Preface

First Edition
Text Book

BIOMEDICAL
ENGINEERING
FUNDAMENTALS

Preface
The field of biomedical engineering at a rapid
pace and new technologies are being developed
at a fast rate. Therefore, biomedical engineers
must possess a strong foundation to keep up with
these changes and advancements. This book can
serve as a starting point to introduce readers to
the basics and key aspects that are required to
gain experience and knowledge in this field over
time.
This book is specifically created for
biomedical engineers who have recently
graduated and have less than two years of
experience in the field. It is also ideal for those
who have graduated for longer but have limited
knowledge of the field. The book is aimed at
helping readers recall the knowledge they gained
during their studies and improve their
understanding of the functional areas in the field.
The book is written simply and straightforwardly,
providing readers with basic information, which
requires to pay attention to the details.
In the first chapter, readers will be
introduced to the field of biomedical
engineering, where they will learn about the
discipline and the knowledge required to develop
experience in this area.
The second chapter will cover the core of the
biomedical field, which is anatomy and
physiology. This will help readers to understand
Preface i
the human body and its mechanism, as well as
the devices that are related to each body system.
Chapters three and four will focus on
electrical and electronic basics, where readers
will be provided with basic information about
current, voltage, resistance, and the laws that
govern electrical studies, such as Ohm's and
Kirchhoff's laws. Additionally, the basic electronic
components and their uses in electronic device
circuits.
Finally, the last chapter will discuss the
healthcare facilities department, their main
features, and design considerations. Readers will
also learn about the medical devices found in
each department.
This book doesn't require you to memorize
anything. All you need is to use your imagination
to connect what you already know with the new
information and gain a deeper understanding of
the topics presented.
The book is organized in a way that allows
the reader to smoothly go through each chapter
without feeling overwhelmed by scientific
equations and formulas, which guarantees a
different reading experience.
ii Preface
Contents
Preface ....................................................i
Contents ................................................. ii
List of Figures ....................................... vii
CHAPTER 1 Biomedical Engineering: An
Overview ............................................... 1
1-1 Objectives................................... 1
1-2 Self-Evaluation Questions .......... 1
1-3 Introduction ............................... 1
1-4 What Biomedical Engineers Do? 2
1-5 Biomedical Engineering Sub-
Disciplines ......................................... 2
1-5-1 Service Engineering ............. 2
1-5-2 Clinical Engineering ............. 3
1-5-3 Bioinstrumentation ............. 3
1-5-4 Biomaterial .......................... 3
1-5-5 Biomechanics ...................... 3
1-5-6 Bioinformatics ..................... 4
1-5-7 Tissue Engineering............... 4
1-5-8 Rehabilitation Engineering .. 4
1-5-9 Medical Imaging .................. 4
1-5-10 Biomechatronic ................. 4
1-6 BME Experience Requirements.. 5
1-7 Information Elements ................ 5
1-8 The Question Why...................... 5
1-9 Summary .................................... 6
1-10 Recapitulation .......................... 6
Questions ......................................... 6
Suggested Readings.......................... 6
CHAPTER 2 Anatomy and Physiology: An
Overview ............................................... 7
2-1 Objectives................................... 7
2-2 Self-Evaluation Question ............ 7
2-3 Introduction ............................... 7
2-4 Body Systems ............................. 8
2-4-1 Circulatory System .............. 8
2-4-1-1 Cardiovascular System Devices .. 9
2-4-2 Respirator System ............... 9
2-4-2-1 Respiratory System Devices .... 10
2-4-3 Nervous System................. 10
2-4-3-1 Nervous System Devices ......... 11
2-4-4 Digestive System ............... 11
2-4-4-1 Digestive System Devices ....... 11
2-4-5 Integumentary System ...... 12
 Contents iii

2-4-5-1 Integumentary System Devices 2-10 Sensation and Receptors ....... 20

........................................................... 12
2-10-1 Sensation Devices............ 20
2-4-6 Musculoskeletal System .... 12
2-11 Summary ................................ 21
2-4-6-1 Musculoskeletal System Devices
........................................................... 13 2-12 Recapitulation ........................ 21
2-4-7 Endocrine System .............. 13 Questions ....................................... 21
2-4-7-1 Endocrine System Devices ...... 14 Suggested Readings........................ 22
2-4-8 Urinary System .................. 14
CHAPTER 3 Electricity and Electronics: An
2-4-8-1 Urinary System Devices.......... 14
Overview ............................................. 23
2-4-9 Lymphatic System ............. 15
3-1 Objectives................................. 23
2-4-9-1 Lymphatic System Devices ..... 15
3-2 Self-Evaluation Questions ........ 23
2-4-10 Reproductive System ...... 15
2-4-10-1 Reproductive System Devices 3-3 Introduction ............................. 23
........................................................... 16 3-4 Electricity and Electronics ........ 24
2-5 Anatomical Position ................. 16 3-5 Current ..................................... 24
2-5-1 Anatomical Position Devices 3-6 Voltage ..................................... 25
.................................................... 16
3-7 Resistance ................................ 25
2-6 Blood ........................................ 17
3-8 Ohms low ................................. 26
2-6-1 Blood Devices .................... 18
3-9 KVL and KCL .............................. 26
2-7 Blood Vessels ........................... 18
3-10 Power Rating off Resistor....... 27
2-7-1 Blood Vessels Devices ....... 18
3-11 Summary ................................ 27
2-8 Tissues ...................................... 19
3-12 Recapitulation ........................ 28
2-8-1 Tissues Devices .................. 19
Questions ....................................... 28
2-9 Hearing and Balance ................ 19
Suggested Readings........................ 28
2-9-1 Hearing and Balance Devices
.................................................... 20
iv Contents

CHAPTER 4 Electrical and Electronic Questions ....................................... 44

Components ........................................ 29 Suggested Readings........................ 44
4-1 Objectives................................. 29
CHAPTER 5 Healthcare Departments and
4-2 Self-Evaluation Questions ........ 29
Devices ................................................ 45
4-3 Introduction ............................. 29
5-1 Objectives................................. 45
4-4 Resistors ................................... 30
5-2 Self-Evaluation Questions ........ 45
4-5 Capacitors................................. 30
5-3 Introduction ............................. 45
4-6 Transistors ................................ 31
5-4 Hospital Departments .............. 46
4-7 Fuses......................................... 33
1-4-5 Operating Room Department
4-8 Switches ................................... 33 .................................................... 46
4-9 Diodes....................................... 34 5-4-1-1 Operation Department Design 47

4-10 Transformers .......................... 34 5-4-1-2 Operation Department Devices

........................................................... 48
4-11 Amplifiers ............................... 35
2-4-5 Accident & Emergency ....... 59
4-12 Inductors ................................ 36
5-4-2-1 Accident & Emergency Design 59
4-13 Power Sources........................ 37 5-4-2-2 Accident & Emergency Devices
4-14 Motors .................................... 38 ........................................................... 60

4-15 Relays and Contactors............ 39 3-4-5Coronary Care Unit (CCU) ... 65

4-16 Controllers.............................. 40 5-4-3-1 Coronary Care Unit (CCU) Design

........................................................... 65
4-17 ICs ........................................... 41
5-4-3-2 Coronary Care Unit (CCU) Devices
4-18 PCBs ........................................ 41 ........................................................... 66

4-19 Electrodes, Sensors, and 4-4-5 Intensive Care Unit (ICU) .... 67
Transducers .................................... 42 5-4-4-1 Intensive Care Unit Design ..... 68

4-20 Circuit Diagram....................... 43 5-4-4-2 Intensive Care Unit (ICU) Devices

........................................................... 68
4-21 Recapitulation ........................ 44
5-4-5 Nursing Ward .................... 72

5-4-5-1 Nursing Ward Design ............. 72
5-4-5-2 Nursing Ward Devices ............ 73
6-4-5 Maternity ............................ 77
5-4-6-1 Maternity Design ................... 77
5-4-6-2 Maternity Devices .................. 77
7-4-5Neonatal Intensive Care Unit
(NICU) ......................................... 82
5-4-7-1 Neonatal Intensive Care Unit
Design ................................................ 82
5-4-7-2 Neonatal Intensive Care Unit
Devices............................................... 82
5-4-8 Nuclear Medicine Unit ...... 82
5-4-8-1 Nuclear Medicine Unit Design 83
5-4-8-2 Nuclear Medicine Unit Devices
........................................................... 83
9-4-5 Medical Laboratory............. 85
5-4-9-1 Medical Laboratory Design .... 85
5-4-9-2 Medical Laboratory Devices ... 86
10-4-5 Endoscopy ......................... 95
5-4-10-1 Endoscopy Design ................ 96
5-4-10-2 Endoscopy Devices ............... 96
11-4-5 Radiology........................... 97
5-4-11-1 Radiology Design .................. 97
5-4-11-2 Radiology Devices ................ 97
12-4-5 Out-Patient Department
(Clinics)...................................... 103
5-4-12-1 Out-Patient Devices ........... 104
Contents v
5-4-13 In-Patient Department
(Wards) ..................................... 105
5-4-13-1 Wards Devices .................... 106
14-4-5 Pharmacy ........................ 106
5-4-14-1 Pharmacy Devices .............. 106
15-4-5 Central Sterile Supply
Department (CSSD) ................... 107
5-4-15-1 Hospital Sterile Supply
Department CSSD Devices ................ 108
5-4-16 Ear Nose Throat (ENT) ... 110
5-4-16-1 Ear Nose Thought (ENT) Devices
......................................................... 111
5-4-17 Physiotherapy and
Rehabilitation Department ....... 114
5-4-17-1 Physiotherapy and
Rehabilitation Devices ...................... 115
5-4-18 Gastroenterology .......... 118
5-4-18-1 Gastroenterology Devices .. 118
5-4-19 Ophthalmology.............. 120
5-4-19-1 Ophthalmology Devices ...... 120
5-4-20 Rheumatology ............... 125
5-4-20-1 Rheumatology Devices ....... 125
5-4-21 Obstetrics and Gynecology
.................................................. 125
5-4-21-1 Obstetrics and Gynecology
Devices ............................................. 125
5-4-22 Nephrology .................... 126
5-4-22-1 Nephrology Devices ............ 126
vi Contents

5-4-23 Cardiology ..................... 126 5-4-29-1 Catering Devices ................. 136

5-4-23-1 Cardiology Devices ............. 127 30-4-5 Laundry ........................... 137

5-4-24 Neurology ...................... 128 5-4-30-1 Laundry Devices ................. 137

5-4-24-1 Neurology Devices ............. 129 5-4-31 Information Technology (IT)

5-4-25 Oncology ....................... 131 .................................................. 138

5-4-25-1 Oncology Devices ............... 131 5-4-31-1 Information Technology (IT)

Devices ............................................. 139
5-4-26 Urology .......................... 133
5-4-32 Biomedical Engineering. 140
5-4-26-1 Urology Devices ................. 133
5-5 Recapitulation ........................ 141
5-4-27 Orthopedics ................... 134
Questions ..................................... 141
5-4-27-1 Orthopedics Devices .......... 134
Suggested Readings...................... 142
5-4-28 Medical Gas ................... 135
5-4-28-1 Medical Gas Devices .......... 135 Appendix A ........................................ 143
5-4-29 Catering ......................... 136 Suggested Readings...................... 146

List of Figures
Figure 2-1 The Human Body’s Level of
Organism. .............................................. 8
Figure 2-2 Human Body Circulator
System. .................................................. 9
Figure 2-3 Anatomy of The Respiratory
System. ................................................ 10
Figure 2-4 Nervous System. ................ 11
Figure 2-5 Digestive System. ............... 12
Figure 2-6 Integumentary System Organ:
The Skin Layers.................................... 12
Figure 2-7 The Musculoskeletal System.
............................................................. 13
Figure 2-8 Endocrine System Organs. . 14
Figure 2-9 Urinary System................... 15
Figure 2-10 Male, Female Reproductive
System. ................................................ 16
Figure 2-11 Anatomical Position. ........ 17
Figure 2-12 Types of Blood Cells. ........ 18
Figure 2-13 Anatomy of Blood Vessels.
............................................................. 18
Figure 2-14 Types of Tissues. .............. 19
List of Figures vii
Figure 2-15 Hearing and Balance Organs.
............................................................. 20
Figure 2-16 Sense Organs Receptors. . 21
Figure 3-1 Measuring current using
ohmmeter in series. ............................ 26
Figure 3-2 Kirchhoff’s Current Law. .... 27
Figure 3-3 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law. .... 27
Figure 4-1 Resistor Types. ................... 31
Figure 4-2 Resistor Symbols. ............... 32
Figure 4-3 Capacitor Types. ................ 32
Figure 4-4 Capacitor Symbol. .............. 33
Figure 4-5 Transistors Photo. .............. 33
Figure 4-6 Transistor Symbols............. 34
Figure 4-7 Fuse Types. ........................ 34
Figure 4-8 Fuses Symbol. .................... 35
Figure 4-9 Types of Switches. ............. 35
Figure 4-10 Types of Switches and
Symbol................................................. 36
Figure 4-11 Diode Types. .................... 36
Figure 4-12 Diode Symbols. ................ 37
Figure 4-13 Transformer Photo. ......... 37
Figure 4-14 Transformer Symbol. ....... 38
viii List of Figures
Figure 4-15 Inductors Photo. .............. 38
Figure 4-16 Inductor Symbol............... 39
Figure 4-17 Power Source Types. ....... 39
Figure 4-18 Power Source Symbol. ..... 40
Figure 4-19 Motor Types..................... 40
Figure 4-20 Motor Symbols. ............... 41
Figure 4-21 Relay Types. ..................... 41
Figure 4-22 Contactor Photo............... 42
Figure 4-23 Relay and Contactor
Schematic. ........................................... 42
Figure 5-1 Anesthesia Machine. ......... 48
Figure 5-2 ECG Monitor. ..................... 48
Figure 5-3 Defibrillator. ....................... 49
Figure 5-4 Laryngoscope. .................... 49
Figure 5-5 Medical Gas Regulator. ...... 50
Figure 5-6 Patient Monitor. ................ 50
Figure 5-7 Resuscitation Bag. .............. 51
Figure 5-8 Autoclave. .......................... 51
Figure 5-9 Electrosurgical Unit. ........... 52
Figure 5-10 Operating Theatre Lamp,
Ceiling Mounted.................................. 52
Figure 5-11 Instrument Table (MAYO).52
Figure 5-12 Examination Lamp, Mobile.
............................................................. 53
Figure 5-13 Operating Theatre Table. . 53
Figure 5-14 Surgeon's Stool. ............... 54
Figure 5-15 Surgeon Foot Step. .......... 54
Figure 5-16 Pulse Oximeter................. 55
Figure 5-17 Medical Refrigerator. ....... 55
Figure 5-18 Sterilizing Drum. .............. 56
Figure 5-19 Patient Trolley.................. 56
Figure 5-20 Instrument Trolleys.......... 57
Figure 5-21 Suction Machine, Electric. 57
Figure 5-22 Scrub Sinks. ...................... 58
Figure 5-23 Infusion Pump. ................. 58
Figure 5-24 Syringe Pump. .................. 59
Figure 5-25 Pendant. ........................... 59
Figure 5-26 Oxygen Generator. .......... 60
Figure 5-27 Ventilator. ........................ 61
Figure 5-28 Blood Pressure Monitor... 61
Figure 5-29 Nebulizer. ......................... 62
Figure 5-30 Emergency Crash Cart...... 62
Figure 5-31 Glucometer. ..................... 63
Figure 5-32 Ultrasound Machine. ....... 63
Figure 5-33 Portable X-ray Machine. .. 64
Figure 5-34 Trauma Shears. ................ 64
Figure 5-35 CPR Board. ....................... 65
Figure 5-36 Stethoscope. .................... 65

Figure 5-37 Automated External
Defibrillator. ........................................ 66
Figure 5-38 Intra-Aortic Ballon Pump. 66
Figure 5-39 Pacemaker. ...................... 67
Figure 5-40 External Temporary
Pacemaker........................................... 67
Figure 5-41 ICU Bed. ........................... 69
Figure 5-42 Trolley, General Purpose. 69
Figure 5-43 Trolley, Instrument. ......... 70
Figure 5-44 Trolley, Dressing. ............. 70
Figure 5-45 Infusion Stands. ............... 71
Figure 5-46 Infant Radiant Warmer. ... 71
Figure 5-47 Mobile X -ray Unit. ........... 72
Figure 5-48 Ventilator, Infant. ............ 72
Figure 5-49 Patient Trolley.................. 73
Figure 5-50 Commode Chair. .............. 73
Figure 5-51 Infant Weighing Scale. ..... 74
Figure 5-52 Bed Screen. ...................... 74
Figure 5-53 Trolley, Linen. .................. 75
Figure 5-54 Trolley, Medicine/Drug. ... 75
Figure 5-55 Weighing Scale Adult with
Height Measuring................................ 76
Figure 5-56 Wheel Chair. .................... 76
Figure 5-57 Diagnostic Set. ................. 77
List of Figures ix
Figure 5-58 Percussion Hammer. ........ 77
Figure 5-59 Baby Cot. .......................... 78
Figure 5-60 Delivery Bed. .................... 78
Figure 5-61 Obstetric Bed. .................. 79
Figure 5-62 Gynecological Examination
Table.................................................... 79
Figure 5-63 Fetal Doppler. .................. 80
Figure 5-64 Incubator, Infant. ............. 80
Figure 5-65 Infant Radiant Warmer. ... 81
Figure 5-66 Phototherapy Unit. ......... 81
Figure 5-67 Blood Warmer. ................ 82
Figure 5-68 Gamma Camera. .............. 84
Figure 5-69 SPECT (Single-photon
Emission Computed Tomography). .... 84
Figure 5-70 PET (Positron Emission
Tomography). ...................................... 85
Figure 5-71 Analytic Balance. .............. 86
Figure 5-72 Binocular Microscope. ..... 87
Figure 5-73 Blood Bank Refrigerator. . 87
Figure 5-74 Complete Blood Count
Machine (CBC)..................................... 88
Figure 5-75 Centrifuge. ....................... 88
Figure 5-76 Hot Air Oven. ................... 89
Figure 5-77 Incubator.......................... 89
x List of Figures
Figure 5-78 PH Meter. ......................... 90
Figure 5-79 Transport Box. ................. 90
Figure 5-80 Water Bath....................... 91
Figure 5-81 Water De-ionizer. ............ 91
Figure 5-82 Water Distiller. ................. 92
Figure 5-83 Slide Warmer. .................. 92
Figure 5-84 Vortex Mixer. ................... 93
Figure 5-85 PCR Machine. ................... 93
Figure 5-86 Autoclave. ........................ 94
Figure 5-87 Spectrophotometer. ........ 94
Figure 5-88 Pipette.............................. 95
Figure 5-89 Biosafety Cabinet. ............ 95
Figure 5-90 Hormone Analyzer. .......... 96
Figure 5-91 Endoscope........................ 97
Figure 5-92 Dental X-ray. .................... 98
Figure 5-93 Mobile X -ray Unit. ........... 99
Figure 5-94 C-Arm. .............................. 99
Figure 5-95 Ultrasound Unit. ............ 100
Figure 5-96 General X-ray Unit. ........ 100
Figure 5-97 X-ray Cassettes............... 101
Figure 5-98 Orthopantomogram OPG
Unit.................................................... 101
Figure 5-99 Mammography Unit. ..... 102
Figure 5-100 Computer Tomography
(CT). ................................................... 102
Figure 5-101 Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (MRI). ................................... 103
Figure 5-102 Fluoroscopy Machine. . 104
Figure 5-103 Examination Couch. ..... 104
Figure 5-104 X-Ray Viewer. ............... 105
Figure 5-105 Lockable Cabinet.......... 105
Figure 5-106 Tablet Counter. ............ 107
Figure 5-107 Drug Cabinet. ............... 108
Figure 5-108 Autoclave, large. .......... 109
Figure 5-109 Ultrasonic Washer. ...... 109
Figure 5-110 Water Treatment Plant.110
Figure 5-111 Air Filtration Systems. .. 110
Figure 5-112 Otoscopes. ................... 111
Figure 5-113 Rhino laryngoscopes. ... 111
Figure 5-114 Audiometers. ............... 112
Figure 5-115 Tympanometer. ........... 113
Figure 5-116 Nasal Endoscope. ......... 113
Figure 5-117 Vestibular Testing
Equipment. ........................................ 114
Figure 5-118 Exercise Equipment. .... 115
Figure 5-119 Electrical Stimulator..... 115
Figure 5-120 Ultrasound Therapy. .... 116

Figure 5-121 Cryotherapy. ................ 116
Figure 5-122 Assistive Devices. ......... 117
Figure 5-123 Monitoring Devices...... 117
Figure 5-124 Endoscope.................... 119
Figure 5-125 Sphincterotome. .......... 119
Figure 5-126 Manometry Equipment.
........................................................... 120
Figure 5-127 Capsule Endoscope. ..... 120
Figure 5-128 Operation Microscope. 121
Figure 5-129 Phacoemulsification
Machine. ........................................... 121
Figure 5-130 Vitrectomy Machine. ... 122
Figure 5-131 Slit Lamp. ..................... 122
Figure 5-132 Digital Refraction System.
........................................................... 123
Figure 5-133 Binocular Indirect
Ophthalmoscope............................... 123
Figure 5-134 Ophthalmic Examination
Device................................................ 124
Figure 5-135 Applanation Tonometer.
........................................................... 124
Figure 5-136 Colposcope. ................. 126
Figure 5-137 Hemodialysis. ............... 127
List of Figures xi
Figure 5-138 Implantable Cardioverter
Defibrillator (ICD). ............................. 127
Figure 5-139 Heart Lung Machine. ... 128
Figure 5-140 Transcranial Dopplers. . 129
Figure 5-141 Cardiovascular Angioplasty.
........................................................... 129
Figure 5-142 Electromyograph (EMG).
........................................................... 130
Figure 5-143 Intracranial Pressure
Monitor. ............................................ 130
Figure 5-144 Polysomnography. ....... 131
Figure 5-145 Brachytherapy Machine.
........................................................... 132
Figure 5-146 Linear Accelerator........ 131
Figure 5-147 Chemotherapy Infusion
Pumps. .............................................. 133
Figure 5-148 Dornier Compact Sigma
Lithotripsy Machine. ......................... 134
Figure 5-149 Holmium Laser. ............ 135
Figure 5-150 Oxygen cylinder. .......... 136
Figure 5-151 Medical Gas Outlet. ..... 136
Figure 5-152 Washer Extractor. ........ 138
Figure 5-153 Dryer. ........................... 138
Figure 5-154 Ironer. .......................... 139
 CHAPTER 1 1

CHAPTER 1

Biomedical Engineering: An Overview

1-1 Objectives
1. To have a general idea about biomedical 3. Be able to have an idea about the
engineering sub-disciplines. requirements and the expectations of an
expert.
2. To know more about what biomedical
engineers do. 4. Be able to broaden your knowledge about the
biomedical engineering field.

