‭ABSTRACT‬

‭ his report presents a comprehensive analysis of the design,‬

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‭construction, and testing of a simple rubber band-powered‬
‭ornithopter, an aircraft that achieves flight through the flapping of‬
‭wings similar to a bird. The objective was to create an ornithopter‬
‭using minimalistic design principles and accessible materials to study‬
‭the basic aerodynamic and mechanical principles governing flapping‬
‭wing flight. The project aimed to explore the feasibility of constructing‬
‭a lightweight, cost-effective flying model while achieving efficient lift‬
‭and propulsion.‬

‭ he design process began with the selection of materials for the wings,‬
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‭fuselage, and flapping mechanism. Lightweight balsa wood was‬
‭chosen for the frame due to its high strength-to-weight ratio, and‬
‭Mylar was used for the wings for its durability and flexibility. The‬
‭propulsion system consisted of a rubber band, which was selected for‬
‭its potential to store and release mechanical energy efficiently.‬

‭ he mechanical linkage system, including a crankshaft and connecting‬

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‭rods, was designed to convert the rotational energy released by the‬
‭unwinding rubber band into the up-and-down flapping motion of the‬
‭wings. This system's geometry was meticulously calculated to‬
‭optimize the wing's flapping amplitude and frequency, crucial‬
‭parameters that directly influence the lift generated.‬
‭ he construction phase involved precise cutting and assembly of‬
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‭materials to ensure structural integrity while maintaining overall‬
‭lightness. Following construction, the ornithopter underwent multiple‬
‭test flights to evaluate its performance. Adjustments were made to the‬
‭wing angles, tail configuration, and rubber band tension to fine-tune‬
‭the flight characteristics.‬

‭ ltimately, the tests demonstrated that the simple ornithopter could‬

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‭successfully achieve sustained flight for short durations, validating‬
‭the design concept. The experiment highlighted the significant impact‬
‭of wing design and flapping mechanism efficiency on the flight‬
‭performance of ornithopters. This project not only contributes to a‬
‭better understanding of bio-inspired flight mechanisms but also‬
‭serves as an educational tool for demonstrating basic principles of‬
‭physics and engineering.‬

‭ he successful design and operation of a simple rubber band-powered‬

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‭ornithopter were achieved, providing insights into the challenges and‬
‭potential of flapping wing aviation. Future work could explore‬
‭alternative materials and more complex control mechanisms to‬
‭enhance the performance and durability of the ornithopter, potentially‬
‭scaling the design for varied applications.‬
 ‭INTRODUCTION‬
‭ n ornithopter is an aircraft that achieves flight by flapping its wings,‬
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‭mimicking the natural flight mechanisms of birds and insects. The‬
‭concept, rooted in ancient history, was notably explored by Leonardo‬
‭da Vinci in the 15th century, who sketched detailed plans that, though‬
‭impractical for human flight, laid foundational ideas for future‬
‭designs. It wasn’t until the 19th and 20th centuries that practical‬
‭ornithopter models capable of sustained flight began to emerge,‬
‭powered initially by mechanisms like steam and later by rubber‬
‭bands, internal combustion engines, and electric motors. These‬
‭developments have evolved ornithopters from mere curiosities into‬
‭valuable tools for scientific and educational purposes.‬

‭ odern ornithopters are used in aerodynamics research to study the‬

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‭complex interactions between flapping wings and air currents,‬
‭shedding light on more efficient flying techniques that can be applied‬
‭to advanced drone technology. They are also popular in educational‬
‭settings, where they serve as practical demonstrations of mechanical‬
‭engineering and aerodynamics principles.‬

‭ dditionally, the inherent quietness and maneuverability of‬

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‭flapping-wing flight make ornithopters particularly appealing for‬
‭applications requiring stealth and agility, such as wildlife observation,‬
‭environmental monitoring, and search-and-rescue operations.‬

