘Mongols invaded India and reached till Meerut. Another expedition was launched in Kumaon Hills in Himalayas to counter Chinese excursions. Called the Qarachil expedition. Kangra hills also saw an expedition and were secured. * Muhammad bin Tughlaq's faced rebellion from peasants of the doab. Relief efforts came t0o late. So he started reforms to rejuvenate agriculture. Established new department diwan-i-amir i-kohi. Officials were placed in charge of blocks and tasked with providing loans to peasants and inducing them to produce superior crops such as wheat and grapes in place of barley and sugarcane. Scheme failed because of corruption, | Muhammad bin Tughlaq's also faced problems with nobility © Non-turks were allowed since the time of Khaljis. also included foreigners, Hindus and Indian converted Muslims itty. © Descendants of earlier noble families resented it ©. Nobility consisted of divergent sections which did not have any cohesion or loyalty towards the sultan, © Vast extent provided opportunities for rebellion, DISINTEGRATION OF SULTANATE ‘© Many rebellions in different parts of the empire - in Bengal, TN, Warangal, Kampili, Awadh, Gujarat and Sindh due to spreading discontent among nobles regarding Muhammad Tughlaq’s policies. © Muhammad Tughlaq’s rushed from place to place to quell these. © Plague broke out in the army and almost 2/3rd perished. © Meanwhile, Harihara and Bukka rebelled and set up the Vijayanagar into not 2 i iEmpire which soon embraced entire south India. © Some foreign nobles set up principalities near Daulatabad which expanded into the Bahmani Empire. © Muhammad Tughlaq’s died while quelling rebellions and was succeeded by Firuz, © Made no effort to reassert sovereignty over South, © Faced with imminent breakup of Sultanate, he followed a policy of appeasement of the nobles, army and theologians. © Decreed the iqtas to be made hereditary and abolished torturing of nobles in case of mismanagement of accounts. co Extended heredity to army and paid soldiers by assignments of land revenue. To placate theologians, he persecuted sects that were considered heretical, banned practices considered unislamic, © Jizyah became a separate tax. Brahmanas had to pay. Women, children and dependents were exempt. © Wall paintings on palace walls were erased (unislamic) but ordered Hindu religious works to be translated to Persian from Sanskrit © Abolished inhuman punishments like cutting of limbs. © Set up hospitals for free treatment of the poor and ordered kotwals to make a list of unemployed people. © Emphasized that state was not meant for awarding punishments and collecting taxes but was also a benevolent institution © Set up a PWD and built many canals, longest being 200 kms from Sutlej to Hansi, for water supply to several new towns. © Ordered that after attacking a palace, handsome boys should be sent to sultan as slaves. These were trained in handicrafis and sent to workshops (karkhanas) and made into soldiers completely dependent on the sultan. After his death, nobility and governors reasserted independence and the empire was further weakened by sion of Delhi in 1398. The invasion was for plunder and exposed the weaknesses due to absence of a strong state in Delhi. Timur took large amounts of gold, silver, jewels and also capable artisans to help him build his capital Samargand. ‘Timur's inv: i iCHAPTER: 8 - GOVERNMENT, AND ECONOMIC & SOCIAL LIFE DURING THE SULTANATE The state set up by the Turks towards the end of the twelfth century in northern India gradually developed into a powerful and highly centralized state which, for some time, controlled almost the entire country extending as far south as Madurai, © The Dethi Sultanat disintegrated towards the beginning of the fifteenth century, and a series of independent states were set up in different parts of the country. ‘THE SULTAN ‘Included Caliph in the khutba and pledged allegiance to him, but this was a moral position and not a legal one, Political, legal and military authority was vested in the sultan, ‘© Judges were appointed for dispensing justice and sultan acted as a court of appeal. ‘* No clear law of succession developed because idea of primogeniture was not acceptable either to Hindus or Muslims. * Military strength and loyalty of nobility were main factors in succession to the throne, and both could be bought. © Khaljis built a new town called Siri after deposing Balban since they feared public opinion. CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION The Sultan was the head of the empire. He possessed vast powers. Also, other officials ‘were appointed to take care of the administration. © The key figure in administration was the wacir. He was earlier a military expert but considered an expert in revenue affairs by 14th century. Auditor general (scrutinizing expenditure) and accountant general (inspecting income) worked under the wazir. © Ministers to Sultan 1, Wazir: Prime Minister and Finance Minister 2. Diwani-l-Risalt: Foreign Affairs Minister 3. Sadr-us-Suddar: Minister of Islamic