5. Medical imaging applications include more

1-2 Self-Evaluation Questions
These questions test your prior knowledge of the
material in this chapter. Look for the answers as
you read the text. After you have finished studying
this chapter, try answering these questions and
those at the end of the chapter.
1. What are biomedical engineering sub-
disciplines?
2. What do bio-instrumentation engineers do?
3. Can tissue engineering studies lead to
promote healing and inhibit disease
progression?
4. What are the elements of information?
than looking inside the human body, discuss
briefly.
1-3 Introduction
Biomedical engineering is a multidisciplinary field
of study that requires broad knowledge in various
areas of science such as biology, engineering,
computer science, physics, and mechanics. A
biomedical engineer must be able to connect these
diverse fields of study to tackle complex issues
related to humans and animals, effectively.
Although it is impossible for an individual to master
all these sciences, biomedical engineers should
have a general basic understanding of these
2 Biomedical Engineering: An Overview
various fields and adequate knowledge from
different specialties.
Biomedical engineering is a constantly
evolving field that requires, continuous learning to
keep up with advancements, careful selection of
what to learn, and specialization in sub-disciplines
to have the ability to master this discipline.
This chapter provides an overview of the
occupations within biomedical engineering, along
with general information about the learning
process that can help readers understand better
and deeper. It also covers the thinking process
needed to gain a wider vision of the biomedical
field.
1-4 What Biomedical Engineers Do?
Regardless of the field, engineering is primarily
about problem-solving. Engineers design solutions
that can improve quality, reduce costs, or save
time. To achieve this, every engineer must have a
keen eye for identifying problems and must be able
to develop a solution that is tailored to solve the
specific issue at hand.
Biomedical engineers analyze and design
solutions to problems in biology, medicine, and
healthcare, to improve the quality and efficiency of
patient care, while reducing the time and cost
involved. These problems can be related to any
devices, materials, or other items that come into
direct contact with patients. Biomedical engineers
play a crucial role in maintaining the quality of
medical devices, ensuring they are in good
condition through preventive and corrective
maintenance and are safe, accurate, and effective
for use.
The field of biomedical engineering is
vast, and engineers must choose their specialty
wisely. To provide the best care for patients,
engineers must have extensive knowledge about
their chosen specialty, master it, and apply it
effectively.
1-5 Biomedical Engineering Sub-
Disciplines
Biomedical engineering is a rapidly developing field
that requires continuous research to provide
better service for different patient’s needs. There
are several job titles for biomedical engineers,
including manufacturing engineers, quality
engineers, software engineers, and researchers,
among others. These titles can apply to any of the
sub-disciplines and specialties in various ways.
Some job titles may overlap, especially in smaller
companies or start-ups.
To work in one area of study, biomedical
engineers need to use knowledge from other
areas, as the work requires a multidisciplinary
approach. For instance, to design an artificial hip
joint, a team of biomedical engineers must have
knowledge in areas such as anatomy, bone
biomechanics, gait analysis, biomaterial
compatibility, and other related fields.
The following headings cover the primary
specialties of biomedical engineering.
1-5-1 Service Engineering
Medical devices, apparatus, machines, and
equipment must be continuously monitored and
maintained in good condition to ensure they
function correctly and safely. Service engineers
play a crucial role in achieving this through the use
of appropriate tools for installation, orientation

and user training, corrective maintenance, and
preventive maintenance. This ensures that the
device operates efficiently and effectively under its
intended purpose.
1-5-2 Clinical Engineering
Due to the continuous and rapid advancements in
medical science and technology, clinical
engineering specialists play a crucial role in
applying biomedical research and innovation in
clinical settings such as hospitals and clinics. They
work closely with healthcare professionals,
including doctors and nurses, to train them in the
use of advanced medical technologies. Clinical
engineering specialists are responsible for
managing, maintaining, supporting, developing,
and ensuring the quality assurance of medical
technologies in healthcare facilities.
1-5-3 Bioinstrumentation
Instrumentation engineering is the field that deals
with measuring and controlling. It involves the use
of computers, microcontrollers, and
microprocessors to perform these tasks. This
branch of engineering finds its application in
various industries, including biomedical
engineering. The term bio-instrumentation is used
to refer to the engineers who combine
instrumentation science with biology to design
tools and devices that help diagnose, treat, and aid
patients.
1-5-4 Biomaterial
The human body is an amazing collection of
systems and organs that work together in a precise
CHAPTER 1 3
and organized environment. This environment is
separate from the outside world and only interacts
with it through a complex process to maintain good
health. Therefore, when anything is introduced to
this sensitive environment, it's crucial to study the
interaction of the material with the body
environment and test its properties and
compatibility with the body. Such materials include
living tissue and artificial materials used for
implantation. Biomaterial science is a branch used
to study and select appropriate materials to be
used and placed in the human body to perform a
particular function.
Biomaterials can be metals, ceramics,
polymers, glasses, carbons, and composite
materials. These materials can be fabricated into
devices such as hip joint. Engineered materials are
increasingly used in medical applications such as
drug delivery, gene therapy, medical, and surgical
devices.
1-5-5 Biomechanics
Mechanics is a branch of physics that deals with
motion. Biomechanics, on the other hand, is the
study of the structure, function, and motion of
living organisms. The study of biomechanics
ranges from the inner workings of a cell to the
movement and development of limbs, to the
mechanical properties of soft tissue and bones.
Some biomechanical engineers work to
understand how prosthetic devices can be better
designed to move with the body, how bodies
respond to stress and strain, and how injuries can
be remediated through physical therapy. In sports
biomechanics, engineers work in tandem with
physicians, physical therapists, athletic trainers,
4 Biomedical Engineering: An Overview
coaches, and athletes to improve performance,
improve recovery time, and prevent injury.
Biomechanics engineers are crucial in
improving people's lives by creating products such
as heart valves and joint replacements. They don't
just focus on the body's internal parts but also
contribute to gait analysis, rehabilitation, sports,
and even shoe design to improve mobility.
1-5-6 Bioinformatics
Data analysis plays a crucial role in every field of
study. Informatics is a science that involves the
collection, sorting, analysis, preservation, and
retrieval of data to solve problems. It is unique in
that it focuses on the end-user and the application
of science. Bioinformatics, on the other hand, is the
application of informatics science in the biological
field. A biomedical engineer who specializes in
bioinformatics uses computer tools to collect and
analyze data related to biology and medicine.
1-5-7 Tissue Engineering
Engineering is a discipline that primarily deals with
solving problems, and each area of engineering is
focused on solving problems in a particular field of
study. Tissue engineering, a branch of biomedical
engineering, is concerned with addressing
biological problems at the microscopic level. Tissue
engineering is a scientific field that aims to
promote healing and prevent disease progression,
as well as create tissues and tissue materials to
replace parts of the body, such as the production
of skin cells in the laboratory through stem cell
research.
1-5-8 Rehabilitation Engineering
Rehabilitation engineers are professionals who
design, develop, test, evaluate, and apply solutions
to enhance abilities and improve the quality of life
for individuals with physical and intellectual
disabilities. They are involved in creating
prosthetics that are designed to replace damaged
or missing body parts, improving homes, work
environments, and transportation, and designing
assistive technologies that improve seating and
positioning, mobility, and communication. They
also develop equipment and program computers
to assist individuals with cognitive challenges.
1-5-9 Medical Imaging
Medical imaging techniques enable us to see inside
the human body without the need for surgical
intervention. This non-invasive technique
combines knowledge of physical phenomena with
data processing to generate images quickly and
with less discomfort. Medical imaging is useful in
guiding complex surgical procedures and
diagnosing a wide range of illnesses and diseases.
It's not limited to diagnosis, as it can also be used
for treatment, such as in nuclear medicine where a
gamma knife machine is used for treatment.
1-5-10 Biomechatronic
Is one of the newest and rapidly growing subfields
of biomedical engineering. Engineers in this
subfield design devices that interact with human
muscle, skeleton, and nervous systems, such as
robotic prostheses, intending to assist or enhance
human motor control that can be lost or impaired
by trauma, disease, or birth defects.

Biomechatronics is the merging of humans and
machines to augment human performance. The
goal of biomechatronic devices is to interface
directly with the wearer’s muscle and nervous
systems to assist/restore motor control.
1-6 BME Experience Requirements
Learning is a crucial aspect of developing a greater
mind. To comprehend complex topics, such as
those in the field of biomedical engineering, one
must have a vast amount of previous knowledge
stored in their brain. For instance, for a baby or kid
to be able to write properly, a child must first learn
and practice using his ear to listen, then use his
mouth and tongue to speak, later on, he can
manage to read text, and finally, with practice, he
can learn to write properly. While a child can learn
simple topics like writing letters, words, or
sentences requires more practice. They have to
learn how to concentrate with their tutor, hold the
pen for a long time, hold the paper, link words, and
use different grammar rules in various situations.
Gradually, they can build their information
database, store it in their brain, and gain the
experience necessary for the task. When they
become adults, they will have strong experience
through the practice they did over the years, and
they can be experts in this field. The only difference
between the experience of a child and an adult is
the amount of information and practice an
individual did to become an expert in a particular
subject.
As said earlier biomedical engineering field is
vast, complex, and fast-growing, besides It is an
interdisciplinary field that requires a knowledge
gain and understanding of these different
disciplines to be an expert in the field.
CHAPTER 1 5
1-7 Information Elements
To be a BME expert you need to learn which
requires understanding and storing information,
when I say learn, I mean learn to master! To be an
expert, in a subject or discipline. As an expert, you
need to keep in mind that you should be able to
answer any question about the specialty subject or
discipline, simply because this is expected from
you as an expert. It is knowing that when you study
a certain topic you must put in mind that you need
to know the answers to the five Ws questions
(information elements) which are: (who, when,
what, where, and why), In addition to the question
(how). These questions are phrases of all the
questions that could be asked.
1-8 The Question Why
In the previous section, we mentioned the six
question phrases: who, when, how, where, why,
and how. Among these questions, there is one
question that has led us to many amazing
discoveries, and that is the question "why".
Imagine our lives without this question. You can go
back to when the apple fell down, If Isaac Newton
had not asked himself why the apple fell to the
ground direction, we would not have discovered
gravity. Similarly, if no one had asked themselves
why wood floats in water, we would not have been
able to build ships or discover new continents like
America and Australia. Without the question of
why, we would still be far away behind the Stone
Age, and Stone Age technology would seem like
magic to us. Therefore, always remember to ask
yourself why things are the way they are, and who
knows, maybe one day with proper knowledge,
6 Biomedical Engineering: An Overview

thinking capabilities, and balanced reasoning skills, 2. List five of the biomedical engineering sub-
you can discover something new in science. disciplines.

3. What is the importance of biomaterial

1-9 Summary science? Give an example.

The field of biomedical engineering is quite 4. Mechanics is the study of _____.

expansive and requires a broad range of
knowledge. It is a multidisciplinary field that
interacts with various sciences and fields of study.
Professionals in this field are expected to possess
knowledge of many life sciences and keep
themselves updated with the latest advancements.
When learning about biomedical engineering, it's
important to focus on acquiring answers to the five
Ws questions as well as the how question.
5. Give three examples of biomechanics
applications except for studies of the body’s
internal parts.
6. Can a biomedical engineering expert be
successful only by knowing a specific
specialty? Discuss your opinion.
7. What are the five W’s? What is its importance
in knowledge acquisition?

8. What do biomedical engineer do? Discuss your

1-10 Recapitulation answer.
Now return to the objectives and self-evaluation 9. What is the sub-discipline that study the
questions at the beginning of the chapter and see prothetic devices?
how well you can answer them. If you cannot
answer certain questions, place a checkmark next
Suggested Readings
to each, and reread appropriate parts of the text.
Next, try to answer the following questions, using W. Mark Saltzman, Biomedical Engineering
the same procedure. Bridging Medicine and Technology, Yale University,
Cambridge University Press, (New York, 2009).
Questions
1. Biomedical engineering field contain
knowledge acquired from _____, _____,
_____, _____, and _____, sciences, etc.
 CHAPTER 2 7

CHAPTER 2

Anatomy and Physiology: An Overview

2-1 Objectives
1. Be able to recall and understand the major 3. Be able to link between the biomedical devices
body systems. and body organs and systems.

2. Be able to recall and understand the important 4. Be able to list the biomedical devices that are
concepts of physiology. directly used for body organs and systems.

5. Give an example of devices directly used for

2-2 Self-Evaluation Question
These questions test your prior knowledge of the
material in this chapter. Look for the answers as
you read the text. After you have finished studying
this chapter, try answering these questions and
those at the end of the chapter.
1. ________ are the building blocks of the body.
2. What is the relation between hearing and
balance?
3. What is the main function of the lymphatic
system?
4. List the main human body systems with their
functions.
the body systems and organs.
2-3 Introduction
As we all know, the human body is a complex
system of organisms and various systems that work
in harmony to maintain homeostasis and keep us
alive. The study of the human body is a vast field of
science, known as anatomy and physiology. It
cannot be explained in just one book or chapter.
However, this chapter aims to provide an overview
of these organisms and systems to aid in
understanding and building a solid foundation for
further studies.
Anatomy is the study of the structure of body
parts while physiology is the study of their
8 Anatomy and Physiology: An Overview
function. It involves learning a lot of technical
terms and Latin words, but it's worth it because it
can help you understand the human body better -
how it works, how to take care of it, and how to
prevent harm. The scope of this book is to teach
you how to deal with the complexities of the
human body as a biomedical engineer, by
understanding the body parts and the devices used
for each part.
The human body has a hierarchical level of
organization see (Figure 2-1), that starts from
atoms, molecules, cells, tissues, organs, and organ
systems, to organisms. Atoms such as hydrogen
and oxygen combine to form molecules, such as
water molecules. These molecules then combine
to form organelles, which are present in different
types of cells, such as muscle cells and nerve cells.
Similar cells combine to form tissues, and these
tissues combine to form organs, such as the lungs
and the heart. Organs work together to form an
organ system, that performs a specific function
such as the cardiovascular system, which consists
of the heart, lungs, and blood vessels. All organ
Figure 2-1 The Human Body’s Level of
Organism.
systems work in harmony to perform the function
of an independent organism.
2-4 Body Systems
The human body is made of different systems that
are made of different parts working together to
serve a common purpose of growth, reproduction,
and survival. Each part depends on the other parts
to perform tasks that can’t be achieved by a single
part acting alone, these systems work together to
maintain a stable internal body environment called
homeostasis.
The following are the human body
systems:
2-4-1 Circulatory System
The body's circulatory system is shown in (Figure
2-2) as mainly responsible for transportation, it
transports nutrients, oxygen, waste, heat,
hormones, and immune cells with the blood over
and over again to maintain homeostasis, the
process is held with the aid of the heart which
pumps blood through arteries and veins all around
the body.
The heart circulates blood through three
cycles which are:
a. Between the heart and the lung, where
deoxygenated blood travels to the lung to get
oxygenated and return to the heart.
b. between the heart and the body, where
oxygenated blood travels its way to all the
body cells, and vice versa from the cells to the
heart. In this journey, the blood picks up
nutrients, waste, hormones, and other
materials and transports them from one
location to the other inside the body.
 CHAPTER 2 9

c. Since the heart is a muscle, it is like all the 2-4-1-1 Cardiovascular System Devices
other body parts, it needs oxygenated blood
Individuals who suffer from heart failure or
and nutrients, and it produces waste that
irregular heartbeat may require an implant to help
needs to be getting rid of. So, the third cycle is
their heart function properly. These devices
pumping blood from the heart to the heart
include cardioverter defibrillators, pacemakers,
muscle itself through the coronary arteries.
and loop recorders. In some cases, the patient may
Problems with this blood cycle are a cause of
need to use the implant permanently.
the heart attack, which appears when the
There are also temporary devices used for the
pulmonary artery is blocked by fat, which
heart, such as heart-lung machines. These
results in keeping blood from reaching the
machines are used during open-heart surgery as an
heart muscle.
alternative for the heart until the end of the
operation.

2-4-2 Respirator System

The respiratory system shown in
(Figure 2-3) consists of lungs, chest
ribs, trachea, diaphragm, etc.
Together they work with the
cardiovascular system to supply the
body with oxygen and excrete
carbon dioxide. They use bulk flow
and simple diffusion to make cellular
respiration possible.
The lungs can expand and
shrink to absorb air. This is made
possible with the aid of the
diaphragm and the chest ribs.
Together they decrease/increase the
volume of the lungs allowing
pressure difference that pushes air in
and out of the lungs.

Figure 2-2 Human Body Circulator System.

10 Anatomy and Physiology: An Overview
2-4-2-1 Respiratory System Devices
When a patient is unable to breathe or has
difficulty breathing, they may require the use of a
mechanical ventilator. This device helps to move
breathable air in and out of the lungs. Another
example of a medical device that can assist with
breathing is a nebulizer. This device turns liquid
medicine into a mist, which can be beneficial in
treating asthma.
2-4-3 Nervous System
The human body processes various actions,
including feeling hot, making decisions, lifting
weights, recalling memories, and using the five
senses, through an electrical and chemical signal
that is sent and received by nerve cells. The
nervous system (Figure 2-4), responsible for all
thoughts, actions, and movements, performs three
Figure 2-3 Anatomy of The Respiratory
System.
Level of structural organization of the
simple functions: sensory input, integration, and
motor output. For instance, if you touch a hot
object unintentionally, the sensory input function
in the skin detects the sensation, and the nervous
system integrates this input signal to decide what
action to take. Since the object is too hot, the
nervous system might trigger reflex function which
is used to keep the body safe, in this case, the
nervous system sends a signal to the motor output
to move the body away from the danger (the hot
object).
The nervous system consists of two main parts
which are:
a. The central nervous system (brain and spinal
cord),
b. The peripheral nervous system (all the other
nerves).
The peripheral nervous system works in both
directions, it consists of:
a. The sensory division: which detects the
signals.
b. The motor division: sends a signal from the
brain to the body parts.
The motor division consists of:
a. Somatic system (voluntary system): which
role skeletal muscle movement.
b. Autonomic system (involuntary system): this
keeps heartbeat, lungs working, stomach
digesting, etc.
The autonomic system consists of:
a. A sympathetic division that acts.
b. A parasympathetic division that relaxes the
body.

The understanding of the nervous system can
be considered as the foundation of biomedical
engineering leading toward the development of
more effective treatments for mental illnesses,
improvements in artificial limb design, and
countless medical discoveries.
2-4-3-1 Nervous System Devices
When it comes to working with the nervous
system, many specialized devices come to mind.
These include EEG (electroencephalography)
devices, nerve monitoring systems, and nerve
stimulators, among others. The application of EEG
technology has seen rapid development in recent
years. By picking up signals from the brain and
feeding them into different types of devices,
scientists believe it may be possible to control
devices such as wheelchairs and airplanes using
just one's thoughts.
Figure 2-4 Nervous System.
CHAPTER 2 11
2-4-4 Digestive System
The human body relies on the process of
consuming food to extract the nutrients, vitamins,
and minerals it needs to function properly. When
we eat, our digestive system (Figure 2-5) breaks
down the food into smaller components that can
be absorbed into the bloodstream and transported
to various organs, tissues, and cells throughout the
body. These nutrients serve as the building blocks
for new cells, tissues, and organs, and also provide
the energy required to power all of the body's
metabolic processes. Without adequate nutrition,
the body would not be able to repair damaged
tissues, fight off infections, or perform any of the
other essential functions that are necessary for
survival.
2-4-4-1 Digestive System Devices
A gastroscope is a medical device that plays a
crucial role in the diagnosis and treatment of
stomach-related diseases. It is a type of endoscope
that is designed to be inserted through the mouth
and into the stomach for a closer examination. The
gastroscope is equipped with a miniature camera
and a light source to provide high-quality images of
the interior of the stomach. It is an essential tool
for doctors to identify any abnormalities, such as
ulcers, inflammation, or tumors.
Similarly, a duodenoscope is another medical
device that is used to examine the duodenum,
which is the first part of the small intestine. The
duodenoscope is a fiber optic endoscopic
instrument that is inserted through the mouth and
passed through the stomach into the duodenum. It
is equipped with a small camera that captures
images of the duodenum, allowing doctors to
12 Anatomy and Physiology: An Overview
identify any abnormalities or diseases affecting this
part of the digestive system. The duodenoscope is
also used for various medical procedures, including
biopsy and removing stones from the bile duct.
2-4-5 Integumentary System
When we think of organs, we often think of the
heart, lungs, and liver, but we often forget to think
of our body's largest organ, which is the skin. The
skin consists of three layers, as shown in (Figure
2-6), that protect the body from infections and
extreme temperatures. Additionally, the skin helps
to maintain fluid balance and synthesizes vitamin
D. Together with hair, nails, sweat glands, and oil
glands, the skin makes up the integumentary
system.
Figure 2-5 Digestive System.
2-4-5-1 Integumentary System Devices
The devices used in the dermatology department
are some of the medical equipment that cater to
the integumentary system. Since the skin is the
largest organ in the body and a part of the
integumentary system, it requires special
attention. Another example of such medical
equipment is the plastic surgery devices that are
used to alter, correct, or restore the skin or
underlying tissues on any part of the body.
2-4-6 Musculoskeletal System
The musculoskeletal system (Figure 2-7), is a
combination of the muscular and skeletal systems.
The skeletal system comprises bones that are alive
and as dynamic as any of the other organs. They
continuously break down, regenerate, and repair
themselves throughout their lifetime, resulting in a
new skeleton every 7 to 10 years. In addition to
supporting movement, bones also store essential
minerals such as calcium and phosphate required
to keep neurons firing and muscles contracting.
Figure 2-6 Integumentary System
Organ: The Skin Layers.
 CHAPTER 2 13

They also play a crucial role in blood cell production are used to study the pattern of walking, running,
(hematopoiesis). and jumping. They help in identifying any
The human body's ability to move is made abnormalities in the gait pattern and designing an
possible by the musculoskeletal system, which is appropriate treatment plan.
the combination and cooperation of the muscular
and skeletal systems. The muscles in our body
2-4-7 Endocrine System
contract and relax to produce force, allowing us to
move. However, the muscles can only contract The organs of the endocrine system, as shown in
when they receive a signal from the nervous (Figure 2-8), use hormones to communicate with
system. When no signal is received, the muscles
relax. This movement occurs when the muscles
contract across joints, moving one bone towards
another.

2-4-6-1 Musculoskeletal System Devices

For the muscular system, Electromyography (EMG)
is used to detect muscle signals. It involves placing
small electrodes on the skin above the muscle to
measure the electrical activity produced by the
muscle fibers. This helps in diagnosing muscle
disorders and monitoring the progress of therapy.
On the other hand, the skeletal system is
monitored using advanced devices like C-Arm and
bone density scanners. C-Arm is an imaging device
that uses X-rays to generate real-time images of
the bones, joints, and other internal structures. It
is commonly used during orthopedic surgeries to
visualize the bone structures and guide the surgical
instruments.
Another device, bone density scanners,
uses X-rays to measure the mineral content and
density of bones. It is a non-invasive technique that
helps in diagnosing osteoporosis, a condition
where bones become weak and brittle.
For the musculoskeletal system, gate
analysis devices are used to analyze the movement Figure 2-7 The Musculoskeletal
of the whole body or specific joints. These devices System.
14 Anatomy and Physiology: An Overview

different parts of the body through the responsible for filtering waste products from the
bloodstream. Some people may think that blood, regulating water volume, controlling
hormones are only responsible for certain electrolyte balance, and maintaining the body's pH
behaviors or feelings, but they have many other level.
important functions. For example, some hormones Moreover, the kidney also performs other
trigger the release of other hormones, while others important functions, such as influencing the
regulate reproduction, metabolism, energy levels, production of red blood cells by producing a
growth and development, and the body's hormone called erythropoietin, which stimulates
defenses. Hormones also play a role in maintaining the production of red blood cells in the bone
general homeostasis. marrow. Additionally, it regulates blood pressure
Unlike the nervous system, which can by producing renin, which is an enzyme that
affect any cell it reaches, hormones are only able regulates blood pressure and helps maintain fluid
to trigger specific cells (known as target cells) that and electrolyte balance.
have the appropriate receptors. This means that
some hormones can travel throughout the body, 2-4-8-1 Urinary System Devices
but only trigger certain cells that can respond to
them. The urinary system can be affected by several
diseases, one of which is kidney stones. These
painful and uncomfortable stones are formed by
2-4-7-1 Endocrine System Devices
the accumulation of calcium and other minerals in
Many endocrine diseases can only be diagnosed
through stimulation or suppression tests, which
are conducted at endocrine laboratories. These
labs are equipped with devices that measure
hormone levels to determine whether endocrine
glands are functioning properly and to identify
potential causes of endocrinological problems.
Some of the devices used in this field include
imaging devices such as nuclear medicine scans,
ultrasound scans, computerized tomography
scans, magnetic resonance imaging scans, and
radioactive iodine scans.

