HOW EFFICIENT IS THE OPERATION OF TOLL ROAD IN INDONESIA?

STUDY CASE OF TOLL ROAD OPERATED BY STATEOWNED COMPANY

Dr. Ir. Krishna Nur Pribadi, M.Sc., M.Phil. 1) and Ira Ariani Chaerunisa, ST. 2)
1)

Center of Public Policy and Government, Institute of Technology Bandung, Indonesia krishna@pl.itb.ac.id

2)

Regional and City Planning Graduate Program, Institute of Technology Bandung, Indonesia ira_ariani@students.itb.ac.id

Abstract Rapid development has been encountered by most of developing countries since the end half of 20th century, particularly in Indonesia. The growth of population has then been followed by increasing requirement of infrastructure. Infrastructure provision in transportation sector has become one essential concern as automobile industries keep rising to produce more and more vehicles, affecting congestion problems arise, hence, more roads needed. Toll road has been claimed as an alternative to encounter transportation problem since 1978. Back then, the operation was managed by single state-owned company under the control of Ministry of Public Works. This paper attempts to assess the operated toll roads in recent period. What underpinned this study is that the function of toll road to support public activities seems to be not equal among all section of the toll roads. How efficient each sections of the toll road managed by state-owned company? The evaluation of efficiency in this study is framed by Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) of which period of 2006, involving single state-owned company operating 9 toll roads sections. The analysis results: (1) most of the operated toll roads are considered efficient in scope of individual section, yet, two third of toll roads assessed still have to improve certain points to meet the efficiency, (2) toll roads of which linkage is connected entirely tend to be more efficient than secluded toll road without networking with other toll roads, and (3) there is 7 percent potential improvement for overall toll roads in Indonesia. As a suggestion concerning these findings, the regulator should also assess the operated toll roads to maximize the benefits attained by consumers, in other words, extend the service given by operators. One more important thing is that the network of toll roads should also be considered in obtaining efficiency. Key Words: Data Envelopment Analysis, efficiency, operated toll road, state-owned company

1. INTRODUCTION

The condition of infrastructure in Indonesia nowadays still confronts with the lack of accessibility, quality, or even the scope of service. Consequently, the infrastructure cannot yet be the backbone of development in real sector. Economic crisis occurred in 1997 worsened the condition of the infrastructure, particularly roads and railroads. In 2004, approximately 46 per cent of the total length of road in this country suffered moderate to heavy deterioration1.

Act No. 17 year 2007 concerning Long-term Development Plan 2005 - 2025

Rapid development mostly occurs at the big cities, particularly in Java and Bali islands, leaving the other cities lagging behind. Before independence war, the cities in Indonesia, especially the big ones, such as, Jakarta, Semarang, Surabaya, Medan, Bandung, Ujung Pandang (Makassar) had undergone a significant development and growth. However, since the early 1950s, populations growth had shown a steep level. According to statistics review, Indonesian population had exceeded the estimation of population in urban area projected 9.1 per cent in 1960, but in the real situation based on census in 1961 with the same criteria, the population was 15.61 per cent2. The population of Indonesia in 2020 was also predicted to increase three forth from the initial number in 2000 from 80 million to 140 million3. Surprisingly, based on census carried out in 2010, the total number of Indonesian population has reached more than 237 million of people. What is more, 57.49 percent of total population lives in Java Island4. The increase in population also extends the demand of infrastructure, particularly on transportation. The growth of motorized vehicles from 1987 to 2009 has increased 785.98 percent. Four-wheeled cars, buses, and truck have risen 653.20 percent and motorcycles alone has surpassed to 844.01 percent during this period. However, the multiplication of vehicles has exceeded the growth of road length of which only 113.68 percent5. Furthermore, the following trends that affect transport are predicted to continue in the future; more travel will be performed, more women will be working, more people will be students, more tourism and hotels will appear, most workers will be in service industries, and more industrial production will grow although the level of employment will decline (Tamin, Ofyar Z., 2005). More roads are needed to suffice these demands and to provide the facility in fulfilling everyones needs. Initially, the main role of road is to affect regional structure, and the performance of road is aimed to comprise the equity of development in the scope of inter-regional growth, as stated in Act number 38 year 2004 concerning Road. One obstacle in road infrastructure provision in Indonesia is the complexity of land acquisition, mainly in built area of cities. Hence, road improvement cannot be provided equally, let alone surpass, the growth of road users. Eventually, Government started to build toll road in 1978 managed by state-owned company, PT Jasa Marga (Persero), of which name after Initial Public Offering (IPO) become PT Jasa Marga (Persero) Tbk. The first operated toll road was Jagorawi connecting Jakarta, Bogor, and Ciawi. Up to present, Jasa Marga has operated 12 toll roads in Java and Sumatera. In the late 1980s, Jasa Marga began to join private sectors in operating toll roads, changing the role of the company into both operator and regulator. Yet, after encountering economic crisis in 1997 which caused many infrastructure projects halted, in 2005, Government split the functions into two institutions: Badan Pengatur Jalan Tol (BPJT) as regulator and Jasa Marga as operator.
2 3