‭ ontinued advancements in materials science and micro-mechanics‬

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‭further expand the potential of ornithopters, pointing toward a future‬
‭where these machines not only imitate but perhaps surpass the‬
‭efficiencies of nature’s own aviators. This integration of bio-inspired‬
‭engineering with modern technology underlines the ornithopter's‬
‭transition from a historical novelty to a pivotal element in the‬
‭evolution of flight technology.‬
 ‭PAST, PRESENT and FUTURE‬
‭ istory:‬
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‭The concept of ornithopters dates back to ancient civilizations,‬
‭with early attempts at flight emulation documented in myths and‬
‭legends. However, it was Leonardo da Vinci's anatomically‬
‭accurate sketches of flapping-wing flight machines in the 15th‬
‭century that laid the foundation for modern ornithopter design.‬
‭Despite these visionary concepts, practical ornithopter‬
‭development progressed slowly until the 20th century, when‬
‭advancements in materials, aerodynamics, and propulsion‬
‭technologies spurred renewed interest.‬

‭ urrent State-of-the-Art:‬
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‭Contemporary ornithopter research spans a wide spectrum, from‬
‭small-scale hobbyist projects to ambitious academic and‬
‭industrial endeavors. Miniature robotic ornithopters have gained‬
‭popularity for applications in surveillance, environmental‬
‭monitoring, and entertainment. These lightweight, agile devices‬
‭often incorporate advanced materials such as carbon fiber and‬
‭utilize sophisticated control algorithms for stable flight.‬

‭ n a larger scale, experimental manned ornithopters have been‬

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‭developed, albeit with limited success. Challenges such as‬
‭power-to-weight ratio, mechanical complexity, and control‬
‭stability present formidable obstacles to achieving sustained,‬
‭efficient flight. However, recent advancements in propulsion‬
‭systems, including electric motors and lightweight batteries, hold‬
‭promise for overcoming these barriers.‬

‭ hallenges, Limitations and Future:‬

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‭Despite significant progress, ornithopters face several challenges‬
‭that hinder their widespread adoption and practical utility.‬
‭ erodynamic inefficiencies inherent in flapping-wing flight result‬
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‭in higher energy requirements compared to fixed-wing or‬
‭rotary-wing aircraft. Mechanical complexity and reliability issues‬
‭pose additional obstacles, particularly for manned ornithopters‬
‭where safety is paramount.‬

‭ urthermore, regulatory and certification requirements present‬

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‭formidable barriers to commercializing ornithopter technology for‬
‭civilian applications. The lack of standardized design guidelines‬
‭and testing protocols further complicates the development‬
‭process, limiting collaboration and knowledge sharing within the‬
‭ornithopter community.‬

‭ espite these challenges, the future of ornithopters appears‬

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‭promising, driven by advances in materials science, propulsion‬
‭technology, and artificial intelligence. Improved understanding of‬
‭avian flight dynamics and biomimetic design principles offer‬
‭opportunities for enhancing aerodynamic efficiency and‬
‭maneuverability.‬

‭ dditionally, interdisciplinary collaboration between aerospace‬

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‭engineers, biologists, and robotics experts is essential for‬
‭addressing the multifaceted challenges associated with‬
‭ornithopter development. Integration of cutting-edge‬
‭technologies such as morphing wings, distributed propulsion‬
‭systems, and bio-inspired control algorithms holds the potential‬
‭to revolutionize ornithopter design and unlock new applications‬
‭in fields such as search and rescue, agriculture, and urban‬
‭mobility.‬

‭ rnithopters represent a fascinating intersection of‬

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‭nature-inspired design and engineering innovation. While‬
‭significant progress has been made in recent years, numerous‬
‭challenges remain to be addressed before ornithopters can realize‬
‭their full potential. Continued research, technological innovation,‬
‭ nd interdisciplinary collaboration are essential for overcoming‬
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‭these challenges and ushering in a new era of flapping-wing flight.‬
 ‭OBJECTIVES‬

‭1.‬ ‭To Understand Historical Developments:‬‭Analyze the‬

‭evolution of ornithopters from ancient designs to‬
‭contemporary models, highlighting key inventions and‬
‭advancements in materials and mechanics.‬

‭2.‬‭To Examine Aerodynamic Principles:‬‭Explore the‬

‭aerodynamic forces involved in the flapping wing motion of‬
‭ornithopters, including how lift and thrust are generated,‬
‭and how these principles are applied to achieve stable and‬
‭controlled flight.‬