2-4-8 Urinary System

The kidney is a part of the urinary system (Figure
2-9) and plays a crucial role in maintaining
homeostasis. It is part of the urinary system and is
Figure 2-8 Endocrine System Organs.

the kidneys and can cause significant discomfort
and complications if not treated properly. To
address this condition, a Ureteroscope is often
used, which is a specialized medical device that
allows doctors to look inside the ureters and
kidneys. This device involves the passage of a small
telescope through the urethra and bladder and up
the ureter to the point where the stone is located.
Once the stone has been located, it can be
extracted or broken down using various
techniques.
Another device commonly used in the
examination of the urinary system is the
Cystoscope. This is a specialized instrument that is
used to look inside the urethra and bladder. It is
particularly useful for identifying abnormalities
such as inflammation, tumors, or blockages, and
allows doctors to take biopsies or other samples
for further examination. The Cystoscope is an
important tool in the diagnosis and treatment of
many urinary tract conditions and has proven to be
a valuable asset to medical professionals.
Figure 2-9 Urinary System.
CHAPTER 2 15
2-4-9 Lymphatic System
plays a vital supporting role in both cardiovascular
and immune systems. Where if there is extra fluid
in the interstitial space it maintains homeostasis by
returning most of the fluid into the blood. When
there is an infection in the blood the lymphatic
system can fight the infection or trigger the
immune system for extra help fighting the
infection.
The lymphatic system contains a
Lymphatic capillary which contains valves that
open only in one direction and when the pressure
in the interstitial space is greater than the pressure
inside the lymphatic capillary these valves open
and take in the fluid to release the pressure, It
contains Lymph as well which is the fluid that flows
through the lymphatic system, and a Lymphatic
vessel which contains a series valves that prevent
backflow of fluid beside smooth muscle that help
keep the fluid moving toward its destination.
2-4-9-1 Lymphatic System Devices
Some patients with problems in their lymphatic
system may need to use a lymphatic drainage
machine, which stimulates and encourages lymph
flow to speed up the process.
2-4-10 Reproductive System
Human and other animal’s body systems and
organs may be different from one type to the
other. Taking snakes as an example, snakes don’t
have bones which means snakes don’t have a
musculoskeletal system. But the one common
system that is found in all living animals is the
reproductive system (Figure 2-10), its organs may
16 Anatomy and Physiology: An Overview
be different but the system function itself is found
in all animals due to its vital role in the survival of
the species.
The reproductive system organs of humans
are also different depending on the sex (male and
female); reproduction requires interaction
between these different reproduction organs,
without it there is no reproduction.
2-4-10-1 Reproductive System Devices
Pregnancy and childbirth are complex processes
that require careful and consistent monitoring.
During the period leading up to the delivery of a
newborn, monitoring devices such as ultrasound
are essential to track fetal growth and ensure the
health of both mother and baby. Once the time
comes for the baby to be born, a suite of
specialized medical devices and tools is brought
into play, including delivery beds, operation lights,
surgical tools, and operation rooms. These tools
are designed to ensure the safety and well-being of
the baby and mother during the delivery process.
Once the newborn has arrived, a new set
of challenges and requirements may arise.
Figure 2-10 Male, Female Reproductive
System.
Newborns are incredibly sensitive and require
specialized medical care and attention. This
includes the use of devices such as incubators and
phototherapy machines, which can help regulate
the newborn's temperature and treat common
conditions such as jaundice. Together, these tools
and devices ensure that newborns receive the best
possible care and support during the critical early
stages of life.
2-5 Anatomical Position
Imagine that a patient swallows a sharp object and
an X-ray is been done to locate the object, how can
the location of the object be described in the X-ray
report? Here the benefit of the anatomical position
terms shines (see Figure 2-11) since it is the
language that clinical practitioner uses to describe
locations within the human body and the location
of the object can be found, for example, the
surgeon can find “along the medical line, posterior
to the heart, anterior to the vertebrae, inferior to
the collarbone, superior to the stomach” written in
the report, which would give him an idea where to
look and be able to locate the object and perform
the operation safely.
2-5-1 Anatomical Position Devices
In the medical field, the medical imaging
department plays a major role that aids in
determining the anatomical positioning, where the
conventional X-ray, fluoroscopy, CT, MRI, etc. can
be used by clinical practitioners to safely inspect in
vivo -inside the human body- and be able to
diagnose and locate precisely the position inside
the human body for medical investigations.

2-6 Blood
Blood is a type of connective tissue shown in
(Figure 2-12) that transports oxygen, nutrients,
waste, and hormones. But it also helps maintain
and regulate body temperature, PH level, and the
volume of fluid in the body; it also helps in healing
wounds and prevents you from bleeding.
There are 8 different types of blood
groups which are: A+, A-, B+, B-, AB+, AB-, O+, and
O-, each red blood cell has a membrane that
contains glycoproteins that act as labels or
markers. These markers are antigens, the immune
system is familiar with the particular type of
antigens found in the body, if it detects antigens
from someone with a different marker, it attacks it
and considers it a foreign body.
Figure 2-11 Anatomical Position.
CHAPTER 2 17
Which type of antigens you have in the
blood defines the blood type:
• if you have A type or B type, the blood group
is either A or B following the antigen name.
• sometimes both antigens A and B may be
found in someone's blood, in this case, the
blood group would be AB.
• neither A or B was found, blood type is
named O.
There is another set of antigens found in
the red blood cell which is “RHESUS ANTIGEN” If
this Rh is found in blood, the blood type is positive
indicating it contains Rh antigen otherwise the
blood type is negative.
18 Anatomy and Physiology: An Overview
Considering the immune system which
attacks foreign bodies that it is not familiar with,
we can name people with AB+ blood type the
universal recipients since their bodies contain both
A and B types antigen as well as the rhesus antigen,
the same way we can name people with the O-
type the universal donor since their blood has no
blood type markers and they are invisible to the
immune system.
2-6-1 Blood Devices
Human blood is used to evaluate overall health,
and to identify/detect a variety of diseases and
illnesses, one of the main devices in the
hematology laboratories is the complete blood
count (CBC) device which is used to count and
measure blood components.
Another main device is the centrifuge
which applies centrifugal force to separate blood
content such as to separate blood cells from
plasma.
2-7 Blood Vessels
The blood vessels (Figure 2-13) are a network that
connects the heart to all the body parts, it is an
active dynamic organ containing a layer of muscle
cells that allow it to be able of contract, expanding
as they deliver oxygen and nutrients, carry away
Figure 2-12 Types of Blood Cells.
waste, and maintain blood pressure. There are
three major types of blood vessels which are:
a. Arteries, which carry oxygenated blood.
b. Veins, which carry deoxygenated blood.
c. Capillaries, which act as a transfer station
between arteries and veins where gas
exchange happens.
2-7-1 Blood Vessels Devices
As known blood circulates inside the human body
through the blood vessels, the study of blood flow
can help diagnose and treat a variety of conditions,
including blood clots and poor circulation. Vascular
flow studies can detect abnormal flow within an
artery or blood vessel, which is made possible with
the aid of Doppler ultrasound.
Another example is the vein detector
which is used to enable accurate visualization of
the veins under the skin.
Figure 2-13 Anatomy of Blood Vessels.

2-8 Tissues
In multicellular organisms, cells with similar
properties combine to form tissues shown in
(Figure 2-14), which are groups of cells that work
together to perform a specific function. These
tissues then come together to form organs, which
are complex structures made up of a variety of
tissues that work together to perform specific
functions.
Each organ in the body is made up of
different types of tissues, and the specific functions
that they perform are determined by the types of
tissues that they are composed of. For example,
the heart is an organ made up of cardiac muscle
tissue, which is specialized for contracting and
pumping blood throughout the body. The digestive
system is made up of several organs, including the
stomach and small intestine, which are composed
of different types of tissues that work together to
break down food and absorb nutrients.
Understanding the types of tissues that
make up an organ can help us better understand
its role and function in the body. By studying the
different types of tissues and how they interact
with each other, we can gain a deeper
understanding of how the body works and how we
can treat diseases and disorders that affect it.
2-8-1 Tissues Devices
As mentioned above human body and organs are
made from different types of tissues, each with its
properties, shape, and function. These tissues are
produced and replaced from and within the body,
in some cases, a patient may need an organ or,
parts from organs to be transplanted or
implemented to them. If we take a patient who
CHAPTER 2 19
needs a heart transplant, we would find the
number of recipients is way more than the number
of donors, this led to the foundation of a new field
of studies that has grown very fast in the last
decade which is the tissue engineering, which is a
field of study that used to develop and synthesis
tissues and organs to replace diseased or damaged
tissues. The devices that are used for tissue
engineering are a wide and broad range of
laboratory and culturing devices to obtain an
environment suitable for tissue growth.
2-9 Hearing and Balance
One amazing example of the usefulness of
mechanical movement in our body lies inside our
ears when sound creates vibrations in the air the
beat against the eardrum bushes a series of tiny
bones that bushes a tiny fluid against a membrane
that triggers tiny sells that stimulate neurons that
sends action potential to our brain which
interprets them as sound (see Figure 2-15).
Furthermore, the inner ear also contains
special sensory cells that are responsible for our
Figure 2-14 Types of Tissues.
20 Anatomy and Physiology: An Overview
sense of balance and spatial orientation. These
cells detect changes in head position and
movement, helping us to maintain our equilibrium
and prevent falls. Without this crucial function, we
would struggle to perform even the most basic
tasks, such as standing up or walking.
2-9-1 Hearing and Balance Devices
Hearing and balance are linked together since the
same part of the ear that controls hearing also
controls the balance, and the hearing loss patient
can result in complications with the balance.
Hearing aids are devices that are used to amplify
the sound waves for the patient who partially loses
the ability to hear, which in this case the balance
may not be affected.
Standing upright may require the
cooperation of multiple systems including vision,
inner ear, skin sensation, and the sense of the body
parts with each other. The compromised
performance of any of these elements can lead to
Figure 2-15 Hearing and Balance Organs.
a balance disorder. Balance aid devices are broad
ranging from complex devices such as electronic
walkers to simple as a cane.
2-10 Sensation and Receptors
Our sense of taste and smell is directly related to
the nervous system. The sensory cells in our
nervous system convert chemical,
electromagnetic, and mechanical stimuli into
action potentials, which the nervous system
interprets. This process is called transduction. Each
sense works differently. Our vision relies on
photoreceptors to detect light waves, while our
sense of touch, hearing, and balance uses
mechanoreceptors. However, our sense of taste
(gustation) and smell (olfaction) use
chemoreceptors, see (Figure 2-16).
All devices contain sensors, just like our
human body has sensors that detect signals and
send them to our brain for analysis and action.
These receptors not only detect signals but can
also trigger memories, emotions, and warn us of
danger. For example, when we smell smoke, our
brain is triggered to recognize the danger of fire.
Understanding our sensations and receptors
can lead to discoveries and improvements that
help a lot of patients, for example, some patients
with trauma may suffer from loss of smell and taste
sensation which can lead to worse scenarios since
the patient can’t smell he/she might eat/drink
expired food without knowing it is expired through
the smell and taste.
2-10-1 Sensation Devices
In general, humans interact with the world around
them through their senses, which include the eyes,

ears, skin, nose, and mouth. These senses allow
humans to perceive sound, light, touch, taste, and
smell. Some people require assistive devices such
as hearing aids and glasses to enhance their
sensory abilities. However, research on developing
assistive devices for taste and smell has not yet
yielded satisfactory results.
2-11 Summary
1. The human body is a complex organism that
accomplishes metabolism through the
cooperation of various systems working
together.
2. Each body system is made of organs that are
linked and work together to perform a certain
function.
3. medical devices can be categorized based on
the system that they are designed for, such as
those devices specially designed for the
lymphatic system, cardiovascular system, and
nervous system.
4. Studying the human body contains a lot of
scientific fields that came together such as
chemistry, physics, and mechanics.
Figure 2-16 Sense Organs Receptors.
CHAPTER 2 21
5. Each body system study is broad which is why
specialty is a must to be able to gather the
needed information about the particular
system.
2-12 Recapitulation
Now return to the objectives and self-evaluation
questions at the beginning of the chapter and see
how well you can answer them. If you cannot
answer certain questions, place a checkmark next
to each, and reread appropriate parts of the text.
Next, try to answer the following questions, using
the same procedure.
Questions
1. The ________ is the biggest organ in the
integumentary system.
2. Some tissue layer containing ________ that
aids in moving the blood.
3. ________ is a field of study that is used to
develop and synthesize tissues and organs to
replace diseased or damaged tissues.
4. In the nervous system, the ________ relaxes
the body.
5. The ________ is used to detect the muscle
signal.
6. The human can see with the aid of ________
that detects light.
7. ________ is an example of the devices that are
used to assist hearing sensation.
8. A ________ is a device that is designed
especially for the examination and surgical
treatment of the stomach.
22 Anatomy and Physiology: An Overview
9. ________ is a device that is used to separate
blood content.
10. The ________ arteries supply blood to the
heart muscle.
11. The ________ system filters out toxins and
waste material from the body.
12. The extra interstitial fluids are collected and
return to the blood with the aid of the
________ system.
13. Clinical practitioners use ________ to describe
and mention locations within the human body.
14. With the aid of ________ and ________ the
respiratory system can increase/decrease its
volume.
15. The nebulizer is a device that is used to change
medicine from a liquid into ________ to treat
________ for example.
16. Through ________ the heart muscle receives
the blood.
17. Briefly talk about the functions of the human
bones.
18. Talk about the heart-lung machine.
19. Talk about the imaging devices that are used
for the endocrine system.
20. Give an example of the devices that are used
for the integumentary system.
21. What is the benefit of the anatomical
position?
22. Give an example of three devices used for the
musculoskeletal system and explain their use.
23. Talk about the musculoskeletal system.
Suggested Readings
1. Van de Graaff, Kent M. and Stuart Ira Fox,
Concepts of Human Anatomy and Physiology,
3rd ed. Wm. C. Brown Publishers (Dubuque, Ia.
1992).
2. Carola, Robert, John P. Harley, and Charles R.
Noback, Human Anatomy and Physiology, 2nd
ed. McGraw-Hill (New York, 1992).
3. https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL8d
PuuaLjXtOAKed_MxxWBNaPno5h3Zs8

CHAPTER 3
Electricity and Electronics: An Overview
3-1 Objectives
1. Be able to recall and understand voltage,
current, and resistance concepts.
2. Be able to recall and understand the main
electricity and electronics laws.
3-2 Self-Evaluation Questions
These questions test your prior knowledge of the
material in this chapter. Look for the answers as
you read the text. After you have finished studying
this chapter, try answering these questions and
those at the end of the chapter.
1. What are the differences between electrical
and electronic devices?
2. What is the difference between the electron
flow and the conventional current flow?
3. What is the relation between current, voltage,
and resistance?
4. How current is measured in a circuit?
CHAPTER 3 23
3. Be able to know the difference between
electricity and electronics.
4. Be able to know the overall concepts of
electricity and electronics.
3-3 Introduction
As a biomedical engineer, one must have a strong
understanding of electronics and electrical analysis
concepts, as medical devices are composed of
electronic components and operate using
electricity. The proper design, installation, and
maintenance of these devices require a solid
background in electricity and electronics.
Biomedical devices can be found in various settings
such as hospitals, clinics, laboratories, research
centers, and even home settings.
This chapter aims to provide a comprehensive
overview of the basic concepts of electricity and
electronics. It covers fundamental topics such as
voltage, current, and resistance, along with their
24 Electricity and Electronics: An Overview
main laws and rules. Understanding these
concepts will help biomedical engineers recall and
have the understanding needed for further
knowledge acquisition. By mastering these
concepts, biomedical engineers can design and
develop innovative medical devices that can
improve the quality of healthcare and save lives.
3-4 Electricity and Electronics
Electricity is a form of energy that comes from the
conversion of other sources of energy and must be
manufactured. It is not an energy source by nature
but can only be considered as a secondary energy
source such as when it has been converted into
other forms. Electricity is not easily stored and
must be manufactured at or near the time of
demand. Electrical devices transform electrical
energy into other forms to perform a task such as
providing light or generating heat.
Electronics cannot set apart electricity; they
use electrical energy to control the flow of
electrons to do specific work. Electronics deal with
the electric signal that is carried in electric
products, which is a modification that happens to
the electricity to represent information.
Both electricity and electronics operate using
the flow of electrons. Their studies include current,
voltage, and resistance studies, among others.
Each uses the electron flow, in different amounts
and for different purposes, indicating which is
which.
Generally speaking, electronic device uses
semiconductor materials such as diodes and
transistors, and use lower power than those used
by electrical devices, while electrical devices are
made of different materials, such as those found in
AC motors and heaters.
3-5 Current
Electricity is the flow of electrons, which are
negatively charged particles moving from the
negative to the positive side of a power source. It
is measured in Ampere (A). However, the direction
of (current) is the opposite way, from the positive
to the negative side. This confusion stems from the
fact that electricity was discovered over a hundred
years before the discovery of the electron. Later
on, scientists discovered the electron and realized
that it flows from the negative side to the positive
side. This discovery should result in rewriting all
engineering and physics textbooks to reverse the
direction of electricity which would have been a
monumental task, so scientists decided to stick
with the original convention and calling it
"conventional current" and defining current as the
flow of positive charge, which flows from the
positive to the negative side in a circuit.
When an electric circuit is activated, current flows
through it. This current can be utilized as energy,
which is measured in ohms and can be transformed
into other forms of energy. For instance, when a
lamp is connected to a circuit, the current flowing
through the circuit is transformed into heat and
light. The higher the current, the brighter the lamp
will be.
To generate current, a voltage is applied to the
circuit. This voltage forces the electrons to move
through the circuit, and as a result, the current
flows. If the voltage is increased, the current
flowing through the circuit will increase as well.
However, many factors can affect the flow of
current in a circuit, such as Loads, which are
everything connected to the circuit, such as lamps,
motors, and resistors, including the connection
wire itself, which resists the current flow and

reduces the amount of current flowing through the
circuit.
Every material or electronic component has a
maximum amount of current that it can handle,
which is why it's important to calculate the current
in a circuit to prevent components from getting
overheated and burnt out.
Current is measured in two ways, either by
placing the wire inside a clamp meter ring to
measure the current flowing directly or by
connecting the ohmmeter in series with the circuit
needed to be measured, see (Figure 3-1)
otherwise, if the ohmmeter is connected in
parallel, the multimeter probes itself will be as
another node in a circuit and the current will
distribute in this node, which will provide a wrong
reading of current.
Current can come in two forms:
a. Alternative current (AC) -- in which the
current direction is constantly alternating
between the terminals of the power source.
This kind of current is used in electrical circuits
and it is found in wall electrical plugs. Note
that this is the type of current that can cause
electrical shock.
b. Direct current (DC) -- in which the current
direction is constant over time. This kind of
current is used in electronic circuits. This kind
of current can be provided from batteries, or
it can be generated from an AC by using the
power supply circuits which are used to reduce
and change the current from AC to DC. This
kind of current is safe for the human body and
there is no risk of electrical shock for small
CHAPTER 3 25
voltage values, but it can also be fatal for high
voltage.
3-6 Voltage
Voltage is the measure of work required to move a
unit charge (current) from one location to another
through a conducting loop; it is the potential
difference between two points, measured in volts
(V). It can be measured by placing a voltammeter
in parallel across any part/parts in a circuit such as
a power source, a single component, or even a
group of components.
Voltage can come in two forms which are:
a. Alternating Current-voltage -- which its
current reverse direction at regular intervals
commonly produced via power generators
such as wind, heat, mechanical, and solar
energy generators. it doesn’t have static
polarity since it constantly changes polarity,
commonly used in electrical devices.
b. Direct Current-voltage -- which flows in one
direction only, commonly acquired from
batteries, which allows the equipment to be
portable, having positive and negative
terminals indicating polarity, commonly used
in electronic devices.
All sources of voltage have two points for
electrical contact to be able to provide a potential
difference to the circuit, one is the line (positively
charged), and the other is the neutral (negatively
charged).
3-7 Resistance
Electrical resistance refers to the extent to which
material resists the flow of electrical current.
26 Electricity and Electronics: An Overview
Resistance is present not only in the electronic
component known as "resistor," but also in any
component that is connected to the circuit,
including the wires themselves. Capacitors,
inductors, and other electronic components also
exhibit resistance, which can be calculated using
equations to analyze the circuit's current, power,
and overall load.
The electrical resistance of a wire is influenced
by various factors including its length, cross-
sectional area, and the material used. These effects
can be estimated during the pre-manufacturing
stage and considered as fixed values over time.
When component manufacturers print the
resistance value on the component nameplates, it
is considered to be fixed in a circuit. This is because
other factors that affect resistance, such as heat,
only produce a slight change in resistance and can
be ignored in most cases.
Resistances are used for different functions in
a circuit such as part of signal filtering circuits, pull-
up and pull-down resistors, to limit the current at
certain points, or to reduce the voltage applied to
some parts, and others.
Figure 3-1 Measuring current using
ohmmeter in series.
The overall resistance in a circuit is directly
linked to the power consumption. Hence, it is
advisable to decrease the overall resistance during
circuit design to minimize operating costs and
develop a cost-effective device. One can reduce
the overall resistance by using shorter wires,
superior conductor materials, fewer components,
appropriate component sizes, and suitable
components.
3-8 Ohms low
Ohm's Law is a useful way to analyze a circuit by
examining the relationship between voltage,
current, and resistance. The law states that voltage
equals current multiplied by resistance (V=IR).
Therefore, if you know the value of any two
factors, you can calculate the third factor
mathematically.
One practical use of Ohm's Law is to determine
the required value for a resistor to limit the current
and voltage in an LED circuit that operates at 5
volts, which is not suitable to be applied directly to
an LED because it can cause it to burn out.
3-9 KVL and KCL
Sometimes in a circuit such as T shape circuit, we
cannot simply use Ohm’s law alone for calculations
within the circuit, we need to use Kirchhoff’s laws
to come up with equations that allow solving for
current and voltage values, these laws named KCL
(Kirchhoff’s Current Law) and KVL (Kirchhoff’s
Voltage Law).

The KCL stated that the sum of all currents
that enter and exit a node has to be equal to zero
see (Figure 3-2). In other words, at each node in a
circuit, the amount of the currents entering a node
equals the sum of the currents exiting this node,
the amount of these currents in each wire depends
on the resistance in that wire, where the higher the
resistance, the lower current will be flowing in that
wire.
The KVL states that the algebraic sum of the
voltages at a node in a closed circuit is equal to zero
see (Figure 3-3), in other words the voltages are
always in balance and the applied voltage value will
be distributed in the circuit in such a way that
voltage will drop at components each depending
on its resistance value, and the sum of the voltages
drop will equal the supplied voltage.
3-10 Power Rating off Resistor
The power rating of a resistor is one of the more
hidden values. Nevertheless, it can be important,
and it's a topic that will come up when selecting a
resistor type.
Power is the rate at which energy is
transformed into something else. It's calculated by
multiplying the voltage difference across two
Figure 3-2 Kirchhoff’s Current Law.
CHAPTER 3 27
points by the current running between them and is
measured in units of a watt (W). Light bulbs, for
example, power electricity into light. But a resistor
can only turn electrical energy running through it
into heat. Heat isn't usually a nice playmate with
electronics; too much heat leads to smoke, sparks,
and fire!
Every resistor has a specific maximum power
rating. To keep the resistor from heating up too
much, it's important to make sure the power
across a resistor is kept under its maximum rating.
The power rating of a resistor is measured in watts,
and it's usually somewhere between ⅛W (0.125W)
and 1W. Resistors with power ratings of more than
1W are usually referred to as power resistors and
are used specifically for their power-dissipating
abilities.
3-11 Summary
1. Electrical devices and components transform
electrical current into other forms, while
electronic devices and components
manipulate current to do a particular job.
Figure 3-3 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law.
28 Electricity and Electronics: An Overview

2. The current direction is from negative to Questions

positive opposite to the electron flow. Current
1. Give an example of electrical and electronic
is measured either by connecting a multimeter
components.
in series with the circuit or by using a clamp
meter. 2. What are the differences between DC and AC?
3. Voltage is a potential difference between two 3. How to measure voltage?
points in a circuit; it is measured by placing the
4. Explain why heat is generated in circuits.
voltammeter in parallel.
5. If 5 volts are applied to 5 identical resistors
4. Resistance can slightly change from the
connected in series what is the voltage drop at
designed values, and it is always better to
each resistor, explain your answer.
design a lower resistance device to reduce
power consumption 6. If the voltage source neutral is mistakenly not
connected to the circuit in the above question,
5. Ohm’s law provides a link to the relationship
what is the voltage drop at each resistor,
between current, voltage, and resistance,
explain your answer.
allowing the calculation of each of them
depending on the other two factors. 7. When to use KCL and KVL?

6. Kirchhoff’s laws state that the currents 8. How to measure current in a circuit?
entering a node are equal to the currents 9. What is the relation between current, voltage,
exiting the node, and the sum of the voltages and resistor in a circuit?
at a node in a closed circuit is equal to zero.

Suggested Readings
3-12 Recapitulation
Gibilisco, Stan. Teach Yourself Electricity and
Now return to the objectives and self-evaluation Electronics. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002.
questions at the beginning of the chapter and see
how well you can answer them. If you cannot
answer certain questions, place a checkmark next
to each, and reread appropriate parts of the text.
Next, try to answer the following questions, using
the same procedure.