Pontoh, Nia K. and Kustiwan, Iwan., Pengantar Perencanaan Perkotaan, 2009 The World Bank, Indonesia - Averting an Infrastructure Crisis: a Framework for Policy and Action, 2004 4 BPS website, http://www.bps.go.id/aboutus.php?sp=0 5 BPS website, http://www.bps.go.id/aboutus.php?sp=0

Traditionally, toll road is viewed as alternative way instead of using common road. The function of toll road itself is to extend the efficiency of distributing goods and services that is required by public, particularly in big cities. Additionally, the operated toll roads have to fulfill the standard of minimum services established by Government in Minister of Public Works Decree No. 392/2005 in order to supply good services for users. However, in reality, publics perspectives still find several negative issues concerning toll road operation. Jakarta Outer Ring Road (JORR) of which connecting Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang and Bekasi (Jabodetabek) for instance, become more and more congested decreasing level of service of the toll road. Another example is Belawan-Medan-Tanjung Morawa (Belmera) toll road located in Sumatera which obtains very minimum standard related to the physical condition of the toll road. These constraints are then used as evidences in offending Government adjusting the tariff every 2 years. This paper aims to evaluate the efficiency of operated toll roads by giving up some questions to be answered in the remainder: (1) how efficient the operated toll roads in scope of certain items of management, and (2) how much percentage have to be improved in attaining efficiency both individually and generally. To answer these questions, Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) is employed in this paper as the framework. In the end, the contribution of this paper will examine the ability of DEA as a tool in assessing efficiency in toll road sector.

2. THE CONDITION OF OPERATED TOLL ROADS IN INDONESIA

Toll roads in Indonesia have emerged since 1978 by the operation of Jagorawi toll road. At that time, state-owned company, namely Jasa Marga, became the one and only actor in operating and regulating toll road sector behalf the government. Starting in 1987, private sectors were then joined to participate in managing toll road investment and operation by applying Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) scheme. The toll roads under this scheme are Tangerang-Merak, Ir. Wiyoto Wiyono, M.Sc., Surabaya-Gresik, Harbor Road, Ujung Pandang Tahap I, and Serpong-Pondok Aren. By the establishment of Road Act No. 38/2004, Badan Pengatur Jalan Tol (BPJT) under the Ministry of Public Works has been set as toll road regulator in 2005. Since then, Jasa Marga has only functioned as operator and investor as other private sectors. The growth of operated toll road in Indonesia since the early emergence until present can be seen in Figure 1. Before it reverted to develop in 2005, toll road business was halted in 1997 because of economic crises. Many projects whether in tender process, investment, or even construction have been stopped during the catastrophe. In 2006, the Government began to arrange tender process and continue delayed projects. Until 2010, there are 22 on-going toll road projects that have been bound by Concession Agreement (CA), namely Perjanjian Pengusahaan Jalan Tol (PPJT). As stated in the PPJT, each toll road has concession for 35 years and specified

initial tariff to be adjusted every 2 years. The toll roads operated before 2005 have the same precondition about the tariff, yet, distinct in term of concession. The operated toll roads should convert the former CA, namely Perjanjian Kuasa Penyelenggaraan (PKP) into PPJT. In these cases, the outcome of business plan analyses determines the concession and tariff. However, after the conversion, Jasa Marga attained 45 years of concession for the operated toll roads counted from 1 January 2005.
Figure 1: The growth of operated toll road in Indonesia from 1978 to 2010