‭3.‬‭To Investigate Mechanical Systems:‬‭Detail the‬

‭mechanical design of ornithopters, focusing on the flapping‬
‭mechanism, including the use of cranks, linkages, and other‬
‭components that convert rotational motion into wing‬
‭flapping.‬

‭4.‬‭To Evaluate Material Selection:‬‭Discuss the selection‬‭of‬

‭materials in the construction of ornithopters, considering‬
‭factors such as weight, durability, flexibility, and‬
‭aerodynamic efficiency.‬

‭5.‬‭To Assess Flight Control and Stability:‬‭Examine the‬

‭strategies used to control and stabilize ornithopters during‬
‭flight, such as tail design, wing configuration, and center of‬
‭gravity adjustments.‬

‭6.‬‭To Explore Technological Innovations:‬‭Identify and‬

‭analyze recent technological advancements in ornithopter‬
‭design and operation, including the integration of modern‬
 ‭ aterials, digital control systems, and innovations in power‬
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‭sources like electric motors.‬

‭7.‬ ‭To Review Applications and Potential Uses:‬

‭Investigate current and potential applications of ornithopters‬
‭in various fields such as surveillance, environmental‬
‭monitoring, and educational purposes, assessing their‬
‭advantages and limitations.‬

‭8.‬‭To Propose Design Improvements:‬‭Based on the‬

‭analysis of existing models and challenges faced, suggest‬
‭possible improvements or innovative solutions for enhancing‬
‭the performance, efficiency, and usability of ornithopters.‬

‭9.‬‭To Conduct Experimental Analysis:‬‭If practical, design‬

‭and perform experimental tests to validate theoretical‬
‭concepts and measure the performance characteristics of an‬
‭ornithopter model.‬

1‭ 0.‬‭To Promote Educational and Research Interest:‬

‭Encourage the use of ornithopters in educational settings to teach‬
‭principles of aerodynamics, mechanics, and robotics, and to‬
‭inspire further research and development in bio-inspired‬
‭engineering.‬
 ‭PARTS OF AN ORNITHOPTER‬

‭ simple rubber band-powered ornithopter consists of several basic‬

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‭components that work together to achieve flight by mimicking the‬
‭flapping motion of bird wings. Here are the key parts of such an‬
‭ornithopter: A simple rubber band-powered ornithopter consists of‬
‭several basic components that work together to achieve flight by‬
‭mimicking the flapping motion of bird wings.‬

‭Here are the key parts of such an ornithopter:‬

‭ rame:‬‭The frame, or fuselage, serves as the main‬‭structure of the‬

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‭ornithopter, supporting all other components. It is typically made‬
‭from lightweight materials such as balsa wood, plastic, or thin metal‬
‭to keep the overall weight minimal.‬

‭ ings:‬‭The wings are the most crucial elements for‬‭generating lift and‬
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‭propulsion. They are often made of a light, flexible material such as‬
‭Mylar, thin plastic, or tissue paper stretched over a frame of‬
‭lightweight spars (usually balsa wood). The wings must be flexible yet‬
‭strong enough to endure the repeated stress of flapping.‬

‭ ubber Band:‬‭This acts as the power source of the‬‭ornithopter. The‬

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‭rubber band is twisted to store potential energy, which, when‬
‭released, converts into kinetic energy as it unwinds, driving the‬
‭flapping motion of the wings.‬
‭ rank and Connecting Rod‬‭: These components convert the rotational‬
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‭motion of the unwinding rubber band into the up-and-down flapping‬
‭motion of the wings. The crank is typically a small metal or plastic‬
‭piece that attaches to the rubber band, while the connecting rods link‬
‭the crank to the wings.‬

‭ ail:‬‭The tail stabilizes the ornithopter in flight,‬‭helping to keep it‬

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‭balanced and on course. It usually consists of horizontal stabilizers‬
‭(tailplane) and a vertical stabilizer (fin). These may also be made from‬
‭materials similar to the wings.‬
 ‭DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION‬
‭ onstructing and designing an ornithopter involves a thoughtful‬
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‭integration of aerodynamics, mechanics, and materials‬
‭engineering to create a device that can mimic the flapping flight of‬
‭birds. The goal is to achieve both lift and propulsion through the‬
‭flapping of wings, which requires careful consideration of various‬
‭design parameters such as wing shape, flapping mechanism, and‬
‭overall structural integrity.‬