CHAPTER 4
Electrical and Electronic Components
4-1 Objectives
1. Be able to list the major circuit components.
2. Be able to know how components work and
understand their schematics.
4-2 Self-Evaluation Questions
These questions test your prior knowledge of the
material in this chapter. Look for the answers as
you read the text. After you have finished studying
this chapter, try answering these questions and
those at the end of the chapter.
1. List three types of motors and explain their
uses.
2. When to use a pull-down resistor?
3. What is the difference between a relay and a
contactor?
4. What is the function of the fuse? And where
are they placed in a circuit?
5. Draw three of the switches’ symbols.
CHAPTER 4 29
3. Be able to know the main types of different
electronic components.
4. Be able to have an overall idea about the main
circuits’ components.
4-3 Introduction
In electronics, circuit analysis and design depend
on the understanding of the electronic and
electrical components, which are the building
blocks of each circuit. This chapter provides an
overview of the electrical and electronic
components to familiarize engineers with the basic
electronic circuit components in general, in a way
presenting the element of information about each
component, as well as their function, types, unit,
value, symbol, associated law, how they work, and
how to check them.
In addition, a short overview of circuit
boards, design, schematic, and PCB is presented.
30 Electrical and Electronic Components
4-4 Resistors
A resistor measured in “ohms, Ω” is a passive
electrical component that has different uses in an
electronic circuit such as reducing the current flow,
dividing voltage, adjusting signal level, and pull-up,
pull-down I/O line, in op-amp gain, impedance
matching, etc.
When a resistor resists the current flow, it
follows the energy transformation rule, in the
resistor case the electrical energy is transformed
into heat, which is why the resistor resistance may
be slightly changed with temperature changes.
The behavior of an ideal resistor is described
by Ohm's law that stat the voltage (V) across a
resistor is proportional to the current (I) passing
through it, which is described as (V= I*R).
Resistors come in different types and shapes
depending on their uses and needs from it see
(Figure 4-1), depending on the application,
required tolerance, required wattage, etc. a certain
type may be chosen, taking the variable resistors
as an example, which is used to adjust the current
flow by increasing/decreasing the resistance, such
as those used for volume control, light dimmer,
sensors for light, temperature, humidity, force,
chemical energy, etc.
Resistors mainly have two terminals maybe
more for some types, when modeled on a
schematic. A resistor may show up as one of these
symbols (Figure 4-2).
To check a resistor the ohmmeter can be used
to measure its value and match that with the
printed value, considering a tolerance value of
about 5 to 10%. but taking in mind that if the
resistor is still attached to the circuit the ohmmeter
might give an incorrect reading as part of the
circuit can also be measured, so it is better to
disconnect the resistor and measure it alone.
Sometimes measurement is not necessary since a
damaged resistor will leave a burn remaining or
even show a deformation which is easy to identify.
4-5 Capacitors
Capacitors store electrical energy in the form of
electrical charges producing a potential difference
across its plates and discharging it if the voltage
drops between these terminals. The measuring
unit of a capacitor capacitance (Q) is Farad “F”,
which is the measure of a capacitor's ability to
store an electrical charge onto its two plates. There
are two types of capacitors according to
polarization, which are polarized, and non-
polarized capacitors.
Capacitors mainly have two terminals maybe
more for some types, when modeled on a
schematic, a capacitor may show up as one of
these symbols (Figure 4-4).
Small capacitors are used in electronic devices
to couple signals between stages of amplifiers, as
components of electric filters and tuned circuits, or
as parts of power supply systems to smooth
rectified current. Larger capacitors are used for
energy storage in such applications as strobe lights,
as parts of some types of electric motors, or
for power factor correction in AC power
distribution systems. Standard capacitors have a
fixed value of capacitance, but adjustable
capacitors are frequently used in tuned circuits.
Different types are used depending on required

capacitance, working voltage, current handling
capacity, and other properties (Figure 4-3).
Capacitors are essential components in
electronics, enabling energy storage, filtering,
timing, and voltage regulation in circuits. Their
versatility and functionality make them
indispensable in modern electronic systems and
devices.
Normally the damaged capacitor can be
identified by its shape which will show clear
deformation or a leak of its content present as well
as a strong smell, other than that most multimeters
can measure the capacitance of a capacity and
match that with the printed value on the capacitor
itself can indicate it states.
❖ Caution: sometimes a big capacitor may
still store electrical charge and that should
Figure 4-1 Resistor Types.
CHAPTER 4 31
be discharged first by using a resistor
between its terminals before touching it
since this can cause electrical burns or
even worse.
4-6 Transistors
A transistor (Figure 4-5) is a semiconductor that
can be used to conduct and insulate electric
current or voltage. A transistor can act and be used
as a switch or an amplifier.
A typical transistor is composed of three layers
of semiconductor materials. A voltage or current
that is applied to any one pair of the terminals of a
transistor controls the current through the other
pair of terminals. There are three terminals for a
transistor:
32 Electrical and Electronic Components
• Base: which is used to activate the transistor.
• Collector: It is the positive lead of the
transistor.
• Emitter: It is the negative lead of the
transistor.
When a small current flows through the base,
it controls the flow of a much larger current
between the emitter and the collector. This is
because the base-emitter junction is forward-
biased, thereby allowing electrons to flow from the
emitter to the base. The base-collector junction is
reverse-biased, which means that electrons are
prevented from flowing from the base to the
collector. However, when a current flows through
the base it opens up the base-collector junction
and allows electrons to flow from the emitter to
the collector.
This process allows the base to control the
flow of current between the emitter and collector
so we may use the transistor in a variety of ways.
Figure 4-2 Resistor Symbols.
A transistor can act as a switch or gate for
electronic signals. In practice, this means we use
transistors as electronic switches that turn
electronic circuits on or off. This is a basic function
that we use in digital logic circuits, such as those
found in computers, where we use transistors to
represent the ones and zeros of binary code.
One of the most important uses of transistors
is as an amplifier. We can use transistors to amplify
weak signals, such as the output from a
microphone, to levels that can drive a loudspeaker.
In large numbers, transistors are used to
create microprocessors where millions of
transistors are embedded into a single IC. They also
drive computer memory chips and memory
storage devices for MP3 players, smartphones,
cameras, and electronic games. Transistors are
Figure 4-3 Capacitor Types.

deeply embedded in nearly all ICs, which are part
of every electronic device.
4-7 Fuses
Fuses are basic safety components used to save
electronic and electrical components from excess
current or overcurrent that may happen due to
short circuits. a fuse contains a wire that cuts in a
certain current value, the measuring value of the
fuse is Ampere “A” which is the highest value it can
reach before the wire is cut. Once a fuse has
operated, it produces an open circuit and must be
replaced or rewired after fixing and inspecting the
circuit.
Fuses are mainly found right next to the
input power to protect against current fluctuation
that can affect and damage the entire circuit parts.
Electrical fuses come in various types
(Figure 4-7), including DC fuses, AC fuses, cartridge
fuses, D-type cartridge fuses, and HRC (High
Rupturing Capacity) fuses. Each type is designed
for specific applications and current ratings to
ensure effective protection in different scenarios.
In schematic fuses can be drawn in
different shapes such as (Figure 4-8).
Figure 4-4 Capacitor Symbol.
CHAPTER 4 33
To test a fuse, you can either inspect to
check for burns or check to see if the wire is still not
cut, or you can use a multimeter and measure if
there is small resistance which indicates the
connection of the wire, or by set the multimeter to
the continuity test and listen to the peep sound.
4-8 Switches
switches can either open or close electrical circuits
and operate by responding to an external force or
signal, allowing it to mechanically or electronically
change an electric signal's path within a circuit. This
capability makes it essential for turning electric
circuits ON and OFF and for switching electric
signals between different parts of a circuit.
Common types of switches (Figure 4-9)
include electromechanical switches, which rely on
physical movement to open or close circuits, and
solid-state switches, which operate without
moving parts, using semiconductor materials to
control the flow of electricity. see the schematic
symbol (Figure 4-10)
Figure 4-5 Transistors Photo.
34 Electrical and Electronic Components
In addition to manual operation,
electronic switches can be designed for automated
functions, responding to changes in environmental
conditions, signal levels, or other parameters. This
automation is crucial in systems requiring precise
control, safety features, or energy efficiency.
4-9 Diodes
A diode is essentially a two-terminal electronic
component that allows current to flow through it
in one direction rather than the other. This
unidirectional flow characteristic makes diodes
invaluable for controlling the direction of current
in circuits.
The most common type of diode uses a p-
n junction, which is formed by joining p-type and
n-type semiconductor materials. The direction in
which the diode allows current to flow is called the
forward direction, while the blocked direction is
known as the reverse direction.
There are several types of diodes, each
designed for specific functions and applications.
Which include standard signal diodes, Zener
diodes, Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs), and Schottky
diodes. Each type has unique characteristics
Figure 4-6 Transistor Symbols
tailored to specific needs in electronic circuits, see
(Figure 4-11), (Figure 4-12).
Diodes are used in a wide variety of
electronic applications. They serve as rectifiers,
converting alternating current (AC) to direct
current (DC), as voltage regulators, in signal
demodulation, and as protection devices in circuits
to prevent damage from reverse polarity. Light-
emitting diodes (LEDs) are also widely used as
indicators and lighting sources.
4-10 Transformers
Transformer, see (Figure 4-13), (Figure 4-14), is
mainly used to either step up or step-down AC
voltage levels without altering the frequency. The
working principle of an electric transformer relies
on electromagnetic induction, a phenomenon
where a change in magnetic field induces an
electromotive force (EMF) in a conductor.
Figure 4-7 Fuse Types.

The basic structure of a transformer consists
of a core and two or more coils of wire, known as
windings, wrapped around this core. These
windings are classified as primary and secondary
based on their input and output characteristics,
respectively. When alternating current (AC) flows
through the primary winding, it generates a varying
magnetic field, which then induces a voltage in the
secondary winding through mutual induction, the
induced voltage in the secondary winding is either
higher or lower than that of the primary voltage
depending on the number of wire winding in the
two.
Transformers come in various types to suit
different applications, including:
• Power Transformers: Used in transmission
networks for stepping up or down the voltage.
• Distribution Transformers: For final voltage
transformation in the power distribution
network.
• Isolation Transformers: Designed to decouple
two circuits, allowing AC power to flow
without connecting the circuits directly.
• Instrument Transformers: Including current
and potential transformers, used for
Figure 4-8 Fuses Symbol.
CHAPTER 4 35
measurement and protective relay purposes
in power systems.
Transformers are indispensable in the
electrical power industry, facilitating the high-
voltage transmission of electrical energy over long
distances, which significantly reduces transmission
losses. They are also critical in various applications,
including residential and commercial buildings,
industrial plants, and electronic devices, ensuring
the appropriate voltage levels are maintained for
different uses.
To test the transformer, you can measure the
resistance between the primary circuit and the
secondary circuit and that should give a small
resistance which indicates that there is no short
circuit, taking into consideration that it is better to
apply voltage to the primary circuit and measuring
the output voltage at the secondary terminals and
match it with the expected behavior either it
should be step-up or step-down the input voltage.
4-11 Amplifiers
Amplifiers increase the magnitude of a signal,
which can be a time-varying voltage or current,
Figure 4-9 Types of Switches.
36 Electrical and Electronic Components
without altering its other characteristics such as
frequency or waveform shape.
The core principle behind an amplifier's
operation involves taking a small input signal and
producing a larger output signal. This process of
signal amplification is achieved by drawing power
from a power supply and converting it into an AC
voltage signal that is delivered to the load. This
capability allows amplifiers to boost the amplitude
of signals, making them essential in both audio
applications and broader electronic systems.
The use of amplifiers spans a wide range of
applications. In audio systems, for example,
amplifiers are used to increase the sound volume
from various sources like microphones, musical
instruments, or audio players, making the sound
audible through speakers or headphones. Beyond
audio, amplifiers are also crucial in broadcasting,
telecommunications, and many types of electronic
testing and measurement equipment. They ensure
signals are strong enough to be transmitted or
processed without significant loss of information.
4-12 Inductors
For an inductor, see (Figure 4-15), electrical symbol
as in (Figure 4-16), is a fundamental passive
electronic component used in the storage of
Figure 4-10 Types of Switches and Symbol.
energy, filtering signals, and managing
electromagnetic interference in circuits.
At its core, an inductor consists of a coil of
wire, often wound around a magnetic core, which
enhances its inductive properties. When electric
current flows through this coil, it generates a
magnetic field around the inductor. The primary
characteristic of an inductor is its ability to store
energy in this magnetic field temporarily. A key
feature of inductors is their opposition to changes
in current flow, a property known as inductance.
Inductance, the defining property of an
inductor, quantifies the inductor's opposition to
changes in current. This opposition arises because
the changing magnetic field induces a voltage in
the coil that opposes the original change in current,
a phenomenon described by Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction. The unit of inductance
is the Henry (H)
Common types include air-core inductors,
which have no magnetic core, and ferrite-core
inductors, which use a magnetic material to
increase inductance. Other varieties include
toroidal inductors, with a donut-shaped core, and
Figure 4-11 Diode Types.

variable inductors, whose inductance can be
adjusted.
They are vital in power supplies for filtering
and energy storage, in radiofrequency applications
for tuning and impedance matching, and in digital
circuits for managing electromagnetic
interference. Additionally, inductors are used in
combination with capacitors to create resonant
circuits, which are essential in communication
systems.
Alongside resistors and capacitors, inductors
constitute one of the three primary passive
components in electronics. Unlike active
components, such as transistors, that can
introduce power into a circuit, inductors do not
generate power. Instead, they store and release
energy, influencing the current and voltage in the
circuit without amplifying them.
The operation of an inductor is closely related
to the principles of electromagnetism. The
magnetic field created by the current flowing
through the coil stores energy. When the current
changes, the magnetic field does too, inducing a
voltage that opposes the original current change.
This property makes inductors useful for
Figure 4-12 Diode Symbols.
CHAPTER 4 37
smoothing out variations in electrical signals and
for storing energy temporarily in a circuit.
4-13 Power Sources
The primary function of a power source is to
convert one form of energy, such as mechanical,
chemical, or solar energy into electrical energy,
ensuring that electronic devices receive the correct
type and amount of power they require to function
efficiently. These sources can range from simple
batteries to complex electrical power systems,
each designed to meet specific energy
requirements.
The power can be either driven from Direct
Current (DC) or Alternating Current (AC). In the DC,
the current moves in one direction, and the voltage
is said to be low compared to those of the AC, since
most of the devices that work with DC normally
require voltages from 3V to 32V. while in the AC
the current alternates its direction, such as the
power from the wall outlet, which is either 120V or
220V, depending on the country standard.
Figure 4-13 Transformer Photo.
38 Electrical and Electronic Components
Devices may be powered directly from the wall
plug if it is AC operating devices, otherwise it may
require an interface such as a power supply circuit,
or adapter that has a power supply circuit that
delivers the required voltage and current to match
the device requirement. See some power source
types (Figure 4-17), and symbols (Figure 4-18).
4-14 Motors
The fundamental principle behind all-electric
motors is electromagnetic induction, which allows
for the conversion of electricity into
circular/rotational motion. This process involves
magnetic fields generated by electric currents
within the motor, which interact to create force
and rotational motion, in a circuit, the schematic
for a motor is shown in (Figure 4-20).
Electric motors can be broadly classified
into two main categories based on the type of
electrical current they utilize:
• AC Motors (Alternating Current Motors):
These are powered by alternating current and
are commonly used in applications where
motor speed needs to be controlled. AC
motors can be further divided into two key
Figure 4-14 Transformer Symbol.
types: induction motors and synchronous
motors. Induction motors are widely used in
industrial and household applications due to
their simplicity, durability, and cost-
effectiveness. Synchronous motors, on the
other hand, operate at a constant speed up to
their natural frequency, making them suitable
for applications where precise speed control
is necessary.
• DC Motors (Direct Current Motors): These
are powered by direct current and are known
for their high starting torque and
straightforward speed control. They are
typically used in applications requiring motor
speed adjustment, direction reversal, and
precise control of motor operation.
In addition to the standard AC and DC motors,
there are special-purpose motors designed for
specific tasks. These include stepper motors, often
used in precision control applications like robotics
Figure 4-15 Inductors Photo.

and 3D printers, and servo motors, which are used
in applications requiring precise position control,
such as automated manufacturing systems, see
(Figure 4-19).
The basic components of electric motors
include the rotor (the moving part), the stator (the
stationary part), bearings that support the rotor,
windings for inducing magnetic fields, and a
commutator or slip rings (in some types of motors)
to ensure current directionality appropriate for
generating motion. The construction and materials
of these components vary depending on the motor
type and its intended application.
4-15 Relays and Contactors
A relay, see (Figure 4-21), is an electrically
operated switch. It uses an electromagnet to
mechanically operate a switching mechanism.
Relays are used to control a low-power signal or
multiple circuits with one signal. They are essential
in applications where it's necessary to control a
Figure 4-16 Inductor Symbol.
CHAPTER 4 39
circuit by a separate low-power signal or where
several circuits must be controlled by one signal.
Relays are generally suitable for carrying loads
of 10A or less. They are widely used for signal
switching, where the electrical load is not heavy.
For instance, relays can be found in computer
interfaces, telecommunications, automotive
applications, and small home appliances, where
the need for controlling circuits with a low-power
signal is prevalent.
Contactors, on the other hand, see (Figure
4-22), are a special type of relay designed
specifically for switching an electrical power
circuit. Unlike standard relays, contactors can
handle significantly higher current loads, making
them suitable for industrial applications involving
electric motors, lighting, heating, and other high-
power loads.
Figure 4-17 Power Source Types.
40 Electrical and Electronic Components
The primary difference between relays and
contactors lies in their application scope based on
the electrical load they are designed to handle.
While relays are used for low-current applications,
contactors are designed for high-current
applications. This distinction is not just about the
capacity but also involves the physical build, with
contactors generally being larger due to their need
to handle larger currents and voltages.
Additionally, contactors usually have built-in
features such as arc suppression to safely manage
the switching of high-power loads, which is not as
critical in low-power relay applications. The circuit
schematic of the relay and contactor is shown in
(Figure 4-23).
4-16 Controllers
A microcontroller integrates all the components of
a microcomputer onto a single chip. This includes
the processor (CPU), memory (RAM, ROM,
EPROM), and input/output peripherals, such as
timers, counters, and serial ports. This integration
makes microcontrollers highly efficient, and cost-
Figure 4-18 Power Source Symbol.
effective solutions for managing embedded
systems.
The basic operation of a microcontroller
involves gathering input from the device it's
controlling, processing this information based on
programmed instructions, and then outputting
commands to perform specific actions. This
process enables microcontrollers to interact with
and control other parts of an electronic system,
making decisions based on the data received and
tasks assigned.
Microcontrollers can be categorized based on
their architecture (8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, etc.), which
refers to the size of the data paths, registers, and
instructions they can handle. The choice between
these types depends on the requirements of the
application, including processing power, memory
size, and power consumption. For example, 8-bit
microcontrollers are often used in simple
applications such as household appliances, while
32-bit versions are preferred for complex tasks like
multimedia processing or advanced automotive
control systems.
Figure 4-19 Motor Types.

Microcontrollers are integral to modern
electronics, offering a compact, efficient solution
for controlling a vast array of devices and systems.
Their ability to process data and execute
commands based on programmed instructions
allows them to perform specific tasks, making
them essential components in everything from
everyday gadgets to sophisticated industrial
machinery. As technology advances, the
capabilities and applications of microcontrollers
continue to expand, driving innovation across
numerous fields.
4-17 ICs
An IC comprises a set of electronic components,
including transistors, resistors, capacitors, and
diodes, all embedded into a single piece of
semiconductor material, usually silicon. This
integration allows for complex circuits to be
miniaturized and mass-produced, significantly
reducing the size, cost, and even power
consumption of electronic devices.
Figure 4-20 Motor Symbols.
CHAPTER 4 41
Integrated circuits can be broadly categorized
into two types: analog ICs and digital ICs. Analog
ICs deal with continuous signals and perform
functions such as amplification and modulation.
Digital ICs, on the other hand, work with discrete
signals and are used in logic operations,
computing, and digital storage. There are also
mixed-signal ICs that combine both analog and
digital functionalities, catering to applications that
require both signal types.
Integrated circuits have fundamentally
transformed the landscape of electronics, enabling
the development of compact, efficient, and
affordable electronic devices that permeate nearly
every aspect of modern life. As technology
continues to advance, the role of ICs is set to
become even more pivotal, driving further
innovation in the electronics industry and beyond.
4-18 PCBs
It provides a platform for arranging electronic
components compactly and efficiently, facilitating
electrical connections between them through the
use of conductive tracks, pads, and other features
Figure 4-21 Relay Types.
 42 Electrical and Electronic Components
etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-
conductive substrate.
There are several types of PCBs, each suited to
different applications based on their properties
and construction methods:
• Single-sided PCBs: These have one layer of
conductive material and are suitable for simple
electronics.
• Double-sided PCBs: These boards have
conductive copper layers on both sides,
allowing for more complex circuits.
• Multilayer PCBs: Comprising three or more
layers of conductive material, these PCBs can
support highly complex and dense circuit
designs.
• Flexible PCBs: Made with a flexible material,
these can bend during use, making them ideal
for compact or mobile devices.
• Rigid PCBs: Constructed from a solid substrate,
these provide a sturdy base for electronic
components.
The manufacturing of PCBs involves several steps:
Figure 4-22 Contactor Photo.
• Design and Layout: Using specialized software,
designers create a schematic of the circuit to be
produced.
• Printing and Etching: The design is printed onto
a copper-clad laminate, and unwanted copper
is chemically removed, leaving behind the
circuit pattern.
• Drilling and Plating: Holes are drilled for
component leads, and the board is plated to
add copper to the holes.
• Assembly: Electronic components are placed
and soldered onto the PCB.
• Testing: The completed board is tested for
functionality and adherence to specifications
4-19 Electrodes, Sensors, and
Transducers
An electrode essentially acts as a transducer by
converting ionic currents into electronic currents.
This conversion is crucial in electrochemical
sensors and devices, where the interaction
between the electrode and a specific substance
results in a measurable electrical signal.
In biomedical applications, electrodes are
often used alongside sensors and transducers to
Figure 4-23 Relay and Contactor
Schematic.

monitor physiological parameters. For instance,
electrodes in an electrocardiogram (ECG) device
detect the electrical activity of the heart, which is
then converted into a signal that can be displayed
and analyzed. The performance characteristics of
these devices, such as sensitivity, and static and
dynamic response, are critical for accurate and
reliable measurements.
The terms "sensor" and "transducer" are
sometimes used interchangeably, but there is a
subtle difference. A sensor detects changes in
physical, chemical, or biological conditions and
responds with an output signal. A transducer, on
the other hand, is a broader category that includes
any device converting energy from one form to
another. In this context, all sensors are transducers
because they convert a physical phenomenon into
an electrical signal, but not all transducers are
sensors.
Electrochemical sensors are a specific type of
sensor where the electrode plays a central role.
These sensors operate by reacting with a gas or
liquid analyte, producing an electrical signal
proportional to the concentration of the analyte.
They are widely used for detecting gases like
carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, and oxygen in
various environments, from industrial settings to
portable safety equipment.
Electrochemical sensors are classified based
on the electrode acting as the transducer element.
The development of these sensors has been
significant for medical diagnostics, environmental
monitoring, and industrial safety. Their ability to
provide precise, real-time data on chemical
compositions makes them invaluable in many
applications.
CHAPTER 4 43
4-20 Circuit Diagram
An electronic circuit diagram, also known as a
schematic diagram, is a graphical representation of
an electrical circuit. It employs standardized
symbols to represent the different components
within the circuit, such as resistors, capacitors,
transistors, and the connections between them.
These diagrams serve as essential tools for
engineers and technicians, providing a detailed
blueprint for constructing, analyzing, and
troubleshooting electronic devices and systems.
The primary purpose of a circuit diagram is to
convey the structure and function of an electronic
circuit in a clear and standardized manner. By using
universally recognized symbols and organizational
strategies, these diagrams allow individuals,
regardless of their location or background, to
understand complex circuitry at a glance. This
universality makes it easier to share designs,
collaborate on projects, and ensure consistency
across the electronics industry.
Symbols: Each component in a circuit is
represented by a specific symbol. For example, a
resistor is typically depicted as a zigzag line, while
a capacitor is shown as two parallel lines with a gap
between them. Learning these symbols is crucial
for anyone looking to read or create circuit
diagrams.
Connections: Lines in a circuit diagram
represent electrical connections between
components. A solid line indicates a direct
connection, while a dashed line might represent a
non-physical connection, such as a wireless link.
Labels: Components are often labeled with
values or specifications, such as resistance in ohms
44 Electrical and Electronic Components
for resistors or capacitance in farads for capacitors.
These labels provide the necessary details for
assembling or understanding the circuit's
functionality.
Understanding how to read a circuit diagram is
an essential skill for anyone involved in the design,
construction, or maintenance of electronic
systems. Key to this is familiarity with the standard
symbols and conventions used in these diagrams.
Similarly, creating effective circuit diagrams
requires not only an understanding of the
components and their functions but also the ability
to clearly and accurately represent the connections
and relationships between them.
Circuit diagrams play a critical role
throughout the lifecycle of an electronic device.
During the design phase, they help engineers
visualize and refine their concepts. In
manufacturing, they guide the assembly process,
ensuring that each component is correctly placed
and connected. And in maintenance or repair
scenarios, they provide invaluable guidance for
diagnosing and fixing issues..
4-21 Recapitulation
Now return to the objectives and self-
evaluation questions at the beginning of the
chapter and see how well you can answer
them. If you cannot answer certain questions,
place a checkmark next to each, and reread
appropriate parts of the text. Next, try to
answer the following questions, using the
same procedure.
Questions
1. Name three types of resistors.
2. How to measure current in a circuit?
3. What is the difference between a relay and a
contactor?
Suggested Readings
Introduction to Electric Circuits, 1976 - 4th Edition,
By Jackson, Herbert W. - Director, ISBN-0-13-
481226-3.
 CHAPTER 5 45

CHAPTER 5

Healthcare Departments and Devices

5-1 Objectives
1. Be able to list the main devices in each hospital 3. Briefly talk about managing the medical
department with general information about devices.
them.
4. Be able to learn more by having the necessary
2. Be able to speak about hospital design solid background.
requirements and the relationship between
the departments.