Law LOCAL ADMINISTRATION 4, Diwan-I-Insha: Correspondence Minister 5. Diwan- Minister 6. Quzi-ul-quzar: Minister of Justice Diwani-i-arz (military department), Head: ariz-i-mamalik; not commander-in-chief but tasked with recruitment, equipping and paying the army. Setup for the first time by Balban, Alauddin introduced dagh (branding) system so that poor quality horses could not be ‘Ariz: Defence or War brought to the muster. Diwan-i-risalat, department of religious matters, pious foundations and stipends to scholars. Head, chief sadr, who was also a leading gazi. Chief Qazi, Head of Dept of Justice. Qazi, dispensed civil law based on sharia. Criminal justice system depended on the ruler of the time. Hindus were governed by their own personal laws dispensed by panchayats in the villages. Diwan-i-insha, state correspondence department. Informal and formal communication between the king and other sovereigns as well as the king's subordinates ‘was handled through this division, Barids, intelligence agents deployed around the kingdom. Nobleman with full confidence of the king would be appointed Chief Barid. Household department, looked after comforts, of sultan and the women, supervised royal workshops. Officer-in-charge - wakil-i-dar. Turks divided territory into iqtas which were divided among leading nobles mugtis or walis. These tracts later became provinces : i i i : subas. Muatis maintained law and order and collected land revenue, Maintained army from that revenue and gave a portion to the king. With increasing power of sultan, mugtis were supervised more closely, accounts were audited and harsh punishments were meted out for 29misappropriation. Such harsh punishments were phased out by Firuz Shah Tughlag. © Subas (provinces) Shigs (districts) Parganas (a group of 100 or 84 villages; called Chaurasi) ‘© Subas under muqtis, parganas under Amils. Village had khut (landowners) and mugaddam (headman). + We also hear of the village accountant or patwari. JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION ‘© The Sultan was the highest judicial authority. © Qazi-ul-quzar- the Chief Judicial officer © A Quazi was appointed in every town. ‘© Criminals were punished severely. MILITARY ADMINISTRATION The Sultan was the Commander of the army. * The four divisions of the army were 1. The Royal army 2. Provincial or Governor's army 3. Feudal army and 4. War Time army ECONOMIC & SOCIAL LIFE Ibn Battutah, a resident of Tangier in North Africa, visited India in the fourteenth century and lived at the court of Muhammad Tughlaq for eight years. ‘© Soil was fertile and bore two, sometimes three, crops. Sesame, sugarcane and cotton formed the basis for industries like oil pressing, jiggery production, weaving etc. PEASANTS AND RURAL GENTRY © Khuts and mugaddams enjoyed a higher standard of life compared to other peasants. ‘They were prosperous enough to ride costly horses and wear fine clothes. Alauddin took stern action against them and curtailed their privileges. ‘© Autonomous rajas or Hindu rais enjoyed high standard of life ‘TRADE, INDUSTRY AND MERCHANTS Trade increased due to improvement in communication and establishment of, currency based on silver tanka and copper dirham. ‘© Sultanate was a flourishing urban economy. Bengal, Cambay were famous for textiles, gold and silver. Sonargaon was famous for TOWN LIFE: SLAVES, ARTISANS AND OTHERS raw silk and muslin, Paper manufacturing was introduced in India by Turks. Spinning wheel was introduced, as was the cotton carter's bow (dhunia), Trading groups involved: © Coastal trade and trade b/w ports and north India: Marwaris and Gujaratis, most Jain. Muslim Bobras too. © The Overland trade with central and west Asia: Multanis (Hindus) and Khurasanis (Afghans, Iranians etc.) © Gujarati and Marwari merchants spent large sums for construction of temples. Lived lavish lifestyles and lived in manors. Travel was risky due to robbers, dacoits and ‘marauding tribes. Many sarais were there for comfort of travellers. Muhammad Tughlaq built a road from Peshawar to Sonargaon (Bengal) and also from Delhi to Daulatabad. Horse relays were used for delivering posts, fruits for the sultan ete. Economic life quickened. Growth of ‘metallurgical industries and metal crafis due to large scale use of armour etc. Rahat wa improved and made it easier to lift water from deeper levels for irrigation. Improved mortar enabled Turks to erect larger buildings based on arch and dome. ‘THE SULTAN AND NOBLES Sultan gave numerous gifts to nobles during his birthday, navroz and annual coronation day, Robes consisted of cloth velvet and costly materials. Royal workshops manufactured goods for use of sultan. ‘They also catered to haram: chamber containing queens, female relatives and jous countries, ‘women from va i i Many towns grew around military garrisons. Government servants and clerks had to read and write. Since education was in the hands of Muslim theologians: ulama, both of them shared identical views. Beggars formed a large mass and could create law and order problems. 30