‭Wing Design:‬

‭ he wings are the most critical component of an ornithopter. They‬

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‭must be designed to flex like those of actual birds but also strong‬
‭enough to withstand the stresses of repeated flapping. The wings‬
‭are generally constructed from a lightweight, flexible material‬
‭such as Mylar, thin plastic, or fabric, stretched over a framework‬
‭of light spars made from materials like balsa wood or carbon fiber.‬
‭This construction ensures that the wings are both light and‬
‭durable. The shape of the wings is crucial; most ornithopter wings‬
‭are designed to resemble the aspect ratio and profile of bird‬
‭wings, which are typically broad and rounded for slow flight‬
‭ornithopters, or more elongated in models designed for faster or‬
‭more efficient flight.‬

‭Flapping Mechanism:‬

‭ he flapping mechanism, which typically consists of a crank and‬

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‭linkage system, translates rotational motion into the‬
‭up-and-down motion of the wings. The crankshaft is connected to‬
‭the wings via rods that transfer the force of the motor (or in‬
‭simpler models, a twisted rubber band) to the wings. The length‬
‭of the crank arms and the position of the linkage points on the‬
‭wings can be adjusted to control the amplitude and frequency of‬
‭the wing flaps, which directly impacts the flight characteristics‬‭.‬
‭Fuselage:‬

‭ he fuselage of an ornithopter serves as the central body,‬

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‭supporting the mechanical and structural components. It is‬
‭usually built from lightweight materials such as balsa wood or‬
‭lightweight plastic tubes, designed to keep the weight minimal‬
‭while maintaining enough strength to hold all components‬
‭securely. The fuselage also needs to be aerodynamically shaped to‬
‭minimize drag during flight.‬

‭Power Source:‬

I‭ n simple ornithopters, a rubber band provides the necessary‬

‭power to drive the wings. The rubber band is twisted many times‬
‭to store potential energy, which, when released, spins the crank‬
‭mechanism to flap the wings. In more advanced designs, small‬
‭electric motors powered by batteries can be used to provide a‬
‭consistent power supply, enabling longer and more controlled‬
‭flights.‬

‭Tail Assembly:‬

‭ he tail assembly, which includes a horizontal stabilizer and a‬

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‭vertical stabilizer (or rudder), is crucial for the stability and‬
‭control of the ornithopter. The tail helps to stabilize the aircraft in‬
‭flight, preventing it from pitching too far forward or backward‬
‭and assisting in directional control. Like the wings, the tail‬
‭surfaces are typically made from the same lightweight materials to‬
‭ensure they do not adversely affect the overall weight and balance.‬

‭Control Systems:‬

‭ dvanced ornithopters may include control systems that allow‬

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‭adjustments to the wing's flapping angles and the tail's position‬
‭during flight, enabling better control over flight paths and‬
‭ ehaviors. These controls can be manual, manipulated by strings‬
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‭or rods, or more sophisticated electronic servos controlled via a‬
‭remote.‬

‭Assembly and Testing:‬

‭ nce all parts are fabricated and assembled, extensive testing is‬
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‭required to optimize the ornithopter’s flight. This might involve‬
‭adjusting the wing tension, the balance of the fuselage, the angle‬
‭of the tail, or the tightness of the rubber band. Flight testing is‬
‭iterative, often requiring multiple adjustments to achieve the‬
‭desired flight characteristics.‬
 ‭WORKING‬

‭How Ornithopters Fly‬

‭ ecause ornithopter aerodynamics is a complex topic, we will‬
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‭begin by considering the simplest type of ornithopter: those in‬
‭which, like airplanes, the lift and thrust are produced by separate‬
‭surfaces. The extent to which an ornithopter uses fixed surfaces‬
‭for lift varies along a continuum, but we will consider the ideal‬
‭case, in which the flapping wings provide no lift at all.‬