3. How does medical furniture participate in the

5-2 Self-Evaluation Questions
quality of medical care?
These questions test your prior knowledge of the
4. Where should the surgical operation be held?
material in this chapter. Look for the answers as
And what are the key considerations to keep
you read the text. After you have finished studying
in mind for Operation rooms?
this chapter, try answering these questions and
those at the end of the chapter. 5. List 10 different specialized laboratories.

1. What are the requirements you should put in

mind when designing a medical imaging 5-3 Introduction
department?
As known, there are different kinds of healthcare
2. What is a ward? and list 5 kinds of wards. facilities, such as clinics, diagnostic centers, and
hospitals. These facilities have different
46 Healthcare Departments and Devices
departments for different needs, that contain
different kinds of medical devices. This chapter
presents general and basic information and
knowledge about the majority of these
departments and some of their design
requirements, as well as the main devices found in
each department with general information about
their use, types, and importance.
5-4 Hospital Departments
Hospital departments are crucial components of
healthcare facilities, each serving specific functions
to ensure comprehensive patient care and
operational efficiency, these departments can be
categorized as:
1. Technical departments – such as clinical
engineering, facilities management,
information technology, security and safety,
transportation, and logistics departments.
2. Supportive departments – such as nuclear
medicine, Central sterile, pharmacy, clinical
laboratory, radiology imaging, radiotherapy,
nursing, environmental services, nutrition,
and social services departments.
3. Administrative departments – materials
management, patient relations, human
resources, finance, quality improvement, legal
affairs, and medical records.
4. Clinical departments – such as emergency,
intensive care, operating theatres, inpatient,
outpatient, physical therapy & rehabilitation,
daycare, and hemodialysis.
Considering hospitals vary widely in the services
they offer therefore, in the departments they have,
in which it is not necessary to have all the
departments in each healthcare facility, it is up to
the requirement to set the needed departments.
The following headings provide a brief
about most of the main departments, some of their
design basics requirement, and the main medical
device in each department.
5-4-1 Operating Room Department
This is where surgeries are held in the aseptic
environment to treat different kinds of disease and
medical issues, this department is normally
isolated from other departments, and access is
restricted only to the authorized staff. It consists of
one or more operation theatres with other support
facilities.
To maintain a good surgery practice three
challenges must be considered which are the pain
associated with cutting into the body, the bleeding,
and the infection caused by microorganisms that
exist almost everywhere on earth. engineers and
other medical professionals work around the clock
to come up with better solutions to manage these
challenges by upgrading the available devices
fabricating newer protocols, introducing newer
designs, etc.
Different types of operation rooms can be
performed in an OR depending on the requirement
of the surgery, where each of these ORs requires a
different setup and devices.
 CHAPTER 5 47

1. Ophthalmology Operating Room – treat 5-4-1-1 Operation Department Design

diseases of the eye.
The planning held by the project team for this
2. Otolaryngology Operating Room – treats
department should be based on statistical data to
disease of the ear, nose, and throat.
expect the workload as well as the volume of the
3. Orthopedics Operating Room – treat the
patients to be able to set the required number of
disease of the bones, joints, and other
operating rooms which will lead to a further set of
locomotor organs.
the required size and design of pre-anesthesia
4. Neurosurgery Operating Room – treats
holding area, post-anesthesia recovery area,
disease of the brain and nervous system.
equipment storage area, sterilization capacity, and
5. cardiothoracic Operating Room – treat
administrative offices, etc.
diseases of the heart and chest cavity.
The design should into consideration proper
6. Urology Operating Room – treats diseases of
waste management solutions to fulfill the traffic
the urinary system.
requirements of patients, staff, supplies, etc. which
7. Obstetrics and Gynecology Operating Room –
could be met by designing a double corridor
for the pregnancy and delivery of babies.
concept “clean” and “dirty” corridor, or any other
8. Gynecology Operating Room – treats diseases
suitable design.
of the female reproductive system.
Other than the operating room itself, there
9. Plastic surgery Operating Room – treat the
should be an anesthetic room, prep room, dirty
appearance and shape.
utility room, sterilization room, scrubbing area that
10. Endoscopy Operating Room – treat inside the
is used by the operation team to scrub and clean
body using an endoscope.
hands before and after an operation, and possibly
11. Robotic Operating Room – treat and operate
other supportive utility such as offices, rooms to
using a robot system.
change clothes, rest, storage, etc.
12. Interventional Radiology Operating Room –
The department is recommended to be
treat tumors and others using radiological
adjacent to the ICU for easy transfer of the patient
devices.
from the recovery area, as well as to be adjacent to
13. Cath Lab Operating Room – treat and visualize
surgical beds to allow ease of transfer after the
the arteries of the heart and its champers.
recovery, as well as to be easily accessible to
14. Emergency Operating Room – treat patients
Accident and Emergency, radiology, pathology,
in emergencies.
and CSSD department to allow quick and efficient
15. Transplant Operating Room – for organ
different needed tasks.
transplantation.
The operation room should be spacious to
16. Bariatric surgery Operating Room – reduce
accommodate different procedures devices and
food consumption and help weight loss by
staff needs, as well as to be clean, and well-lit with
removing a part of the stomach.
overhead surgical lights, containing viewing
screens and monitors for different tasks. OR are
generally windowless, and feature controlled
48 Healthcare Departments and Devices
temperature and humidity, contain special air
filters to maintain elevated positive air pressure,
have an electrical backup in case of a black-out,
and contain wall outlets for medical gases.
5-4-1-2 Operation Department Devices
The below devices are essential in the operation
department, ensuring a safe and efficient surgical
environment for medical procedures.
1. Anesthesia Machine (Figure 5-1 Anesthesia
Machine.) – Used in operation to induce and
maintain anesthesia to the body to allow
performing operations without feeling the
Figure 5-1 Anesthesia Machine.
pain, it generates and mixes medical gases and
inhalation of anesthetic agents. It is used with
the respiratory system allowing delivery and
distribution of gases to the whole-body
systems.
The anesthetic machine serves as a
primary workstation for anesthetists, enabling
them to control patients’ consciousness levels
and provide analgesia effectively during
various medical interventions.
2. ECG Monitor (Figure 5-2 ECG Monitor.) –
Display the heart's electrical activity in the
form of a graph (electrocardiograph) to
identify and detect various cardiac problems
by placing electrodes around/by the chest
area to pick up the heart signals (P, Q, R, S, T,
and U) allowing to analyses up normality in
heart rate, cardiac muscle contraction, cardiac
muscle relaxation, etc. which play a vital role
in monitoring heart health, detecting
irregularities, guiding treatment decisions,
and assessing overall cardiac function.
Common types of ECG are:
Figure 5-2 ECG Monitor.

• resting ECG, where the signal is taken
when the patient lying still.
• Exercise ECG, known as treadmill test or
stress test.
• Holter monitor, which monitors and
tracks ECG continuously for 24 hours or
longer.
3. Defibrillator (Figure 5-3 Defibrillator.) – This
is a device that delivers an electric shock -
Measured in Joules (J) - through electrodes to
the heart in cases of life-threatening cardiac
arrhythmias, restoring the heart's normal
rhythm. Defibrillators are life-saving devices in
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) as well
as found in emergency response vehicles.
It has two main types:
• Automated External Defibrillator (AED): a
portable device used for emergency
treatment of sudden cardiac arrest.
• Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator (ICD):
Surgically implanted device that monitors and
corrects abnormal heart rhythms.
Laryngoscope (Figure 5-4 Laryngoscope.
Figure 5-3 Defibrillator.
CHAPTER 5 49
4. ) – A device containing a light source inserted
through the mouth to visually examine the
back of the throat for diagnosis of different
kinds of problems such as cough, throat pain,
bleeding, etc. It also may be used to
facilitate tracheal intubation during general
anesthesia or cardiopulmonary resuscitation,
etc.
Laryngoscopes are commonly used in
emergency rooms, operating rooms, and
critical care settings for airway management,
anesthesia induction, and emergency
intubation procedures.
5. Medical Gas Regulators (Figure 5-5 Medical
Gas Regulator.) – These are essential devices
that regulate the pressure and flow of medical
gases from gas cylinders or hospital medical
gas systems. They ensure the precise
administration of medical gases.
Figure 5-4 Laryngoscope.
50 Healthcare Departments and Devices
There are different types of these
regulators catering to specific patient needs
and clinical settings, such as constant flow,
adjustable flow, high-flow oxygen, pediatric
oxygen, and digital oxygen regulators.
6. Patient Monitor (Figure 5-6 Patient Monitor.)
– A medical device that uses electrodes and
sensors to measure essential physiological
parameters, such as vital signs, these are heart
rate (HR), blood pressure (BP), body
temperature, respiratory rate (RR), and
oxygen saturation levels (SpO2).
Vital signs monitors are equipped with
alarm systems that alert healthcare staff to
abnormal readings or critical changes, this
feature helps in timely intervention and
patient care.
There are different kinds of patient
monitors for special parameters/parameters
Figure 5-5 Medical Gas Regulator.
such as monitors for Apnea, fetal, pulse
oximeters, intracranial pressure, blood
glucose, respiratory, cardiac, capnography,
blood pressure, Holter, and others.
7. Resuscitation Bag (Figure 5-7) – Commonly
known as an AMBU bag or bag valve mask
(BVM), which is a hand-held device utilized in
medical emergencies to provide manual
ventilation and respiratory support to
individuals experiencing respiratory distress or
failure, Enables the delivery of oxygen-
enriched air into the lungs, assisting with
breathing for patients who are unable to do so
adequately on their own, facilitates positive
pressure ventilation by manually squeezing
the bag to inflate the lungs and then allowing
for passive exhalation.
The resuscitation bag serves as a crucial
tool in emergency medicine, resuscitation
efforts, and critical care scenarios, ensuring
adequate oxygenation and ventilation for
Figure 5-6 Patient Monitor.

patients in need of immediate respiratory
assistance.
8. Autoclave (Figure 5-8 Autoclave.) – A device
used for sterilization that employs heat and
pressure to eliminate bacteria, viruses, fungi,
and spores present on equipment or objects.
Autoclaves are essential for ensuring the
safety of medical instruments, laboratory
tools, and other objects by providing a reliable
method of disinfection and sterilization.
There are different types of autoclaves
according to the needs, which include:
• bench top autoclaves (N-type): These
are essentially simple, gravity
displacement autoclaves that only
remove a certain portion of the air inside
the machine’s chamber. Designed for the
treatment of simpler loads like flat
medical tools.
• Gravity displacement type autoclave: In
this autoclave, steam displaces air in the
chamber by gravity through a drain port.
• Positive pressure displacement type (B-
type): This is an advanced autoclave, in
which steam is generated in a separate
steam generator, which is then passed
into the autoclave, where the air inside
Figure 5-7 Resuscitation Bag.
CHAPTER 5 51
the chamber is removed by a powerful
vacuum pump. for sterilization.
• Negative pressure displacement type (S-
type): This is the most expensive type of
autoclave. It comes with a vacuum
generator and steam generator that works
efficiently to achieve complete sterilization
of equipment.
9. Electrosurgical Unit (Figure 5-10
Electrosurgical Unit.) – This is a surgical device
that utilizes high-frequency electrical currents
at a variety of electrical waveforms, which lead
to different corresponding tissue effects such
as cutting tissue, or coagulating blood vessels,
allowing surgeons to perform intricate
procedures efficiently.
ESUs are commonly found in operating
rooms and are crucial for various surgical
operations where precision cutting and
controlled cauterization are required to
minimize bleeding.
ESU consists of an electrical generator and
a handpiece with one or more electrodes
Figure 5-8 Autoclave.
52 Healthcare Departments and Devices
11. Instrument Table (MAYO) (Figure 5-11
Figure 5-10 Electrosurgical Unit.
which are controlled using a switch on the
handpiece or a foot switch.
An electrosurgical unit can be operated in
two modes, the monopolar mode and the
bipolar mode. The most significant difference
between these two modes is the method by
which the electric current enters and leaves
the tissue.
10. Operating Theatre Lamp, Ceiling Mounted
(Figure 5-9 Operating Theatre Lamp, Ceiling
Mounted.) – This is a crucial medical device
designed to provide optimal illumination of
the surgical field during procedures, enabling
Figure 5-9 Operating Theatre Lamp,
Ceiling Mounted.
surgeons to perform surgeries with precision
and accuracy.
They come in various types with different
features such as adjustable intensity, color
temperature control, shadow management,
and flexibility to enhance visibility and reduce
eye strain for surgical teams.
Instrument Table (MAYO).) – Also known as a
Mayo stand, is a movable table used in
medical settings, particularly during surgeries,
to hold sterile instruments, supplies, and other
items needed within easy reach during
procedures.
Instrument tables typically feature a
stainless-steel construction, adjustable height,
and a tray with raised edges to prevent
instruments from rolling off. Some models
may have casters for mobility or a foot-
operated base for height adjustment.
Figure 5-11 Instrument Table (MAYO).

They play a crucial role in preventing
contamination and ensuring a smooth flow of
sterile instruments during medical
procedures.
12. Examination Lamp, Mobile (Figure 5-12
Examination Lamp, Mobile.) – Is a portable
lighting device equipped with wheels that can
be easily maneuvered to provide illumination
in any healthcare facility where temporary or
additional lighting is needed to ensure proper
visibility during medical interventions,
especially during surgeries or procedures
where fixed lights are not suitable.
Mobile operating theatre lamps are
designed to be lightweight, adjustable in
height and angle, and equipped with high-
intensity LED bulbs for optimal brightness and
color rendering. Some models may offer
battery-powered operation for enhanced
mobility.
13. Operating Theatre Table (Figure 5-13
Operating Theatre Table.) – is specialized
Figure 5-12 Examination Lamp, Mobile.
CHAPTER 5 53
medical equipment designed to support
patients during surgical procedures by
providing a stable and adjustable platform for
positioning the patient for surgery.
Operating theatre tables are equipped
with adjustable height, tilt, and positioning
capabilities to accommodate various surgical
specialties and procedures. They often have
radiolucent tops to allow X-ray imaging
without moving the patient.
There are different types of operating
theatre tables depending on the operation
needs, such as orthopedic tables, and
specialized tables for specific procedures like
C-arm compatible tables for fluoroscopy-
guided surgeries.
14. Surgeon's Stool (Figure 5-14 Surgeon's Stool.)
– This is a specialized seating designed to
provide ergonomic support and comfort for
surgeons and medical professionals during
long surgical procedures. It allows them to
maintain proper posture and focus on the task
at hand without discomfort.
Surgeon's stools are typically adjustable in
height, with cushioned seats and backrests for
optimal lumbar support. They often have
Figure 5-13 Operating Theatre Table.
54 Healthcare Departments and Devices
swivel capabilities and casters for easy
mobility within the operating room.
These stools play a vital role in promoting
the well-being of surgeons by reducing strain
on their back, neck, and legs, thus enhancing
concentration and precision during surgeries.
Surgeon's stools are designed for easy
cleaning and disinfection to maintain a sterile
environment in the operating room and
prevent cross-contamination.
15. Surgeon Footstep (Figure 5-15 Surgeon
Foot Step.) – Surgeon footsteps are crucial
for maintaining proper positioning, stability,
and balance in the operating room. Each step
taken by the surgeon contributes to the
precision and efficiency of the surgical
procedure.
The positioning of a surgeon's feet plays a
significant role in maintaining ergonomic
posture, facilitating movement around the
operating table, and ensuring optimal reach
Figure 5-14 Surgeon's Stool.
for instruments and equipment during
surgery.
16. Oximeter (Figure 5-16 Pulse Oximeter.) – This
is a noninvasive device used to measure the
oxygen saturation levels in the blood,
assessing respiratory function, especially in
emergency medicine, intensive care, and
during surgeries. It allows healthcare
providers to quickly evaluate oxygen levels
and make informed treatment decisions. it
provides a quick and painless way to monitor
how well oxygen is being carried to different
parts of the body.
This small and lightweight tool is
commonly attached to a person's finger, toe,
or earlobe to obtain oxygen saturation
readings along with the heart rate. Low oxygen
saturation levels may indicate certain health
conditions that require medical attention.
Figure 5-15 Surgeon Foot Step.

17. Medical Refrigerator (Figure 5-17 Medical
Refrigerator.) – This is a specialized
refrigeration unit used for storing
temperature-sensitive medical supplies,
medications, vaccines, blood samples, and
other biological materials that require specific
temperature control to maintain their efficacy.
Medical refrigerators are designed to
operate within narrow temperature ranges to
ensure the safe storage of sensitive items.
They often feature precise temperature
controls, alarms for temperature deviations,
and backup systems to prevent spoilage.
These refrigerators are equipped with
features like locks, access control systems,
temperature monitoring devices, and data
logging capabilities to comply with regulatory
standards and ensure the integrity of stored
medical products.
Medical refrigerators adhere to strict
guidelines set by regulatory bodies such as the
CDC (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention) and WHO (World Health
Figure 5-16 Pulse Oximeter.
CHAPTER 5 55
Organization) to guarantee the quality and
safety of stored medications and biological
materials.
18. Sterilizing Drum (Figure 5-18 Sterilizing Drum.)
- This is used for sterilizing surgical
instruments, equipment, and medical supplies
through the application of steam under
pressure.
The sterilizing drum utilizes high-pressure
steam to eliminate microorganisms, bacteria,
and pathogens from items placed inside. The
steam penetrates the materials, ensuring
thorough sterilization for safe use in medical
procedures.
Are commonly found in hospitals, clinics,
dental practices, and laboratories where
sterilized instruments are critical for
preventing infections and maintaining aseptic
conditions during medical interventions.
Figure 5-17 Medical Refrigerator.
56 Healthcare Departments and Devices
19. Patient Trolley (Figure 5-19 Patient Trolley.) –
This is a wheeled medical equipment used for
transporting patients within healthcare
facilities. It provides a safe and comfortable
platform for patient movement.
Patient trolleys are designed with
adjustable backrests, side rails, headboards,
and footboards to ensure patient comfort and
safety during transport. They often come with
locking mechanisms, brakes, and
maneuverable wheels for ease of use.
There are various types of patient trolleys
tailored for specific purposes, including
standard hospital beds, transport stretchers,
emergency stretchers, and specialized trolleys
for intensive care units (ICUs) or operating
theaters.
Patient trolleys are constructed with
materials that are easy to clean and disinfect
to maintain optimal hygiene standards in
healthcare settings. Disposable or washable
mattress covers are often used to prevent
cross-contamination.
Figure 5-18 Sterilizing Drum.
20. Instrument Trolleys (Figure 5-20 Instrument
Trolleys.) – These are mobile storage units
used in healthcare settings to transport
medical instruments, supplies, and
equipment.
These trolleys are typically equipped with
multiple shelves, drawers, compartments, and
sometimes trays or bins for organizing and
storing medical tools efficiently. Some trolleys
may have locking mechanisms or security
features for safeguarding valuable equipment.
Instrument trolleys come in various sizes
and configurations to suit different medical
specialties, such as surgery, emergency care,
dentistry, or outpatient services. They are
designed to streamline workflow by providing
easy access to necessary tools.
21. Suction Machine, Electric (Figure 5-21 Suction
Machine, Electric.) – A vital medical device
used to remove obstructions like mucus,
saliva, blood, and other fluids from a patient's
airway. It helps prevent pulmonary aspiration
Figure 5-19 Patient Trolley.

and lung infections by effectively clearing the
airways.
The essential elements of a suction
machine include the source of suction, tubing,
a collection canister or bottle, and sometimes
a manometer to measure suction pressure.
Portable units often come with bacteria filters
and aspirator tubing kits for added hygiene.
Suction machines play a crucial role in
maintaining respiratory function and
simplifying breathing for patients who require
assistance in clearing their airways. They are
particularly useful in emergencies and during
procedures where airway management is
essential.
22. Scrub Sinks (Figure 5-22 Scrub Sinks.) - These
are specialized sinks designed to perform hand
hygiene before surgeries or medical
procedures. They provide a dedicated space
for thorough handwashing to reduce the risk
of infections.
Figure 5-20 Instrument Trolleys.
CHAPTER 5 57
Scrub sinks are typically equipped with
foot, knee, or sensor-operated controls to
enable hands-free operation and minimize
contamination. They often feature multiple
sink bays, elbow-operated faucets, soap
dispensers, and sometimes integrated nail
brushes for comprehensive scrubbing.
These sinks are constructed with
materials that are easy to clean and disinfect,
ensuring high standards of hygiene in surgical
environments. Some scrub sinks may
incorporate antimicrobial coatings or UV
sterilization systems for added infection
control.
Infusion Pump (Figure 5-23 Infusion
Pump.
23. ) – This is a device designed to deliver fluids,
medications, chemotherapy, pain
management solutions or nutrients, and other
Figure 5-21 Suction Machine, Electric.
58 Healthcare Departments and Devices
therapeutic fluids into a patient's circulatory
system in precise and controlled amounts.
These devices are often used to ensure
the continuous and accurate administration of
fluids over a specified period. They contribute
to making healthcare procedures safer by
minimizing manual errors and enhancing the
efficiency of treatment delivery.
Infusion pump systems undergo rigorous
testing and calibration to guarantee accurate
fluid delivery within a small margin of error.
24. Syringe Pump (Figure 5-24 Syringe Pump.) -
This is a motorized device that precisely
controls the movement of a fluid from a
syringe by mechanically inserting or retracting
the plunger.
Syringe pumps are crucial in delivering
hydration, nutrition, medications, and other
fluids continuously through intravenous lines.
They are considered priority medical devices
for their role in precise fluid delivery in
healthcare settings.
Figure 5-22 Scrub Sinks.
25. Pendant (Figure 5-25 Pendant.) - These are
overhead equipment management systems
suspended from ceilings, providing a versatile
solution for organizing medical gas supply
lines, electrical outlets, communication
devices, and monitoring equipment within
reach.
There are various types of pendants,
including single-arm pendants, double-arm
pendants, and multi-tiered pendants, each
offering different configurations and
capabilities to cater to specific needs in
intensive care units (ICUs), operating rooms,
and other clinical settings.
Pendants enhance workflow efficiency by
centralizing essential services and equipment
around patient beds, reducing clutter on the
floor, and optimizing space utilization. They
improve ergonomics and accessibility,
allowing healthcare providers to focus on
patient care.
Figure 5-23 Infusion Pump.