Source: BPJT, 2010

Up to present, 741.97 km of toll road has been operated, and 534.82 km is operated by Jasa Marga. These toll roads are assessed by BPJT annually through the monitoring team applying the minimum standard of service as regulated in Minister of Public Works Decree No. 392/2005. The parameters examined in the standard are toll road condition, average speed, accessibility, mobility, the condition of safety attachment, and the availability of aid service units. The minimum standard, or prominently called Standar Pelayanan Minimal, is aimed to serve the users of toll road with a better and qualified service. Furthermore, this standard is also used as an assessment before tariff adjustment implemented. In other words, the toll road of which tariff will be adjusted, should fulfill the minimum standard, or better, in order to give a good quality of service and satisfy the road users. However, the efficiency of operated toll road has been doubt recently concerning the condition of toll road itself. The consumers are often not satisfied by congested toll road, particularly in Jabodetabek area. Reconstructed toll road is suffered by the users of JakartaTangerang and Tangerang-Merak, hence, affecting the public in objecting the tariff to be adjusted. Concerning the efficiency in public sector, the operated toll roads that will be

analyzed are the toll roads operated by state-owned company. The toll roads will be divided by sections or branches into 9 Decision Making Units (DMUs).

3. METHODOLOGY

In this study subjected on toll road operation, some inputs and outputs should be weighted up in order to assess technical efficiency. The inputs concern of the elements needed in supporting toll road to be operated and the outputs result the performance of assessed toll road. In addition to the parameters assessing efficiency, exogenous factors of which support the toll road in attaining efficiency such as the implementation of information system and etoll system, can also be added to extend the analysis. In analyzing this matter, Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) is employed through this study. DEA has been known as a tool in assessing efficiency through non-parametric approach introduced by Farrel in 1957 and then extended by Charnes et al (1978), Fare et al (1985,1994), and Banker et al (1984) shown in their articles (Odeck, 2008). DEA has been employed in many articles evaluating hospitals performance (Kengil, 2010), universities efficiency (Avkiran, 2001), biogas plants efficiency (Datkov, 2009), public sectors efficiency (Ganley, 1992; Moesen, 2002; Worthington, 2000), and port production efficiency (Wang, 2003). Some research has combined DEA with other approaches, namely, Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs), and Stochastic Frontier Analysis (SFA). Furthermore, the assessment of efficiency in toll road companies using DEA has been established in journals, written by Welde and Amdal (2006), Erik Amdal et al (2007), and Odeck (2008). The studies assessed the performance of toll road in Norway of which managed by public sector. To be clearly described, some illustrations to explain DEA are presented in the remainder. As shown in Figure 2, DMU a to DMU h represents toll road sections. In this case, two inputs are considered; operation and maintenance costs and traffic volume. From the figure, it can be clearly seen that toll road section a, b, f, and h are efficient toll road. We can say such thing because the DMUs form a line of which the ratio of output and input of each DMU is equal to 1. This line is called efficient frontier line.
Figure 2: DEA illustration

Source: Analysis, 2011

Efficiency of inefficient DMUs can be obtained by referring to the frontier line. DMU d, for example, can approach efficiency by dividing the distance of the line from zero to d, of which crosses the frontier line, by the line from zero to d. In this case, DMU d should attain the efficiency in d of which located between DMU b and DMU f. Both DMUs are known as reference sets. Thus, the efficiency of DMU d,

(Eq. 1)