‭Flapping Propellers‬
I‭n the ideal fixed-lift system, the flappers can be regarded as a‬
‭propeller that cyclically reverses its direction, pitch, and camber.‬
‭Whereas each blade of a rotating propeller continues round and‬
‭round, each blade of a flapping propeller traverses a certain angle‬
‭and then reverses direction, twice per cycle. If the typical‬
‭membrane structure is used, the membrane pitch and camber will‬
‭reverse automatically as the airfoil changes its path through the‬
‭air. The forces produced in the upstroke and downstroke are the‬
‭same, but opposite to one another.‬

‭ erodynamically, there is one major difference between a flapping‬

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‭propeller and a rotating one. Since the blades of a propeller spin‬
‭continuously in one direction, they produce torque, which tends to‬
‭rotate the craft about its longitudinal axis. The flapping propeller,‬
‭in contrast, has two blades rotating in opposite directions. Rather‬
‭than producing torque, this arrangement produces an alternating‬
‭ p-and-down force on the aircraft, resulting from the alternating‬
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‭downstroke lift and upstroke negative lift of the flapping blades.‬
‭The vibration can be eliminated using a second set of blades‬
‭whose motion is opposite that of the first set. The net force‬
‭produced is thrust.‬

‭ he term “advance ratio” describes how far an aircraft moves‬

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‭forward with each rotation of the propeller, or with each cycle of‬
‭the flapping wings. (It is a ratio because the forward travel is‬
‭divided by the distance the blade tip travels along its arc.) In order‬
‭to maintain a suitable angle of attack, the blade angle‬‭relative to‬
‭the aircraft‬‭should be adjusted according to the advance‬‭ratio: For‬
‭rapid flight, the blades are angled slightly from the travel direction‬
‭of the aircraft, whereas for slow flight, the blades are angled‬
‭almost perpendicular to the travel direction of the aircraft. In this‬
‭way, a propeller can be set up to operate at either a high or low‬
‭advance ratio.‬

‭ o complicate matters, the inner part of the propeller requires a‬

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‭different angle than the outer part. Therefore, we don’t use‬
‭degrees to measure the blade angle. Instead, we consider the‬
‭distance that the propeller is designed to go with each rotation.‬
‭This distance is the propeller “pitch”. (Technically, this is the‬
‭distance that the propeller would go, if it could maintain a zero‬
‭angle of attack. In normal operation, the angle of attack is slightly‬
‭positive.) For ornithopters, the word “pitch” has often been used to‬
‭refer to the actual angle of the wing surface, relative to the long‬
‭axis of the ornithopter body. A positive angle indicates that the‬
‭leading edge is higher than the trailing edge (as in the upstroke),‬
‭ hereas a negative angle indicates that the leading edge is‬
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‭suppressed (as in the downstroke). By this definition, the pitch is‬
‭said to vary along the span, whereas the pitch of a rotary‬
‭propeller applies to the whole.‬

‭ otice also that the two definitions give opposite results: a rotary‬
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‭propeller with a high pitch would be best for rapid flight (high‬
‭advance ratio), whereas a flapping wing with a high pitch is best‬
‭for slow flight (low advance ratio). To avoid confusion, I have used‬
‭the word “incidence” instead of “pitch” when describing the wing‬
‭angle relative to the longitudinal axis of the ornithopter. This‬
‭allows the word “pitch” to retain the same meaning that it has for‬
‭rotary propellers.‬
 ‭CONCLUSION‬

I‭ n conclusion, the report has provided a comprehensive‬

‭exploration of ornithopter technology, spanning from its‬
‭historical origins to contemporary advancements and potential‬
‭future applications. Through an analysis of aerodynamic‬
‭principles, including lift generation, propulsion mechanisms, and‬
‭control systems, a deeper understanding of the intricacies of‬
‭ornithopter flight has been achieved.‬

‭ he examination of current ornithopter design has revealed the‬

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‭utilization of cheap materials, propulsion methods, and‬
‭biomimetic design principles to optimize performance and‬
‭efficiency. Furthermore, the assessment of potential applications‬
‭has highlighted the versatility of ornithopters in fields such as‬
‭surveillance, search and rescue, environmental monitoring, and‬
‭entertainment, showcasing their potential to revolutionize aerial‬
‭operations.‬