Modern pendants often come equipped
with gas outlets, electrical sockets, data ports,
equipment shelves, lighting fixtures, and
monitor mounts. Some advanced models may
incorporate integrated equipment
management systems and ergonomic
positioning controls for added convenience.
Oxygen Generator (Figure 5-26 Oxygen
Generator.
26. ) - This is a device that extracts oxygen from
the surrounding air, purifies it and delivers it
to individuals who require supplemental
oxygen therapy.
Oxygen generators work by filtering out
nitrogen from the air, resulting in a higher
concentration of oxygen that can be delivered
to patients with respiratory conditions, such as
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
or hypoxemia.
These devices provide a reliable and cost-
effective source of oxygen compared to
traditional oxygen cylinders. They are
commonly used in hospitals, clinics, and home
settings to ensure patients receive the
necessary oxygen levels for breathing support.
Figure 5-24 Syringe Pump.
CHAPTER 5 59
5-4-2 Accident & Emergency
This department may also be called the
Casualty Department, it is where the patients
arrive in an ambulance or emergency taken to.
This department operates 24 hours a day,
every day of the week, and is staffed, and equipped
to deal with all emergencies. Patients are assessed
and seen in order of need, usually with a separate
minor injury area supported by nurses.
5-4-2-1 Accident & Emergency Design
The accident and Emergency department is
considered the first point of contact with the
hospital for many patients, which means it should
be designed in such a way that serves and handles
a lot of tasks for a high number of patients and staff
in an organized way.
The design of the department should be taken
into consideration, allowing quick access of the
staff to the patients at all times, and ensuring the
Figure 5-25 Pendant.
60 Healthcare Departments and Devices
quick movement of patients who require
immediate care in a way that ensures the security
of the staff, patient, and medical supplies in a way
that prevents patients or unauthorized staff from
gaining access to another part of the hospital that
requires access authorization.
Considering the inter-departmental
relationship the department design should be
equipped with a reception and a waiting area for
patients arriving and waiting to receive care and
allow access from all sides to a different type of
patients who arrive on trolleys or wheelchairs to
move easily to consultation/examination space or
resuscitation/trauma room as well as staff
handling materials on a trolley.
The doors and corridors should be wide
enough to allow patients on trolleys, wheelchairs,
and any other.
Considering the intra-departmental
relationship the department should be adjacent to
Figure 5-26 Oxygen Generator.
the radiology department, ICU/CCU, Operating
rooms, Laboratory, and any other support services.
The department's main entrance is
recommended to be separated from the main
hospital road to avoid traffic.
5-4-2-2 Accident & Emergency Devices
The below devices are crucial in accident and
emergency settings to provide immediate care and
lifesaving interventions to patients in urgent
medical situations.
1. Ventilator (Figure 5-27 Ventilator.) – This is a
medical device that assists or takes over the
breathing process for patients who are unable
to breathe effectively on their own.
Ventilators deliver oxygen-rich air into the
lungs and remove carbon dioxide, supporting
respiratory function and maintaining
adequate oxygen levels in the blood.
Ventilators play a critical role in treating
severe COVID-19 cases where patients
experience respiratory distress, helping them
breathe, and providing life-saving support
during the disease progression.
Ventilators come in various types,
including invasive ventilators that require
intubation and non-invasive ventilators that
deliver oxygen through a mask or nasal
prongs, catering to different patient needs and
conditions.
2. Blood Pressure Monitor (Figure 5-28 Blood
Pressure Monitor.) – This is a medical device
used to measure the force of blood against the

walls of arteries as the heart pumps blood
through the body.
There are two main types of blood pressure
monitors:
• digital or automatic monitors.
• manual monitors which require a
sphygmomanometer and stethoscope.
Blood pressure readings consist of two
numbers - systolic pressure (top number) and
diastolic pressure (bottom number),
measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg).
Proper cuff size and placement, patient
positioning, and following correct
measurement techniques are crucial for
accurate blood pressure readings.
Figure 5-29 Nebulizer.
3. Nebulizer (Figure 5-29) – A medical device
that converts some liquid medication into a
mist for inhalation, allowing the medication to
reach the lungs directly.
Figure 5-27 Ventilator.
CHAPTER 5 61
Individuals with respiratory conditions
such as asthma, COPD, or cystic fibrosis often
use nebulizers to administer medication
effectively for better lung function.
Regular cleaning and maintenance of
nebulizers are essential to prevent
contamination and ensure effective treatment
delivery.
4. Emergency Crash Cart (Figure 5-30 Emergency
Crash Cart.) – This is a portable wheeled
container stocked with essential medical
supplies and equipment for emergencies.
The crash cart typically contains
medications, a defibrillator, airway
equipment, cardiac drugs, intubation supplies,
IV access kits, and other critical tools needed
for rapid response in emergencies.
Crash carts are strategically placed in
healthcare settings for quick access during
cardiac arrests, trauma cases, or other medical
emergencies.
The contents of crash carts are
standardized and regularly checked to ensure
Figure 5-28 Blood Pressure Monitor.
62 Healthcare Departments and Devices

readiness and compliance with emergency computer-processed to generate real-time

protocols. images which may be seen as video allowing
healthcare providers to visualize organs,
5. Glucometer (Figure 5-31 Glucometer.) – This muscles, and soft tissues in real-time.
is a portable medical device used to measure Ultrasound imaging is commonly used in
the concentration of glucose (sugar) in the diagnostic testing, monitoring pregnancies,
blood. evaluating blood flow, guiding procedures like
Glucometers provide quick and biopsies, and assessing various medical
convenient blood glucose monitoring for conditions without using ionizing radiation.
individuals with diabetes, allowing them to
track their blood sugar levels regularly. They 7. Portable X-ray Machine (Figure 5-33 Portable
require small blood samples collected from a X-ray Machine.) – This is a mobile radiography
fingertip. device that can be easily transported to
patients' locations, such as hospital rooms or
6. Ultrasound Machine (Figure 5-32 Ultrasound
Machine.) – This is a medical device used for
imaging internal body structures. Typically
consists of a computer console, video monitor,
and a transducer, which is a handheld device
that emits and receives the ultrasound waves.
The transducer sends out sound waves
into the body, which bounce back as echoes
depending on tissue density, this echo is

Figure 5-29 Nebulizer. Figure 5-30 Emergency Crash Cart.


operating theaters, for on-the-spot imaging
procedures.
They provide convenient and immediate
X-ray imaging for unwell patients to be moved
to traditional radiology departments, allowing
healthcare providers to assess their conditions
promptly.
Portable X-ray machines offer flexibility,
ease of use, and the ability to conduct X-rays
in various settings, making them indispensable
in situations where mobility and quick imaging
are crucial.
8. Trauma Shears (Figure 5-34 Trauma Shears.) –
These are specialized scissors designed for
cutting through clothing, bandages, seat belts,
and other materials to provide quick access to
injuries during medical emergencies.
These shears typically have a blunt tip to
prevent accidental punctures, serrated blades
for efficient cutting, and ergonomic handles
for ease of use in high-stress situations.
Trauma shears are essential tools for first
responders, emergency medical personnel,
Figure 5-31 Glucometer.
CHAPTER 5 63
and healthcare providers to rapidly assess and
treat trauma patients by removing clothing
and bandages without causing additional
harm.
Trauma shears are commonly used in
emergency rooms, ambulances, military
settings, and disaster response scenarios to
facilitate swift and safe patient care during
critical situations.
9. CPR Board (Figure 5-35 CPR Board.) – This is a
flat, rigid medical apparatus used to
immobilize and transport individuals with
suspected spinal injuries during
cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)
procedures.
CPR boards provide a stable surface to
support the patient's spine and prevent
movement that could worsen spinal cord
injuries while performing CPR or transferring
the individual to a medical facility.
Figure 5-32 Ultrasound Machine.
64 Healthcare Departments and Devices
These boards are typically made of
lightweight but durable materials such as
plastic or wood, featuring handholds for easier
handling, straps to secure the patient, and
radiolucent properties for use in conjunction
with imaging tests like X-rays.
CPR boards are commonly employed by
emergency medical services (EMS), hospitals,
and first aid responders to maintain spinal
alignment, facilitate safe patient handling, and
ensure proper care for individuals in need of
CPR and spinal immobilization.
10. Stethoscope (Figure 5-36 Stethoscope.) – This
is a medical device used to listen to internal
sounds within the body, such as heartbeats,
lung sounds, and bowel sounds, for diagnostic
purposes.
Typically consists of earpieces, flexible
tubing, and a chest piece with a diaphragm or
Figure 5-33 Portable X-ray Machine.
bell that transmits sound waves from the
patient's body to the listener's ears.
There are different types of stethoscopes,
including acoustic stethoscopes that rely on
sound conduction through air, and electronic
stethoscopes that amplify and enhance sound
for clearer auscultation.
Stethoscopes are essential tools for
physical examinations, assessing cardiac and
respiratory function, monitoring blood
pressure, detecting abnormalities in body
sounds, and diagnosing various medical
conditions.
11. Automated External Defibrillator (AED)
(Figure 5-37 Automated External
Defibrillator.) - This is a portable device
designed to restore the normal heart rhythm
in individuals experiencing sudden cardiac
arrest by delivering an electric shock through
the chest to the heart.
AEDs automatically analyze the heart's
rhythm and determine if a shock is needed,
Figure 5-34 Trauma Shears.

with some models administering the shock
without user intervention, making them user-
friendly and crucial for emergencies.
AEDs play a vital role in public spaces,
healthcare facilities, and emergency response
settings, where they can significantly increase
the chances of survival for individuals in
cardiac arrest by quickly delivering life-saving
treatment.
12. ECG Monitor – See 5-4-1-2 (2).
13. Defibrillator – See 5-4-1-2 (3).
14. Laryngoscope – See 5-4-1-2 (4).
15. Pulse Oximeter – See 5-4-1-2 (16).
16. Suction Machine – See 5-4-1-2 (21).
17. Infusion Pump – See 5-4-1-2 (22).
18. Oxygen Concentrator – See 5-4-1-2 (26).
5-4-3 Coronary Care Unit (CCU)
A Coronary Care Unit (CCU) or (Cardiac intensive
care unit (CICU) is a hospital ward specialized in the
care of patients with heart problems such as heart
attacks, unstable angina, cardiac dysrhythmia, and
other cardiac conditions that require continuous
monitoring and treatment.
Figure 5-35 CPR Board.
CHAPTER 5 65
5-4-3-1 Coronary Care Unit (CCU) Design
Due to the similarity of the requirements of the
CCU with those of the ICU, the CCU follows the
same standards applied to those of the ICU.
Based on the hospital size and specialty the
designers can estimate the number of required
CCU beds and come up with a suitable design that
usually contains private patient rooms with
separate toilets, nursing stations, cleaning utilities,
stores, doctors’ offices, etc.
Considering the inter-departmental
relationship, it is recommended to place the CCU
department and the catheter lab adjacent to the
cardiothoracic operation rooms, as well as to place
the department close to the imaging, cardiac ward,
and emergency department.
Considering the intra-departmental
relationship the designer should take into account
placing the staff base in a location allowing to have
easy access to all needed utilities such as a
medication room, clean and dirty utilities, storage,
etc. while enabling the staff to see the entire
patient’s rooms at all times and enable them to
react quickly in case of emergency, besides
Figure 5-36 Stethoscope.
66 Healthcare Departments and Devices
providing privacy for patients from unobstructed
observation.
5-4-3-2 Coronary Care Unit (CCU) Devices
The below devices play a critical role in the care
and monitoring of patients with acute cardiac
conditions in the CCU setting. Each device serves a
specific purpose in managing and treating cardiac
emergencies and conditions.
1. Intra-Aortic Balloon Pump (IABP) (Figure 5-38
Intra-Aortic Ballon Pump.) - A mechanical
device designed to assist the heart in pumping
more blood by inflating and deflating a balloon
in the aorta, synchronizing with the heart's
pumping cycle.
The IABP helps increase myocardial
oxygen perfusion, improves cardiac output,
and supports patients whose hearts are
unable to pump sufficient blood for the body's
needs.
Figure 5-37 Automated External
Defibrillator.
It is commonly used in critical care
settings for conditions like cardiogenic shock,
unstable angina, and during high-risk cardiac
procedures to enhance cardiac function.
The IABP plays a crucial role in providing
temporary hemodynamic support, reducing
the workload on the heart, and improving
overall cardiac function.
2. Pacemaker (Figure 5-39 Pacemaker.) - This is a
small, implantable device that helps regulate
the heart's rhythm by sending electrical
impulses to the heart muscle, ensuring a
steady and coordinated heartbeat. Pacemaker
has two types:
• Single-Champer Pacemaker: Monitors and
paces one chamber of the heart, usually
the right ventricle.
• Dual-Champer Pacemaker: Monitors and
paces two chambers of the heart, typically
the right atrium and right ventricle.
The pacemaker is typically implanted
under the skin near the collarbone with leads
threaded through veins into the heart
Figure 5-38 Intra-Aortic Ballon Pump.

chambers to deliver electrical signals.
pacemakers have a long lifespan, lasting
around 10-15 years on average before needing
replacement.
3. External Temporary Pacemaker (Figure 5-40
External Temporary Pacemaker.) - These are
battery-powered devices used for short-term
pacing in emergencies to manage severe
bradyarrhythmia.
They offer on-demand pacing modes and
can be crucial in providing synchronous or
asynchronous pacing to stabilize heart
rhythms temporarily.
External temporary pacemakers are
commonly employed in emergency treatment
scenarios and for older patients requiring
immediate cardiac rhythm support.
Temporary pacemaker insertion kit: it
contains: (a) an atraumatic guidewire that will
be introduced in a central vein: femoral,
jugular, or subclavian, (b) a plastic introducer
that will remain inside the vein during the
temporary stimulation of the heart, (c) a
transvenous lead that will be fixed at the level
of atrial or ventricular myocardium and will be
Figure 5-39 Pacemaker.
CHAPTER 5 67
used to stimulate the heart, and (d) an
external pacemaker that will deliver the
stimulation to the heart through the
transvenous lead.
4. ECG machine – See 5-4-1-2 (2).
5. Defibrillators – See 5-4-1-2 (3).
6. Ultrasound Machine - See 5-4-1-2 (6).
7. Infusion Pump – See 5-4-1-2 (22).
8. Oxygen Delivery System - See 5-4-1-2 (26).
9. Ventilator - See 5-4-2-2 (1).
5-4-4 Intensive Care Unit (ICU)
This department may also be called the critical care
unit which is a special department of a hospital
that provides intensive treatment medicine and
caters to patients with severe or life-threatening
illnesses and injuries, which require constant, close
monitoring and support from specialized
equipment and medications, these units are
named by the type of service they provide such as:
1. Burn Intensive Care Unit (BICU)
2. Trauma Intensive Care Unit (TICU)
3. Coronary Care Unit (CCU)
4. Pulmonary Intensive Care Unit (PICU)
Figure 5-40 External Temporary
Pacemaker.
68 Healthcare Departments and Devices
5. Renal Intensive Care Unit (RICU)
6. Medical Intensive Care Unit (MICU)
7. Surgical Intensive Care Unit (SICU)
8. Cardiac Intensive Care Unit (CICU)
9. Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU)
10. Pediatric Intensive Care Unit (PICU)
11. Post-Anesthesia Care Unit (PACU)
It has a relatively small number of beds and is
manned by specialist doctors and nurses, as well as
by consultant anesthetists, physiotherapists, and
dietitians.
Patients requiring intensive care are often
transferred from other hospitals or other
departments in the same hospital when the
patient's needs cannot be met in their initial
residence place.
Normally following the stabilization of
patients in the ICU, patients may be transferred to
step-down units such as specialized wards, or
rehabilitation facilities for ongoing care, recovery,
and rehabilitation.
5-4-4-1 Intensive Care Unit Design
Depending on the size of the facility the critically ill
patients can be dealt with in one unit for both
medical ICU and surgical ICU, or this unit can be
separated for each type of patient. To estimate the
number of patients in the ICU the admissions
policy, number, and type of in-patient beds,
number of theaters and surgical specialties, etc.
should be taken into consideration.
Considering the inter-departmental
relationship the ICU department is recommended
to be adjacent to the operating department to
allow fast transfer of patients as well as to be easily
accessed from the emergency department and the
in-patient wards in addition to the pathology
department for rapid transport of specimens.
Considering the intra-departmental
relationship the designer should take into account
placing the staff base in a location allowing to have
easy access to all needed utilities such as a
medication room, clean and dirty utilities, storage,
etc. while enabling the staff to see the entire
patient’s rooms at all times and enable them to
react quickly in case of emergency, besides
providing privacy for patients from unobstructed
observation.
5-4-4-2 Intensive Care Unit (ICU) Devices
The below devices play a crucial role in monitoring
and providing life-sustaining support to critically ill
patients in the Intensive Care Unit, contributing to
their overall care and treatment.
1. ICU Bed (Figure 5-41 ICU Bed.) – These are
adjustable in height, backrest, leg elevation,
and overall positioning to accommodate
patient comfort and medical needs.
They often have attachment points for
medical equipment like IV poles, monitors,
ventilators, and drainage systems.

ICU beds come equipped with side rails,
brake systems, and mechanisms for easy
patient transfer and handling.
These beds provide a stable and safe
platform for delivering critical care
interventions, monitoring vital signs, and
ensuring patient comfort during their stay in
the ICU.
2. Trolley, General Purpose (Figure 5-42 Trolley,
General Purpose.) – Used for carrying medical
supplies, instruments, and equipment.
Equipped with wheels for easy
maneuverability, allowing efficient movement
from one place to another.
Typically consists of multiple shelves or levels
to organize and transport items securely.
3. Trolley, Instrument (Figure 5-43 Trolley,
Instrument.) – A specialized cart used in
medical settings, especially in operating rooms
and clinics, to store and transport medical
instruments and supplies during procedures.
Constructed with materials that can be
easily cleaned and sterilized to maintain a
hygienic environment.
Typically designed with compartments,
drawers, or trays for systematic storage of
Figure 5-41 ICU Bed.
CHAPTER 5 69
instruments, ensuring easy access during
procedures.
Equipped with wheels, often lockable, for
smooth movement allowing efficient
instrument transfer.
4. Trolley, Dressing (Figure 5-44 Trolley,
Dressing.) – This is a specialized mobile cart
used for the organization and administration
of wound care supplies during dressing
changes.
Designed with compartments, trays, or
shelves to segregate and store dressings,
bandages, sterile supplies, and medical tools.
Equipped with wheels for easy transport
around medical facilities, enabling convenient
access to dressing supplies at the point of care.
Often made from materials that are easy
to clean and sanitize to maintain a sterile
environment for wound care procedures.
5. Infusion Stands (Figure 5-45 Infusion Stands.)
– This is a vertical stand designed to support
Figure 5-42 Trolley, General Purpose.
70 Healthcare Departments and Devices
intravenous (IV) bags or infusion pumps during
medical treatments that require the
administration of fluids, medications,
nutrition, or blood.
Many infusions stand have adjustable
poles to accommodate different patient needs
and treatment settings.
Equipped with hooks, clips, or
attachments to secure IV bags, infusion
pumps, and additional medical equipment.
Mounted on wheels for easy
maneuverability, enabling medical staff to
transport the IV therapy setup between rooms
or within healthcare facilities.
Used in home settings for patients who
require long-term IV therapy, allowing for
mobility and flexibility while receiving
treatment.
6. Infant Radiant Warmer (Figure 5-46 Infant
Radiant Warmer.) – These are essential
Figure 5-43 Trolley, Instrument.
medical devices designed to provide
controlled and consistent heat to newborns in
various healthcare settings, such as neonatal
intensive care units (NICUs), and delivery
suites.
These warmers help newborns, who are
at risk of losing body heat rapidly after birth,
maintain their body temperature for optimal
comfort and health.
They offer thermal support through
radiant heat, helping regulate the infant's
temperature without the need for direct
contact.
7. Mobile X-ray Unit (Figure 5-47 Mobile X -ray
Unit.) – Enable healthcare providers to
perform on-demand digital radiography at
various locations, offering convenience and
accessibility for patients who may be immobile
or unable to visit traditional imaging centers.
Figure 5-44 Trolley, Dressing.

8. Ventilator, Infant (Figure 5-48 Ventilator,
Infant.) – These are crucial medical devices
that provide respiratory support to infants,
especially those in neonatal intensive care
units (NICUs) or requiring specialized care due
to respiratory issues.
Ventilators deliver a controlled mix of
oxygen and air into the lungs through a
breathing tube, supporting respiratory
function in infants.
They are essential for babies who have
difficulty breathing on their own or require
assistance to maintain proper oxygen levels in
their bodies.
Ventilators can be life-saving for infants
with respiratory distress, premature babies
with underdeveloped lungs, or those facing
breathing challenges after birth.
9. Patient Trolley (Figure 5-49 Patient Trolley.) –
Also known as a medical transport stretcher, is
Figure 5-45 Infusion Stands.
CHAPTER 5 71
a wheeled stretcher used to transport patients
within hospitals, clinics, or ambulances.
Often have adjustable backrests, leg
sections, and height settings for patient
comfort and medical procedures. Equipped
with sturdy wheels, brakes, and steering
mechanisms to facilitate smooth movement
and safe transportation of patients.
Designed with padding, straps, and side
rails to ensure patient safety during transport
and provide comfort.
10. ECG Monitor – See 5-4-1-2 (2).
11. Defibrillator – See 5-4-1-2 (3).
12. Patient Monitor – See 5-4-1-2 (6).
13. Examination Lamp – See 5-4-1-2 (12).
14. Refrigerator, General – See 5-4-1-2 (17).
15. Suction Machine, Electric – See 5-4-1-2 (21).
16. Infusion Pump – See 5-4-1-2 (22).
17. Syringe Pump – See 5-4-1-2 (23).
18. Ventilator, Adult – See 5-4-2-2 (1).
Figure 5-46 Infant Radiant Warmer.
72 Healthcare Departments and Devices
5-4-5 Nursing Ward
This is the place where the nursing staff provides
care, regular monitoring of vital signs and
symptoms, treatment for the patient, carries out
tests and checks, administers medications,
assesses patient condition, wound care, assistance
with daily activity, liaises with doctors, and try to
keep the patient comfortable as possible.
Nursing wards collaborate closely with
physicians, allied healthcare professionals, and
other departments to coordinate patient care,
treatment plans, and transitions within the
healthcare facility.
Figure 5-47 Mobile X -ray Unit.
5-4-5-1 Nursing Ward Design
The nature of the design of this facility is highly
affected by the local preferences regarding clinical
emphasis, thus there are several layouts for this
unit depending on the type of patient they serve
whether adult or pediatric as well as the type of
condition needs assessment such as respiratory
conditions or maternity care. to choose a suitable
layout for the frequency of interaction with
patients and families, travel time, staff
requirements, communication, and patient
observation should be put into consideration.
Considering the inter-departmental
relationship the wards can either be surgical or
medical wards, wherein the design of the surgical
wards the ease of access to the operating theater
and intensive care unit should be taken into
consideration, while on the other hand, the design
of the medical ward should be easily accessible to
diagnostic and treatment facilities.
Figure 5-48 Ventilator, Infant.

Considering the intra-departmental
relationship the designer should take into account
the relationships between bed areas and utilities,
as well as the staff areas & bed areas. For example,
the design should allow the staff to easily observe
the patients at all times as well as to allow the
visibility of the entrance from the reception base.
Another point to put into consideration is the
location of the utility area and the day room which
is recommended to be close to the staff base, while
the public areas are on the outer edge of the unit.
5-4-5-2 Nursing Ward Devices
The below devices are essential tools in nursing
wards, aiding in monitoring, treatment, and
maintaining a safe and efficient caregiving
environment.
1. Commode Chair (Figure 5-50 Commode
Chair.) – This is a portable toilet chair designed
for individuals who have difficulty accessing a
traditional bathroom. It provides a convenient
and accessible alternative for toileting needs
in various settings.
Figure 5-49 Patient Trolley.
CHAPTER 5 73
It is lightweight and easily movable,
allowing users to place it by the bedside or
wherever needed.
Some models come with adjustable
height settings and armrests for personalized
comfort and ease of use.
Can be used as a commode over an
existing toilet, as a shower chair, or as a
standalone portable toilet option.
2. Infant Weighing Scale (Figure 5-51 Infant
Weighing Scale.) – This is a specialized
measuring tool designed to accurately
determine the weight of infants and young
children. These scales are essential in
healthcare settings, pediatric clinics, and
homes to monitor growth track development,
and overall health.
Some models offer features like curved
platforms, secure restraints, and digital
displays to ensure the safety and comfort of
infants during weighing.
Figure 5-50 Commode Chair.
74 Healthcare Departments and Devices
Regular weight monitoring using infant
weighing scales is vital for assessing nutritional
status, detecting growth irregularities, and
guiding medical interventions or dietary
adjustments as needed.
3. Bed Screen (Figure 5-52 Bed Screen.) – This is
a portable partition used to create private
spaces around patient beds, examination
areas, or during medical procedures.
Shields patients from view and provides a
sense of privacy and dignity in shared hospital
rooms or open medical facilities.
Easily movable and adjustable, allowing
healthcare providers to create temporary
barriers to patient confidentiality and comfort.
Typically made of durable and easy-to-clean
materials, ensuring hygiene standards are
maintained.
Helps prevent the spread of infections by
creating a barrier between patients and
reducing exposure to contaminants.
Enhances patient comfort and promotes a
sense of personal space during medical
Figure 5-51 Infant Weighing Scale.
procedures or while resting in a healthcare
facility.
4. Trolley, Linen (Figure 5-53 Trolley, Linen.) –
This is a mobile storage unit designed for
transporting clean and soiled linens, bedding,
and towels within healthcare facilities.
Typically equipped with separate
compartments or bags to differentiate
between clean and soiled linens, helping
maintain hygiene standards, mounted on
wheels for easy movement, allowing efficient
distribution and collection of linens, designed
to accommodate a significant number of
linens, optimizing the process of restocking
clean linens and collecting soiled ones.
Figure 5-52 Bed Screen.