From the example, the efficiency of d is 3.4/4.2 = 0.81. By seeing this result, to obtain efficiency DMU d should use 19 percent less input. Referring to Cooper et al (2000), the methods in assessing efficiency can be employed through input-oriented (minimizing input to achieve efficiency) and output-oriented (maximizing output in acquiring efficiency). In this study, input-oriented will be employed to obtain the result. Moreover, the process in attaining efficient consists of CCR model and BCC model. The former approaches constant return to scale in obtaining efficient value, while the latter approximates efficiency by variable return to scale. The input-oriented CCR model employs Linear Program (LPo) of which DMUs labeled as DMUo in scope of o ranging 1, 2, , n. The optimal solution of this model in obtaining efficiency index is employing the following constraints,

(a) (b) (c) (Eq. 2) Whereas X and Y are input matrix and output matrix for DMUo, and xo as well as yo represent input and output vectors of the DMUs. denotes non-negative weights containing virtual inputs and outputs; vp for input weights (p = 1, 2, , q) and ur for output weights (r = 1, 2, , s) referring to reference DMUs in order to weigh against the frontier. s+ represents input excesses and s- corresponds to output shortfalls. The constraints are purposed to achieve the

minimum by decreasing the input X to xo without altering the remaining output Y of which equal to yo. The DMUo is perceived as CCR-efficient if the optimal * = 1 and zeroslack (s- = 0 and s+ = 0). Otherwise, the DMUo is categorized as CCR-inefficient. Furthermore, BCC has been introduced as an extension of CCR model. As mentioned earlier, BCC model is distinct from CCR model in assuming variable return to scale. Additionally, this model has convexity in developing the efficient frontier instead of linearity as in CCR model. What makes different is the additional condition whereas e = 1 (e is a row vector with all elements equal to 1). As CCR, BCC-efficient will be obtained only if the optimal *BCC = 1 and zero-slack (s- = 0 and s+ = 0), or else, it is BCC-inefficient. Concerning the inefficient DMUs as results of both CCR and BCC, comparison in assessing the scale of efficiency between the models is required to derive the source of inefficiency. Both CCR and BCC, as stated in Cooper et al (2000), as (global) technical efficiency and (local) pure technical efficiency, respectively, can be exploited in order to determine the scale efficiency as follows,

(Eq. 3)

Generally, the value of SE is not greater than 1 because the score of CCR is always equal or less than the score of BCC. Hence, the scale efficiency can only be recognized only if SE = 1, otherwise, it is perceived as scale inefficiency. 4. DATA As explained in the methodology, to assess the efficiency, input and outputs of operational units have to be borne in mind. The inputs are indicating resources employed to attain certain level of service and the outputs are signifying the service outcome in order to fulfill users satisfaction. In determining the best-use data of which exercised as parameters, reliability and completeness should be taken into consideration. These aspects are significant in verifying the sections of toll roads assessed and the range of years related. Overall, the state-owned company has managed 12 toll road sections up to 2010. From these numbers, only 9 toll roads have been operated since 2006, whereas the state-owned company has been functioned as toll road operator only, and also have comprehensiveness in data. Therefore, in this study, there are 9 DMUs represent 9 toll roads of which operated by stateowned company alone, excluding other join-operated toll roads (managed by the state-owned company join with other private sectors). Even though the toll roads are under the same company, the management of the toll roads is different based on sections. Furthermore, because of incomplete data in the remaining years from 2006 to 2010, the data used is the annual data of 2006 derived from both regulator and operator. Since the data used is moderately old and one year remains, it should be warned that the result of this study has to