5. Trolley, Medicine/Drug (Figure 5-54 Trolley,
Medicine/Drug.) – This is a specialized mobile
unit designed for storing and transporting
medications, emergency drugs, and medical
supplies, particularly in critical care areas like
emergency rooms, ICUs, and operating
theaters.
Equipped with lockable compartments to
ensure the safe storage of medications and
controlled substances.
Designed with adjustable shelves and
drawers to facilitate the systematic
arrangement of various drugs and medical
supplies.
Includes features such as clear labeling,
medication administration charts, and quick-
release mechanisms for easy access during
emergencies.
Enables healthcare providers to swiftly
access essential drugs and medications during
critical situations like cardiac arrests or
medical emergencies.
Facilitates the timely delivery of
prescribed medications to patients while
Figure 5-53 Trolley, Linen.
CHAPTER 5 75
maintaining accurate inventory control and
adherence to medication protocols.
6. Weighing Scale Adult with Height Measuring
(Figure 5-55 Weighing Scale Adult with Height
Measuring.) – It is designed to accurately
measure both weight and height in a single
device in adult individuals.
Typically constructed with a steel body for
durability and stability during measurements.
Enables to conduct full-body
assessments, including calculating Body Mass
Index (BMI) based on weight and height data.
7. Wheel Chair (Figure 5-56 Wheel Chair.) – This
is a mobility aid consisting of a chair with
wheels, designed to assist individuals who
have difficulty walking due to various reasons
such as disability, injury, or illness. It typically
Figure 5-54 Trolley, Medicine/Drug.
76 Healthcare Departments and Devices
includes armrests, footrests, and cushions for
comfort.
Wheelchairs play a crucial role in
promoting mobility and enhancing the quality
of life for individuals facing challenges with
walking. They offer independence and
facilitate movement for those with mobility
impairments.
The design of wheelchairs focuses on
ensuring performance, providing appropriate
seating and postural support, and maintaining
strength and durability without compromising
user comfort.
Optimal use of wheelchairs requires an
accessible and barrier-free environment to
maximize the benefits they offer in terms of
mobility and independence.
8. Diagnostic Set (Figure 5-57 Diagnostic Set.) –
This is a medical instrument consisting of
Figure 5-55 Weighing Scale Adult with
Height Measuring.
various diagnostic tools essential for physical
examinations and assessments.
Enables to conduct physical assessments,
diagnose conditions, and monitor health
status.
Suitable for a wide range of medical
specialties, including general practice,
pediatrics, and internal medicine.
9. Percussion Hammer (Figure 5-58 Percussion
Hammer.) – Also known as a reflex hammer, is
a medical instrument used to test reflexes and
nerve responses in patients during physical
examinations.
Reflex testing is Used to elicit and assess
deep tendon reflexes by tapping specific areas
of the body.
Neurological assessment Helps in
evaluating nerve function, coordination, and
muscle responses.
Figure 5-56 Wheel Chair.
 CHAPTER 5 77

5-4-6-1 Maternity Design

10. Patient Monitor - See 5-4-1-2 (6).
Considering the inter-departmental relationship
11. Examination Lamp – See 5-4-1-2 (12).
this department location should be placed within
12. Refrigerator () – See 5-4-1-2 (17).
easy access to the main diagnostic services,
13. Suction Machine – See 5-4-1-2 (21).
especially the pathology, pharmacy and anesthetic
14. Infusion Pump - See 5-4-1-2 (22).
services, and the in-patient wards.
15. Syringe Pump - See 5-4-1-2 (23).
Considering the intra-departmental
16. Nebulizers - See 5-4-2-2 (3).
relationship the designer shall place the birthing
17. Stethoscope – See 5-4-2-2 (10).
facilities close to an obstetrics operating suite, the
18. Trolley, General Purpose – See 5-4-4-2 (2).
nurse station along with its supporting facilities
19. Trolley Instrument – See 5-4-4-2 (3).
close to the birthing facilities, the in-patient bed
20. Trolley, Dressing – See 5-4-4-2 (4).
area, and the neonatal unit close to the maternity
21. Infusion Stands – See 5-4-4-2 (5).
department, as well as to consider if there is a need
22. Trolley, Patient – See 5-4-4-2 (9).
to place an assessment room.

5-4-6 Maternity 5-4-6-2 Maternity Devices

Maternity wards provide antenatal care, delivery
The below devices are vital in maternity care
of babies and care during childbirth, and postnatal
settings, supporting the monitoring, comfort, and
support. It may also offer one-to-one care for
well-being of both the mother and newborn during
women who need close monitoring when there are
pregnancy, labor, and postpartum stages.
complications in pregnancy or childbirth.

Figure 5-57 Diagnostic Set. Figure 5-58 Percussion Hammer.

78 Healthcare Departments and Devices
1. Baby Cot (Figure 5-59 Baby Cot.) – This is a
small bed specifically designed for infants and
young children to sleep and rest safely.
Has safety rails surround the cot to
prevent the baby from rolling off during sleep.
Allows for positioning the mattress at
different heights as the baby grows.
Encourages healthy sleep patterns and
routines for the infant.
Offers a dedicated space for the baby's
rest within the parental bedroom or nursery.
2. Delivery Bed (Figure 5-60 Delivery Bed.) – This
is a specialized medical bed designed to
provide a comfortable and adjustable
platform for pregnant women during labor,
delivery, and postpartum care.
Allows easy transition between positions for
labor and delivery stages.
Figure 5-59 Baby Cot.
Offers support for the mother during delivery
by adjusting leg positions.
Has stirrups that help in proper leg
positioning for effective pushing during
childbirth.
Has padding provides comfort for the woman
during labor and postpartum recovery.
Enables healthcare providers to assist in
various birthing positions.
Designed with safety features to support the
mother and newborn during childbirth.
3. Obstetric Bed (Figure 5-61 Obstetric Bed.) –
This is a specialized medical bed designed to
provide comfort and support to expectant
mothers during various stages of labor,
delivery, and postpartum care.
Allows the mother to move around freely,
promoting comfort during labor.
Offers flexibility for different birthing
positions.
Figure 5-60 Delivery Bed.

Ensure the safety of the mother during
labor and delivery.
4. Gynecological Examination Table (Figure 5-62
Gynecological Examination Table.) – Also
known as a pelvic exam table, is a specialized
medical table designed for gynecological
examinations and procedures.
Allow for proper leg positioning during pelvic
exams.
Enables healthcare providers to
customize the table height for patient comfort
and provider convenience.
Designed to support patients during
examinations and procedures.
Supports minor gynecological procedures
like biopsies or colposcopies.
5. Fetal Doppler (Figure 5-63 Fetal Doppler.) –
This is a handheld device used to listen to and
monitor the fetal heartbeat during pregnancy.
Utilizes ultrasound waves to detect and
amplify the sound of the fetal heartbeat.
Shows real-time heart rate information
for monitoring.
Figure 5-61 Obstetric Bed.
CHAPTER 5 79
Allows expectant parents to listen to their
baby's heartbeat, fostering a connection.
Helps healthcare providers assess fetal
well-being during prenatal visits.
Provides reassurance by hearing the
baby's heartbeat between medical
appointments.
6. Incubator, Infant (Figure 5-64 Incubator,
Infant.) – This is a specialized enclosed
apparatus designed to provide a controlled
and protective environment for premature or
ill newborns.
Maintains a stable and warm environment to
regulate the baby's body temperature.
Controls moisture levels to prevent
dehydration in fragile infants.
Allow medical staff to attend to the baby
without disturbing the internal environment.
Track vital signs like heart rate, oxygen
levels, and temperature.
Figure 5-62 Gynecological Examination
Table.
80 Healthcare Departments and Devices
Aids in the growth and development of
premature infants by replicating the womb
environment.
Creates a sterile space to reduce the risk
of infections.
Shields infants from external stimuli and
provides a safe space for recovery.
Facilitates safe transfer of infants between
units or hospitals while maintaining stable
conditions.
Infant incubators are essential medical devices
in neonatal units, providing a nurturing and
protective environment for fragile newborns,
especially those born prematurely or with
health complications.
7. Infant Radiant Warmer (Figure 5-65 Infant
Radiant Warmer.) – This is a medical device
designed to provide controlled heat to
newborns, especially premature or low birth
Figure 5-63 Fetal Doppler.
weight infants, to maintain their body
temperature.
Emits heat from above to warm the baby's
body surface.
Temperature control Allows healthcare
providers to adjust the heat output for optimal
thermal regulation.
It has an observation light to illuminate
the baby for easy monitoring without
disturbing sleep.
Open bed design facilitates easy access to
medical interventions while keeping the baby
warm.
Used to Support the thermal
management of newborns in neonatal
intensive care units. Used during delivery
room resuscitation of infants to stabilize body
temperature. Assists in maintaining warmth
for infants after surgical procedures.
8. Phototherapy Unit (Figure 5-66 Phototherapy
Unit.) – This is a medical device that uses
Figure 5-64 Incubator, Infant.

specific wavelengths of light to treat
conditions like hyperbilirubinemia in
newborns or skin conditions in adults.
Utilizes LED lights to emit the required
wavelength for effective treatment.
Its intensity is adjustable Allows
healthcare providers to control the light
output for optimal therapy.
It is an effective treatment that Provides
targeted light therapy to address health
conditions like jaundice or skin disorders.
Designed to deliver therapeutic light in a
controlled and safe manner for patients.
9. Blood Warmer (Figure 5-67 Blood Warmer.) –
This is a medical device used to warm blood or
intravenous fluids before they are
administered to patients. This helps prevent
hypothermia and improves patient outcomes
during transfusions or infusions.
Adjusts temperature to ensure safe and
efficient warming of blood and fluids.
Figure 5-65 Infant Radiant Warmer.
CHAPTER 5 81
Capable of accommodating different flow
rates based on clinical needs.
Single-use warming sets for hygienic and
convenient use in medical settings.
Helps maintain optimal temperature for
blood products, preserving their integrity.
Vital in emergency medical services and
trauma care for rapid warming of blood
products.
Used in operating rooms to maintain
blood temperature for patient safety.
Essential in intensive care units to ensure the
safe administration of warmed fluids to
patients.
10. Autoclave – See 5-4-1-2 (8).
11. Examination Lamp – See 5-4-1-2 (12).
12. Refrigerator () – See 5-4-1-2 (17).
13. Infusion stands – See 5-4-4-2 (5).
14. Infant weighing scale () – See 5-4-5-2 (2).
Figure 5-66 Phototherapy Unit.
82 Healthcare Departments and Devices
5-4-7 Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU)
This unit is a specialized hospital unit that provides
intensive medical care for newborns who may
require critical care due to premature birth, health
issues, or difficult births, this unit has several cots
that are used for intensive, high-dependency, and
special. It always maintains close links with the
hospital maternity department, in the interest of
babies and their families.
5-4-7-1 Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Design
The neonate units must be located adjacent to
delivery rooms to easily transfer ill babies.
Depending on the size of the hospital the degree of
neonatal care can be estimated, which ranges from
short-term stay to long-term stay which is provided
by the specialized care centers.
To determine the size of the neonatal unit, the
number of births expected, the expected level of
Figure 5-67 Blood Warmer.
intensive care, and the degree of the need to care
for babies after a period of intensive care should
be considered.
Considering the inter-departmental
relationship this department should be easily
accessed to/from the maternity department and
in-patient accommodation allowing parents to
have unrestricted and easy access. Another factor
to consider is to place the department close to the
pharmacy, pathology, supply, disposal, etc.
Considering the intra-departmental
relationship the designer shall consider placing the
nurse station next to the incubators for easy
observation of the newborn, as well as to place the
nurse station close to the lab for fast collection and
transfer lab tests. Another factor to consider is to
place a milk kitchen with facilities for milk storage
and collection close to the neonatal incubators.
5-4-7-2 Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Devices
As mentioned earlier this unit has a direct link with
the hospital maternity department, where most of
the devices are common between the two units
such as beds, monitors, respiratory equipment, IV,
Phototherapy, ventilators, syringe pumps, and
other specialized devices tailored specially to
neonate care.
5-4-8 Nuclear Medicine Unit
This is the place in the hospital where a radioactive
material - known as radiopharmaceuticals - is
injected into the bloodstream, inhaled, or
swallowed to be traveled to the area of the body
for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.

Nuclear Medicine Units perform diagnostic
imaging tests such as positron emission
tomography (PET), single-photon emission
computed tomography (SPECT), and gamma
camera scans to evaluate organ function and
detect abnormalities at a molecular level.
In addition to diagnostics, some Nuclear
Medicine Units offer therapeutic treatments using
targeted radiation therapy to treat conditions like
thyroid disorders, cancer, and certain neurological
disorders.
5-4-8-1 Nuclear Medicine Unit Design
Based on the size of the hospital and the size of the
department this unit could be separate or as a part
of the imaging department, it may contain a
gamma camera room, PET scan room, exercise
room, hot lab, injection room, etc.
Due to the radiation hazard related to this
department, it is a requirement to add radiation
protection in walls and door construction while
paying attention to the difference between the
requirement for radiation protection associated
with other medical imaging rooms since in this
department the source of radiation is the patient
body or other radioactive sources. The plan shall
be assessed by a physicist or qualified expert to
specify the type, location, and amount of radiation
protection required for the selected equipment
and the design layout.
Considering the inter-departmental
relationship this department should be located
with easy access to the medical imaging unit,
accident & emergency, operating unit, and critical
care unit, as well as to be easily accessible for
ambulant patients and beds/stretchers.
CHAPTER 5 83
Considering the intra-departmental
relationship the designer should locate the Gamma
Camera and PET room with direct access to their
control rooms and ready access to their equipment
room, as well as to be close to patient waiting
areas, patient preparation room, and utility areas.
Another point to consider is to place the hot lab
with ready access to the Gamma Camera and PET
scan imaging as well as the preparation/injection
rooms.
5-4-8-2 Nuclear Medicine Unit Devices
In the realm of nuclear medicine, various
specialized equipment is essential for diagnostic
and therapeutic purposes. Below are the main
devices in this unit.
1. Gamma Camera (Figure 5-68 Gamma
Camera.) – This is a specialized device used in
nuclear medicine for imaging gamma radiation
emitted by radioisotopes.
A gamma camera is crucial for detecting
gamma photons emitted from medical tracers
within a patient's body during scintigraphy
scans.
It typically consists of elements such as
collimators, scintillation crystals,
photomultiplier tubes, and pre-amplifiers for
precise imaging.
The camera captures gamma radiation
emitted by radionuclides, allowing
visualization of internal body structures and
functions.
84 Healthcare Departments and Devices
The gamma camera can perform static
imaging studies to record images of
unchanging radionuclide distributions over
time.
2. SPECT (Single-photon Emission Computed
Tomography) (Figure 5-69 SPECT (Single-
photon Emission Computed Tomography).) –
This is a nuclear imaging technique commonly
used in medical diagnostics.
SPECT utilizes gamma camera technology
to detect gamma photons emitted by a
radioactive tracer injected into the patient,
providing 3D images of internal organs and
tissues.
SPECT is valuable in diagnosing conditions
such as heart disease, brain disorders, and
bone abnormalities by visualizing blood flow,
organ function, and tissue metabolism.
SPECT offers functional information
alongside anatomical details, aiding physicians
in making accurate diagnoses and treatment
plans.
Figure 5-68 Gamma Camera.
Modern SPECT systems incorporate CT
scans (SPECT/CT) for improved localization
and fusion of anatomical and functional data.
3. PET (Positron Emission Tomography) (Figure
5-70 PET (Positron Emission Tomography).) –
PET imaging involves the detection of
positron-emitting radiotracers injected into
the body, which emits gamma rays when they
undergo decay.
PET scanners detect these gamma rays to
create detailed 3D images that highlight
metabolic processes and physiological
functions within tissues.
PET is valuable in oncology for cancer
staging, assessing treatment response, and
detecting metastases, as well as in neurology
for studying brain activity and disorders.
Various radiotracers are used in PET imaging
to target specific biological processes, allowing
for personalized and precise diagnostics.
PET provides functional information at a
molecular level, aiding in early disease
detection, treatment planning, and
monitoring of therapeutic outcomes.
Figure 5-69 SPECT (Single-photon
Emission Computed Tomography).

5-4-9 Medical Laboratory
Medical laboratories perform tests that aid in the
diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases,
offering valuable insights for making informed
decisions about patient care.
The examination and test of the functionality
of complex organisms such as the human body
requires different types of specialized laboratories
each specialized in a type of investigation, such as:
1. Hematology Lab -- Specialized in blood tests.
2. Microbiology Lab -- which provides extensive
clinical service and tests, including mycology,
parasitology, mycobacteriology, a high-
security pathology unit, and a healthcare-
associated infection investigation unit, as well
as routine bacteriology and an expanding
molecular diagnostic.
3. Bacteriology Lab – Provides studies about
bacteria and their toxins.
4. Biochemistry Lab -- Concerned with the
chemistry of living organisms and of vital
processes.
5. Parasitology Lab -- Studies the presence of
parasites, the cyst, and ova of the parasites.
6. Immunology and Serology Lab -- it does blood
agglutination tests, Wassermann tests, etc.
Figure 5-70 PET (Positron Emission
Tomography).
CHAPTER 5 85
7. Blood bank Lab -- Has the responsibility for
collecting and processing all blood used in the
hospital for transfusions and other’s needs.
8. Histopathology Lab -- it prepares tissues for
gross and microscopic studies.
9. Mycology Lab – Studies of fungi, including
their taxonomy, genetics, biochemistry
properties, etc.
10. Genetics Lab – runs DNA tests and studies.
11. Cytology Lab – runs urine sample test.
12. Pathology Lab – provide a study of the
diseases.
13. Toxicology Lab – run tests for toxic chemicals
such as alcohol and drugs.
14. Virology Lab - provides study for biological
viruses.
15. Other specialized laboratories.
5-4-9-1 Medical Laboratory Design
Laboratories serve both in-patient and out-patient,
they consist of specimen collection rooms, WCs,
main reception, main lab, microscopy room,
stores, offices, etc.
Considering the inter-departmental
relationship this department shall be easily
accessible to the operating department, maternity
department, in-patient ward, ICU, OPD, and
emergency department.
Another consideration for inter-departmental
relationships is to provide a close link to the main
hospital corridor for easy distribution of lab
specimen containers and reports to wards and
other hospital departments, as well as to allow
ease of transport of specimens from another
hospital department to the lab.
Considering the intra-departmental
relationship the designer shall place the specimen
86 Healthcare Departments and Devices
collection room outside the main lab suit to limit
the flow of out-patients, besides, the specimen
reception area shall be separate from the main
patient reception point to allow for receiving
specimens from other hospital departments as
well. Also, the designer shall place the
microbiology and histology rooms separately from
the main lab open area.
5-4-9-2 Medical Laboratory Devices
Laboratories rely on a variety of specialized devices
to conduct experiments, analyze samples, and
carry out research. Here is a list of common
laboratory devices.
1. Analytic Balance (Figure 5-71 Analytic
Balance.) – This is a precision instrument used
in laboratories for highly accurate
measurements of the mass of solid objects,
Figure 5-71 Analytic Balance.
liquids, and powders, with exceptional
sensitivity in the sub-milligram range.
Analytical balances are designed to
deliver extremely precise results, often
measuring up to 1 millionth of a gram, making
them essential for quality control and
quantitative chemical analysis.
Analytical balances typically include
features like draught-proof weighing
chambers for precise measurements and anti-
vibration tables to enhance accuracy during
weighing processes.
2. Binocular Microscope (Figure 5-72 Binocular
Microscope.) – This is a specialized optical
instrument that features two eyepieces,
allowing for comfortable and stereoscopic
viewing of specimens.
Binocular microscopes are designed to
reduce eye strain by enabling observation
through both eyes simultaneously, providing a
more natural viewing experience compared to
monocular microscopes.
The eyepieces in binocular microscopes
are often adjustable to accommodate the
interpupillary distance of the user, ensuring
optimal comfort and clarity during
observations.
Binocular microscopes utilize a dual-
eyepiece system that enhances depth
perception and facilitates detailed
examination of samples in fields like biology,
medicine, and materials science.
3. Blood Bank Refrigerator (Figure 5-73 Blood
Bank Refrigerator.) – This is a specialized

refrigeration device crucial for storing blood,
blood components, and biological products at
optimal temperatures to maintain their
integrity and safety.
They are designed to store blood bags,
blood components, vaccines, and biological
samples at a precise temperature typically set
at 2-4°C to ensure the preservation of these
critical materials.
Important features to consider when
selecting a Blood Bank Refrigerator include
temperature control accuracy, alarm systems
for temperature deviations, uniform cooling
distribution, and compliance with regulatory
standards such as AABB guidelines.
Blood Bank Refrigerators are classified as
Class II medical devices that must meet FDA
regulations and certification to guarantee
their performance, reliability, and adherence
to quality standards.
Figure 5-72 Binocular Microscope.
CHAPTER 5 87
4. Complete Blood Count Machine (CBC) (Figure
5-74 Complete Blood Count Machine (CBC).) –
This is a common blood test that provides
valuable insights into overall health and helps
diagnose various medical conditions.
A CBC test is used to assess the number
and quality of different blood cells, including
red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells
(WBCs), and platelets. It aids in identifying
conditions such as anemia, infection,
leukemia, and immune system disorders.
The test measures parameters like
hemoglobin levels, hematocrit, mean
corpuscular volume (MCV), white blood cell
count, and platelet count, providing a
comprehensive snapshot of blood
composition.
CBC results can help detect infections,
anemia, blood cancers, and immune system
abnormalities. Monitoring changes in blood
cell counts over time is crucial for managing
certain conditions and tracking treatment
progress.
Figure 5-73 Blood Bank Refrigerator.
 88 Healthcare Departments and Devices
Physicians often rely on CBC tests for
routine health screenings, preoperative
assessments, diagnosing unexplained
symptoms, and monitoring patients
undergoing chemotherapy or treatments
affecting blood cell production.
Centrifuge (Figure 5-75 Centrifuge.
5. ) – A device that utilizes centrifugal force to
separate components of a mixture based on
their density.
Centrifugation involves spinning a sample
at high speeds to generate centrifugal force,
which causes particles to separate according
to their size, shape, or density.
Centrifuges are used in various fields such
as biology, chemistry, and medicine for tasks
like separating blood components, isolating
DNA, purifying proteins, and analyzing
particles.
Figure 5-74 Complete Blood Count Machine
(CBC).
Different types of centrifuges include
ultracentrifuges, microcentrifuges, and
refrigerated centrifuges, each with specific
features tailored to different laboratory
needs.
Centrifugation is a crucial technique in
research and clinical settings, enabling
efficient isolation and purification of
substances for further analysis and
experimentation.
6. Hot Air Oven (Figure 5-76 Hot Air Oven.) – A
device that utilizes dry heat to sterilize
equipment, materials, and products.
Hot air ovens operate on the principles of
dry heat sterilization through convection,
conduction, and radiation. They use heating
elements to maintain a controlled
temperature for the sterilization process.
Figure 5-75 Centrifuge.

Dry heat sterilization, conducted by hot
air ovens, is effective for materials that cannot
withstand moisture or for items that are heat-
stable but not suitable for steam sterilization
methods.
Hot air ovens find extensive use in various
industries, including microbiology,
pharmaceuticals, food processing, and
research laboratories, where sterilization of
equipment and products is critical.
The hot air oven heats the object
uniformly, ensuring that heat penetrates the
core of the material, effectively eliminating
bacteria, spores, and other contaminants.
7. Incubator (Figure 5-77 Incubator.) – This is a
controlled environment chamber used to
grow and maintain biological cultures,
conduct experiments, and encourage cell or
microbial growth under specific conditions.
Incubators provide a stable and
controlled environment with regulated
temperature, humidity, and sometimes CO2
levels to support cell culture growth, microbial
incubation, biochemical reactions, and other
biological processes.
There are various types of incubators,
including microbiological incubators, CO2
Figure 5-76 Hot Air Oven.
CHAPTER 5 89
incubators, shaking incubators, refrigerated
incubators, and more, each designed for
specific applications and requirements.
Modern incubators often come equipped
with programmable controls, alarms for out-
of-range parameters, HEPA filters for sterility,
and options for sterilization cycles to ensure
aseptic conditions for cell and tissue culture
work.
8. PH Meter (Figure 5-78 PH Meter.) – This is
used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of a
liquid or solution.
pH meters work on the principle of
measuring the electrical potential difference
between a reference electrode and a glass
electrode sensitive to hydrogen ion
concentration in the solution, which
determines the pH value.
Regular calibration of pH meters using
standard buffer solutions is essential to
maintain accuracy and reliability in pH
Figure 5-77 Incubator.
90 Healthcare Departments and Devices
measurements, as pH sensors can drift over
time.
0Modern pH meters come with digital
displays, automatic temperature
compensation, electrode diagnostics, data
logging capabilities, and the ability to store
calibration data for efficient and precise pH
measurement.
9. Transport Box (Figure 5-79 Transport Box.) – Is
a protective container designed to safely
transport items, equipment, or products from
one location to another.
Transport boxes are utilized to securely
move fragile, valuable, temperature-sensitive,
or hazardous goods while ensuring protection
against physical damage, environmental
factors, and handling during transit.
There are various types of transport boxes
tailored to specific needs, including insulated
containers for temperature-sensitive items,
shockproof cases for delicate equipment, and
Figure 5-78 PH Meter.
specialized containers for hazardous
materials.
Modern transport boxes may include
cushioning materials like foam inserts,
customized compartments, locking
mechanisms, ergonomic handles, wheels for
easy mobility, and labeling options for clear
identification.
10. Water Bath (Figure 5-80 Water Bath.) – A
fundamental piece of laboratory equipment
designed to maintain a constant temperature
for a prolonged period.
A water bath consists of a container filled
with heated water, providing a stable and
uniform temperature environment for
samples or equipment placed within it,
ensuring consistent heat distribution.
Figure 5-79 Transport Box.