be perceived as an outcome represents efficiency without concerning the trend of toll road. It means that the analysis does not weigh up the evolution of toll roads efficiency annually or the application of advanced technology that in fact has been implemented in some toll roads recently. From the availability of data, the inputs and outputs for analysis are then determined. There is one scenario in assessing toll road efficiency. The set concerns in attaining efficiency of revenue coming from toll collection. Hence, the output is toll revenue alone. This scenario attempts to obtain efficiency by taking 4 inputs into consideration based on the impact in gaining the revenue. Firstly, we consider the cost of operation and maintenance as a whole as operating expense consists of toll fee collection, toll road costumers services, toll road fixed asset maintenance, joint operation, lastly, general and administration expense. Secondly, the number of employees also affects toll revenue. However, as commonly known, the higher the number of employees does not mean the higher the efficiency because it also will require more cost on salary. Thirdly, traffic volume has an essential role in influencing the amount of revenue. In this case, we use annual traffic volume of vehicles pass on the toll roads. Most of all toll roads are located in Java Island in which traffic condition of 4 of these toll roads sited in Jabodetabek area is quite extreme. On top of these, only one section is located in Sumatera Island that has fewer consumers. Last but not least, we also consider the length of toll roads in assessing efficiency. The length of toll roads affects in the higher or less cost to maintain the physical condition in order to serve the users and attain the desired revenue. The complete data of this scenario is shown on following table.
Table 1: Inputs and output of each DMU
Input DMU No. Branch/Section Operating expense (in million Rupiah) 128,127 146,774 325,211 119,462 156,154 33,111 38,825 81,023 37,747 Number of employee (people) 776 933 865 565 579 170 225 613 254 Annual traffic volume (vehicles) 116,716 257,262 105,230 106,514 48,790 12,605 24,249 55,919 15,950 Length (km) 59 38 83 39 122 26 25 49 43 Output Toll revenue (in million Rupiah) 263,282 553,808 465,760 213,555 339,308 40,399 30,712 112,312 32,382

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Jakarta-Bogor-Ciawi Cawang-Tomang-Cengkareng Jakarta-Cikampek Jakarta-Tangerang Purwakarta-Bandung-Cileunyi Palimanan-Kanci Semarang ABC Surabaya-Gempol Belawan-Medan-Tanjung Morawa

Source: Analysis, 2011

5. RESULTS In the remainder, the result of efficiency assessment is presented. In Table 2, the results of efficiency in both CCR and BCC models are shown as well as the scale of inefficiency and the category of return to scale.

Table 2: Result of analysis

DMU No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 DMU Name Jakarta-Bogor-Ciawi Cawang-Tomang-Cengkareng Jakarta-Cikampek Jakarta-Tangerang Purwakarta-Bandung-Cileunyi Palimanan-Kanci Semarang ABC Surabaya-Gempol Belawan-Medan-Tanjung Morawa Input-Oriented CRS Efficiency 0.76 1.00 1.00 0.73 1.00 0.54 0.32 0.55 0.37 Input-Oriented VRS Efficiency 0.81 1.00 1.00 0.84 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.69 0.88 Scale Efficiency (SE) 0.94 1.00 1.00 0.87 1.00 0.54 0.32 0.79 0.43 Return To Scale Increasing Constant Constant Increasing Constant Increasing Increasing Increasing Increasing

Source: Analysis, 2011

From the table above, it can be clearly seen that some toll roads are completely efficient. Based on global perspective in CCR model which assumes constant return to scale, there are only three toll roads meet the required score of efficiency and others are considered inefficient. Among these inefficient toll roads, there are two sections of toll roads that attain the score less than 0.5. Compared to other toll sections, these toll roads, Semarang ABC and Belawan-Medan-Tanjung Morawa, are experiencing in relatively less traffic, yet, should fulfill the standard of minimum service and gain certain amount of revenue.
Figure 3: Input-oriented BCC efficiency

Source: Analysis, 2011

Furthermore, viewed from local perspective in BCC model, five out of nine toll roads are considered to be efficient. From Figure 3, DMU 1, DMU 3 and DMU 9 have less than 20 percent for potential improvement to reach efficiency. The least efficient among the toll roads is Surabaya-Gempol of which score is 0.69. In reality, this toll road experienced force majeure

in 2006 concerning the mud-flood Lumpur Lapindo. Affected by this disaster, SurabayaGempol toll road had to terminate one fragment in Porong-Gempol that gives effect to less revenue and higher cost in maintaining the section. However, efficiency can be interpreted more precisely from the next column of scale efficiency and return to scale. Most of the toll roads are operating increasing return to scale; it means that most DMUs have scale efficiency less than 1. Again, only three toll roads are considered scale efficient and operate with constant return to scale, namely Cawang-TomangCengkareng, Jakarta-Cikampek, and Purwakarta-Bandung-Cileunyi. Nevertheless, there are toll roads considered efficient but also regarded as scale inefficient; Palimanan-Kanci and Semarang ABC. To sum up, most of the operated toll roads might be considered efficient in scope of individual section. Yet, in global perception compared to other toll roads, two third of toll roads assessed still have to improve certain points to meet the requirement of efficiency. Additionally, toll roads of which linkage is connected entirely tend to be more efficient than secluded toll road without networking with other toll roads. This can be seen through the result of Jakarta-Bogor-Ciawi, Cawang-Tomang-Cengkareng, Jakarta-Cikampek, JakartaTangerang, and Purwakarta-Bandung-Cileunyi. Although some of these toll roads have not attained efficiency, the potential improvement of inefficient toll roads are less than 20 percent. On average, all toll roads obtain the score of efficiency 0.93; on the other words, there is 7 percent potential improvement for overall toll roads in Indonesia.

6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Previously in this paper, the analysis to evaluate the efficiency of operated toll roads has been executed in answering the questions arisen in the earlier parts of this study. The toll roads assessed are bounded to the sections operated by state-owned company alone without participation of other private sectors. DEA has been accomplished to discover technical efficiency both in general and individual scope of toll road operation. As the results of this analysis, we may conclude several things that have been acquired. 1) Most of the operated toll roads might be considered efficient in scope of individual section. Yet, in global perception compared to other toll roads, two third of toll roads assessed still have to improve certain points to meet the requirement of efficiency. 2) Toll roads of which linkage is connected entirely tend to be more efficient than secluded toll road without networking with other toll roads. 3) Averagely, all toll roads obtain the score of efficiency 0.93. There is 7 percent potential improvement for overall toll roads in Indonesia. To be attention, some points have to be taken into account regarding the results of this paper. The output limited only on total revenue, no output variable concerning quality of toll road its

self, such as waiting time in toll bots, average speed, etc. However, the analysis in this paper uses data which is likely incomplete for policy implications related to the operation of toll roads. To take the advantage of efficiency assessment to stretch the findings of this paper, more data has to be employed in order to obtain more satisfying, reliable, and valid results. In addition, the data has to be arranged in certain range of time as well. Therefore, one suggestion has to be brought to mind is that toll road operators should manage the data base not only on quantity but also quality of service toll road. Furthermore, year by year advanced technology and sophisticated management have been implemented in toll roads operation. These factors should be taken as additional parameters in assessing efficiency adjacent to the evolution of toll roads each year. What is more, not only the state-owned company who manages toll road sector in present, but private sectors also emerge in operating this advent transportation business. To broaden the research of this subject, further study needs to be conducted regarding these issues. As the outcome of this study, some recommendations are also offered to be taken into consideration. The standard of minimum service implemented today certainly meets the requirement in providing service for consumers. In the side of government, the regulator should also assess the operated toll roads based on the efficiency. This is suggested to maximize the benefits attained by consumers, in other words, extend the service given by operators. On the other side of operators, the assessment of efficiency can be used to give the certain level of service expected by regulator in limited costs to be spent. However, the higher the costs spent in operating the toll roads, the higher the tariff will be imposed for the users. One more thing to be deliberated, the network of toll roads should also be brought into attention. The result of this paper can be taken as a proof that toll roads united in linkage are more efficient than the secluded toll roads. Additionally, the network of toll roads will decrease the tariff and also lessen the cost of operating expense as the operators are joined in one management. Hence, gives highest benefits for public as users.

7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thank to Badan Pengatur Jalan Tol (BPJT) under the Ministry of Public Works, and PT Jasa Marga (Persero) Tbk both of which facilitate the authors in collecting the data attached in this paper. The analysis and result of this paper are all in concern of the authors and no indispensable connection with the institutions stated beforehand.

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Regulation Act No. 38 year 2004 concerning Road Act No. 17 year 2007 concerning Long-term Development Plan 2005 - 2025 Minister of Public Works Decree No. 392 year 2005 concerning Standar Pelayanan Minimal Jalan Tol