Water baths are commonly used in
laboratories for tasks such as incubating
samples, conducting enzyme reactions,
improving the solubility of substances, melting
certain materials, tissue culture applications,
and other procedures that require precise
temperature control.
Proper maintenance of water baths is
crucial to ensure accuracy and reliability.
Regular cleaning, calibration checks, and
monitoring of temperature settings are
essential to uphold performance and safety
standards.
11. Water de-ionizer (Figure 5-81 Water De-
ionizer.) – This is a device that removes ions,
minerals, and impurities from water,
producing purified water for various
applications.
Water deionizers work by employing ion
exchange resins or membranes to strip water
of charged particles, resulting in deionized or
demineralized water suitable for tasks
requiring pure water.
Figure 5-80 Water Bath.
CHAPTER 5 91
Water deionizers help prevent water
spots, eliminate mineral buildup, ensure
streak-free cleaning, enhance the
effectiveness of detergents, protect
equipment from mineral deposits, and
contribute to a professional finish in various
applications.
12. Water Distiller (Figure 5-82 Water Distiller.) –
This is a device used to purify water by boiling
it and then condensing the steam back into
liquid form, thus separating contaminants,
microorganisms, and impurities from the
water.
13. Slide Warmer (Figure 5-83 Slide Warmer.) –
Slide warmers provide controlled heating to
ensure that samples on slides remain at a
specified temperature, which is crucial for
processes like tissue staining, cell culture
work, and other biological applications.
Figure 5-81 Water De-ionizer.
92 Healthcare Departments and Devices
Slide warmers are commonly used in
histology, pathology, microbiology, and
research laboratories where precise
temperature control is essential for
maintaining sample integrity and facilitating
accurate observations under a microscope.
Slide warmers come in various sizes and
configurations, with options for adjustable
temperature settings, uniform heating
surfaces, quick heat-up times, and sometimes
digital displays for monitoring and setting
temperatures.
Proper maintenance of slide warmers
includes regular cleaning, calibration checks,
and ensuring even heat distribution across the
warming surface to prevent sample damage
and ensure consistent results.
14. Vortex Mixer (Figure 5-84 Vortex Mixer.) –
Vortex mixers work by creating a rapid circular
motion in tubes or vials, allowing for the
Figure 5-82 Water Distiller.
effective mixing of liquids or suspended solids
without the need for manual shaking or
stirring.
Vortex mixers come with variable speed
settings, touch or continuous operation
modes, interchangeable attachments like
foam inserts or tube racks, and may include
additional safety features like spill-proof
designs.
15. PCR Machine (Figure 5-85 PCR Machine.) –
This is a laboratory tool used to amplify and
replicate specific segments of DNA or RNA
through a cyclic amplification process.
PCR machines operate based on the
principle of thermal cycling, which involves
repeatedly heating and cooling the reaction
mixture to facilitate DNA denaturation, primer
annealing, and DNA extension.
PCR machines consist of essential
components such as a thermal block for
temperature control, a lid to prevent
condensation, a heating element, a
Figure 5-83 Slide Warmer.
 CHAPTER 5 93

temperature sensor, and a display interface
for monitoring and programming cycles.
The PCR process typically involves
denaturation, annealing, and extension steps,
where DNA strands are separated, primers
bind to target sequences, and DNA
polymerase extends the new DNA strands.
There are various types of PCR machines
available, including conventional PCR
machines, real-time PCR machines (qPCR),
digital PCR machines, and portable PCR
devices, each designed for specific
applications and throughput requirements.
PCR machines are widely used in
molecular biology, genetics, diagnostics,
forensics, microbiology, and research
laboratories for applications such as gene
amplification, DNA sequencing, genotyping,
pathogen detection, and gene expression
analysis.
fungi, and spores present on equipment and
objects.
Autoclaves use pressurized steam to
achieve sterilization, denaturing proteins, and
killing infectious agents effectively.
Autoclaves come in various types, such as
medical autoclaves that use steam for
sterilizing medical instruments and laboratory
autoclaves for sterilizing lab equipment,
water, or media.
17. Spectrophotometer (Figure 5-87
Spectrophotometer.) –Spectrophotometers
operate based on the principle of measuring
light intensity as a function of wavelength,
allowing for the analysis of

16. Autoclave (Figure 5-86 Autoclave.) – A

machine used for sterilization by applying heat
and pressure to eliminate bacteria, viruses,

Figure 5-84 Vortex Mixer. Figure 5-85 PCR Machine.

 94 Healthcare Departments and Devices
absorption/transmission patterns to know the
concentration levels of analyte in solution.
Spectrophotometry finds applications in
various fields such as chemistry, biology,
environmental science, pharmaceuticals, and
materials science for tasks like DNA analysis,
protein quantification, colorimetry, and
chemical kinetics studies.
18. Pipettes (Figure 5-88 Pipette.) – Precision
instruments used in laboratories for accurate
measurement and transfer of liquids.
There are various types of pipettes,
including micropipettes, adjustable or fixed
volume pipettes, serological pipettes, and
volumetric pipettes, each designed for specific
applications and volume ranges.
Pipettes function by creating a vacuum
above the liquid in the pipette tip, allowing
precise aspiration and dispensing of the
desired volume.
Pipettes offer high levels of accuracy
and reproducibility, crucial for tasks such as
sample preparation, titrations, and dilutions
Figure 5-86 Autoclave.
in biological, chemical, and analytical
laboratories.
Regular calibration and maintenance of
pipettes are essential to ensure accuracy in
volume delivery and to comply with quality
standards in laboratory practices.
19. Biosafety Cabinet (Figure 5-89 Biosafety
Cabinet.) – This is an enclosed workspace
equipped with a ventilated hood designed to
provide a safe environment for handling
pathogenic microorganisms and hazardous
materials in laboratories.
Biosafety cabinets serve as primary
engineering controls to protect laboratory
personnel, products, and the surrounding
environment from exposure to biohazards,
infectious agents, and cross-contamination.
There are different classes of biosafety
cabinets, including Class I, II, and III, each
Figure 5-87 Spectrophotometer.
 CHAPTER 5 95

offering varying levels of protection and immunosorbent assay (ELISA) or

airflow patterns to suit different research
requirements and biosafety levels.
Proper usage guidelines for biosafety
cabinets include placement considerations,
certification requirements, decontamination
procedures, and adherence to microbiological
practices to ensure optimal performance and
safety.
20. Hormone Analyzer (Figure 5-90 Hormone
Analyzer.) - This is a specialized instrument
used to quantitatively measure hormone
levels in biological samples, providing valuable
insights into endocrine function, hormonal
imbalances, assessing hormone levels related
to thyroid function, reproductive health,
stress response, metabolic disorders, and
more.
Hormone analyzers utilize immunoassay
techniques such as enzyme-linked
chemiluminescent immunoassay (CLIA) to
detect and quantify specific hormones present
in blood, urine, or saliva samples.
There are various types of hormone
analyzers available, including
radioimmunoassay (RIA) analyzers,
automated immunoassay systems, and point-
of-care hormone testing devices, each offering
different levels of sensitivity and throughput.
Hormone analyzers are designed to
provide accurate and reproducible results,
crucial for interpreting hormone profiles and
monitoring changes in hormone
concentrations over time.
5-4-10 Endoscopy
In the endoscopy department, a wide range of
endoscopic procedures is performed to visually
inspect the interior of certain organs or cavities in
the body such as the gastrointestinal tract, upper

Figure 5-88 Pipette. Figure 5-89 Biosafety Cabinet.

96 Healthcare Departments and Devices
gastrointestinal tract, colon, lungs, bladder, and
other areas without the need for invasive surgery.
Endoscopes use a video camera attached to
the end of a long thin flexible endoscope allowing
both diagnosis and treatment of gastrointestinal
disorders, such as peptic ulcers, polyps, cancers,
and blockages of the bile ducts due to stones,
inflammation tumors, etc.
Common types of endoscopies include upper
gastrointestinal (GI) endoscopy, colonoscopy,
bronchoscopy, cystoscopy, and sigmoidoscopy,
each tailored to specific diagnostic needs and areas
of examination.
5-4-10-1 Endoscopy Design
The designer of the endoscopy unit shall consider
allowing one-way traffic for the patient from entry
to exit unless it is not possible due to building
configuration, fire codes, etc.
Considering the inter-departmental
relationship this department should be easily
accessed for patients, escorts, staff, and materials.
Patients and escorts should enter and exit without
entering other hospital departments. Preferably
Figure 5-90 Hormone Analyzer.
this unit shall be located on the ground floor to
allow delivery of supplies, disposal of waste, and
access of patients to and from in-patient wards, as
well as to be close to the out-patient department.
The unit does not necessarily need to be adjacent
to any department, but short links and easy
accessibility could help have a handier design.
Considering the intra-departmental
relationship the designer shall consider the rote
from the in-patient to the unit and the back to the
in-patient wards, considering the flow lines so that
cross traffic between the patient movement and
the materials movements is minimal.
5-4-10-2 Endoscopy Devices
Endoscopy device (Figure 5-91 Endoscope.) is an
essential tool used in medical procedures for
visualizing and diagnosing conditions within the
body. These devices encompass a range of
equipment including endoscopes, cameras, light
sources, video processors, and other accessories
tailored for various medical specialties like
gastroenterology and surgery.
These devices play crucial roles in achieving clear
visualization, precise diagnosis, and effective
treatment during endoscopic procedures.
Endoscopy equipment is widely utilized in
gastroenterology procedures, surgical
interventions, diagnostic imaging, and therapeutic
interventions. They enhance the accuracy of
medical diagnoses, minimize invasiveness in
surgeries, and improve patient outcomes through
advanced visualization and treatment capabilities.
 CHAPTER 5 97

5-4-11 Radiology entrance, while the designer shall decide the

Radiologists in this department are doctors who
specialize in the study and application of imaging
technology like X-ray and other radiation to
diagnose and treat diseases. It may be divided into:
1. Radiotherapy -- This is where treatment of
cancer and other diseases with ionizing
radiation are performed.
2. Mammography -- This unit screens women’s
breasts for cancer.
3. Diagnostic imaging -- which provides a full
range of diagnostic imaging services.
4. Ultrasound scans – such as angiography which
used to investigate the blood vessels.
5. Interventional radiology -- minimally invasive
procedures, eg. to treat narrowed arteries).
6. CT scanning -- scans that show cross-sections
of the body.
7. MRI scanning – provide 3D scans using
magnetic and radio waves.
proximity of the antenatal clinic depending upon
where obstetric ultrasound is provided.
Considering the intra-departmental
relationship the designer should take into account
to make it possible to undertake diagnostic
examinations at late working hours without
activating the whole department, besides to
consider the relationship between the diagnostic
rooms, processing, viewing areas, and the
connection between the sorting, reporting, and
dispatch area to ensure efficient functioning of the
department.
5-4-11-2 Radiology Devices
The below radiology devices play a crucial role in
modern healthcare, enabling healthcare providers
to visualize and diagnose various medical
conditions accurately.

5-4-11-1 Radiology Design

Due to the hazards related to this department, it is
crucial to understand the policies, procedures, and
safety measures associated with this department
to be able to design a suitable functional and
operational design that can provide
diagnoses/treatment for the patient in a safe way.
Considering the inter-departmental
relationship this department must be located
immediately adjacent to the accident & emergency
department, which is normally located at the
ground floor level. Also, consider placing the
department with easy access from the out-patient
clinics, the in-patient wards, and the main
Figure 5-91 Endoscope.
98 Healthcare Departments and Devices

1. Dental X-ray (Figure 5-92 Dental X-ray.) –
These are essential diagnostic tools used in
dentistry to visualize structures within the
mouth, teeth, and jaws.
Dentists utilize dental X-rays to evaluate oral
health, detect hidden dental structures,
diagnose cavities, assess bone loss, plan
treatments like dental implants, and identify
impacted wisdom teeth, it involves low levels
of radiation and is considered safe for
patients. The images produced help dentists
visualize areas not visible during a regular
dental exam, aiding in accurate diagnosis and
treatment planning.
Different types of dental X-rays, such as
periapical and bitewing radiographs, provide
detailed views of specific areas in the mouth,
enabling dentists to assess tooth morphology,
detect infections, evaluate periodontal issues,
and plan interventions effectively.
2. Mobile X-ray Unit (Figure 5-93 Mobile X -ray
Unit.) – Is a portable imaging device used to
perform X-ray examinations at the point of
care.
Mobile X-ray units are designed to be
compact and easily transportable, allowing
one to conduct X-ray imaging directly at the
patient's bedside, in the emergency room, or
in areas where traditional X-ray machines may
not be accessible.
These units are used for a variety of
diagnostic purposes, including assessing
injuries, monitoring the progression of
diseases, detecting abnormalities, and
facilitating timely medical interventions
without the need to move immobile patients
to a dedicated radiology room.
Mobile X-ray units utilize advanced digital
imaging technology to capture high-quality X-
ray images quickly, enabling them to make
accurate diagnoses and provide immediate
care to patients requiring urgent medical
attention.
3. C-Arm (Figure 5-94 C-Arm.) – Is an advanced
medical imaging device based on X-ray
technology, characterized by its C-shaped arm
design.
C-arms are primarily used for fluoroscopy,
allowing real-time imaging of internal
structures during surgical and interventional
procedures. The X-ray technology provides
detailed visualization to aid in precise
navigation and treatment.
A typical C-Arm unit consists of an X-ray
tube, an image intensifier, and a display
monitor. The X-ray generator emits radiation
Figure 5-92 Dental X-ray.

that passes through the patient's body,
producing live images captured by the image
intensifier for immediate viewing.
C-Arm machines find extensive use in various
medical specialties, including orthopedics,
cardiology, vascular surgery, and pain
management. They play a crucial role in
procedures such as orthopedic assessments,
vascular interventions, and spinal surgeries.
The pulsed or continuous radiation
emitted by C-Arm systems is carefully
controlled to provide essential imaging while
minimizing radiation exposure. Proper
protocols and safety measures are enforced to
ensure safe use during medical interventions.
Figure 5-93 Mobile X -ray Unit.
CHAPTER 5 99
4. Ultrasound Unit (Figure 5-95 Ultrasound
Unit.) – These are essential medical devices
used in diagnostic imaging to visualize internal
body structures using high-frequency sound
waves.
An ultrasound unit consists of a computer
console and a handheld transducer that emits
sound waves into the body. These sound
waves bounce back as echoes, which are then
processed to create real-time images of
organs, tissues, and blood flow for diagnostic
purposes.
Ultrasound imaging, also known as
sonography, is used to examine soft tissues
like muscles, internal organs, blood vessels,
and fetuses during pregnancy. It aids in
diagnosing various diseases, monitoring
conditions, and guiding medical interventions
This noninvasive imaging technique plays a
crucial role in healthcare for its versatility,
Figure 5-94 C-Arm.
100 Healthcare Departments and Devices
safety, and effectiveness in diagnosing a wide
range of medical conditions.
5. General X-ray Unit (Figure 5-96 General X-ray
Unit.) – This is an essential piece of medical
equipment used for producing X-ray images
that help diagnose various medical conditions
and assess the health of bones and internal
tissues.
X-ray units utilize ionizing radiation to
create images of the body's internal
structures, allowing healthcare providers to
detect abnormalities, fractures, infections,
Figure 5-95 Ultrasound Unit.
and other conditions for accurate diagnosis
and treatment planning.
A typical X-ray machine consists of
components like the X-ray tube, high-
frequency generator, anode, cathode, and
control panel, all working together to produce
and control the X-ray beam necessary for
imaging.
While X-rays are vital for medical imaging,
precautions are taken to ensure patient safety by
minimizing radiation exposure and following
proper protocols to reduce risks associated with
ionizing radiation.
6. X-ray Cassettes (Figure 5-97 X-ray Cassettes.)
– These are essential components used in
conventional radiography and computed
radiography (CR) for holding X-ray film and
intensifying screens.
Figure 5-96 General X-ray Unit.

X-ray cassettes serve as light-resistant
containers that house X-ray film and
intensifying screens, ensuring accurate
imaging by converting X-rays received into
visible light to create diagnostic images.
These cassettes are designed to maintain
a close contact between the X-ray film and the
intensifying screens, critical for effective
image capture in both conventional
radiography and CR systems.
X-ray cassettes are utilized in conjunction
with intensifying screens and screen films to
produce diagnostic images of internal
structures, ensuring the robustness and light-
tightness of the cassette for optimal imaging
quality.
7. Orthopantomogram OPG Unit (Figure 5-98
Orthopantomogram OPG Unit.) – OPG units
employ rotational technology to capture a
single panoramic X-ray image of the teeth
jaws, and surroundings providing dentists and
oral surgeons with a comprehensive view for
diagnosing dental conditions, assessing bone
health, and planning treatments such as
orthodontic procedures or dental implants.
OPG imaging offers several advantages,
including reduced radiation exposure
Figure 5-97 X-ray Cassettes.
CHAPTER 5 101
compared to traditional individual dental X-
rays, minimal discomfort for patients, an
efficient imaging process, and the ability to
visualize impacted teeth, jaw disorders, sinus
issues, and temporomandibular joint (TMJ)
disorders.
Dentists rely on OPG units for various
diagnostic purposes, such as detecting
cavities, evaluating bone density, assessing
the position of wisdom teeth, diagnosing
periodontal disease, and planning complex
dental procedures with a holistic view of the
oral cavity.
8. Mammography Unit (Figure 5-99
Mammography Unit.) – This is a specialized
medical imaging device used to perform
screening and diagnostic tests, primarily for
detecting breast cancer in its early stages.
Mammography units utilize low-dose X-
rays to capture detailed images of the breast
tissue, aiding in the detection of abnormal
growths, calcifications, and other signs of
breast cancer. Screening mammograms are
Figure 5-98 Orthopantomogram OPG Unit.
102 Healthcare Departments and Devices
recommended for early detection in
asymptomatic women, while diagnostic
mammograms are used to investigate specific
breast concerns or abnormalities.
There are two types of mammography
units: analog and digital, where Digital
mammography offers several advantages,
including enhanced image quality, easier
storage and retrieval of images, and the ability
to manipulate and enhance images for
improved diagnostic accuracy.
9. Computer Tomography (CT) (Figure 5-100
Computer Tomography (CT).) – This is an
advanced medical imaging procedure used to
visualize internal structures of the body in
cross-sectional slices.
Figure 5-99 Mammography Unit.
CT scans involve taking multiple X-ray
images from different angles around the body
and using computer processing to create
detailed cross-sectional images. These scans
aid healthcare providers in detecting diseases,
injuries, tumors, and abnormalities in various
anatomical regions.
CT imaging is based on the principle that the
density of tissues can be measured by the X-
ray beam passing through them, allowing for
the creation of detailed images that provide
valuable diagnostic information for medical
professionals.
CT scans are commonly used to examine
the brain, chest, abdomen, pelvis, and other
areas of the body to diagnose conditions such
as fractures, tumors, internal bleeding, organ
damage, infections, and more. The versatility
and accuracy of CT imaging make it a crucial
tool in modern medicine.
10. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) (Figure
5-101 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI).) –
Figure 5-100 Computer Tomography (CT).
 CHAPTER 5 103

This is a non-invasive medical imaging ray images to aid in various medical

technology that utilizes a magnetic field and
radio waves to generate detailed three-
dimensional anatomical images of the body.
MRI scans rely on the natural magnetic
properties of the body to create high-
resolution images of internal structures such
as organs, tissues, and bones without using
ionizing radiation. This imaging technique
provides valuable diagnostic information for
various medical conditions.
MRI is widely used in medical settings for
diagnosing a range of conditions, including
neurological disorders, musculoskeletal
injuries, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer
detection. The versatility and accuracy of MRI
imaging make it an invaluable tool in
delivering precise diagnoses and treatment
plans.
procedures and interventions.
5-4-12 Out-Patient Department (Clinics)
This department of the hospital provides diagnosis,
treatment, and care for patients with health
problems who visit the hospital but do not at this
time require a bed or to be admitted for overnight
care, such as consultations and follow-ups with a
specialist, to take medical imaging test, lab tests,
minor surgeries, chemotherapy, radiation
treatment, vaccinations, etc.
OPDs often include specialty clinics such as
cardiology, orthopedics, dermatology, obstetrics,
and pediatrics, allowing patients to access
specialized care within the outpatient setting.

11. Fluoroscopy Machine (Figure 5-102

Fluoroscopy Machine.) - This is a specialized
medical imaging device that utilizes X-ray
technology to generate real-time moving
images of the internal structures of the body.
Fluoroscopy machines produce dynamic
X-ray images that allow healthcare providers
to observe the movement of organs, tissues,
and contrast agents in real-time. This imaging
modality is valuable for guiding minimally
invasive procedures, diagnosing conditions,
and monitoring treatment progress.
Modern fluoroscopy imaging systems
consist of essential components such as an X-
ray tube, spectral shaping filters, image
intensifiers, and a display monitor. These
machines provide detailed and continuous X- Figure 5-101 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(MRI).
104 Healthcare Departments and Devices
5-4-12-1 Out-Patient Devices
Outpatient departments (OPD) require a range of
devices and equipment to efficiently manage
patient care and diagnostics. Here is a list of
common devices found in outpatient departments
1. Examination Couch (Figure 5-103 Examination
Couch.) – This is a fundamental piece of
furniture in healthcare facilities designed to
provide patients with a comfortable and
supportive surface during medical
examinations.
Examination couches offer a versatile
platform for patients to sit or lie down during
examinations, providing easy access to
conduct assessments efficiently.
Well-designed examination couches play
a crucial role in ensuring patient comfort and
Figure 5-102 Fluoroscopy Machine.
facilitating smooth examination processes,
enabling healthcare providers to deliver timely
and effective care.
Examination couches come in various
designs, including electric examination tables
with adjustable height features, ratchet-type
mechanisms for different positions, and
accessible medical examination tables for
enhanced patient transfer and support.
2. X-ray Viewer (Figure 5-104 X-Ray Viewer.) –
This is a specialized medical device used to
view and interpret X-ray images, radiographs,
and other diagnostic imaging studies.
X-ray viewers provide a backlit surface
where medical professionals can examine X-
ray films, CT scans, MRIs, and other
radiographic images to diagnose conditions,
assess injuries, and plan treatments.
X-ray viewers come in various
configurations, including single-panel viewers
Figure 5-103 Examination Couch.

for individual film viewing, multi-panel
viewers for comparing images side by side,
and digital viewers for displaying digital
radiographs on screens.
X-ray viewers are essential tools in
healthcare settings, enabling radiologists,
physicians, and healthcare providers to
accurately interpret diagnostic images, make
informed decisions, and communicate findings
with patients.
Modern X-ray viewers may include adjustable
brightness settings, magnification capabilities,
grid lines for measurements, and ergonomic
designs to enhance workflow efficiency and
diagnostic accuracy.
3. Lockable Cabinet (Figure 5-105 Lockable
Cabinet.) – This is a secure storage solution
equipped with locking mechanisms to
safeguard valuable items, confidential
documents, sensitive equipment, or
hazardous materials.
Lockable cabinets provide a secure
storage
option
for
Figure 5-104 X-Ray Viewer.
CHAPTER 5 105
organizations and individuals to protect
belongings from theft, unauthorized access,
tampering, or accidental exposure.
4. Electrocardiogram ECG – See 5-4-1-2 (2).
5. Patient Monitor – See 5-4-1-2 (6).
6. Examination Lamp – See 5-4-1-2 (12).
7. Patient Trolley – See 5-4-1-2 (19).
8. Suction machine – See 5-4-1-2 (21).
9. Infusion Stands – See 5-4-4-2 (5).
10. Infant Weighing Scale – See 5-4-5-2 (2).
11. bed Screen – See 5-4-5-2 (3).
12. Weighing Scale – See 5-4-5-2 (6).
13. Wheel Chair – See 5-4-5-2 (7).
14. Diagnostic Set – See 5-4-5-2 (8).
15. Stethoscope – See 5-4-2-2 (10).
16. Percussion Hammer – See 5-4-5-2 (9).
5-4-13 In-Patient Department (Wards)
Wards are room in hospitals which has beds for
patients who need similar kinds of care such as
receiving medication, treatment, and monitoring.
Figure 5-105 Lockable Cabinet.
106 Healthcare Departments and Devices
It is equipped with different kinds of devices such
as nurse calls, examination lights, and sanitary
ware to ensure meeting the patients’ needs as well
as their comfort.
There are various types of wards, including
general wards for non-intensive care patients,
specialized wards such as surgical, medical,
pediatric, maternity, intensive care units (ICUs),
and isolation wards for specific patient needs.
Patients in the wards are monitored regularly
for vital signs, medication administration, wound
care, mobility assistance, dietary requirements,
and overall well-being to ensure optimal recovery
and management of health conditions.
5-4-13-1 Wards Devices
Wards contain a range of medical devices to
monitor, assist, and provide routine checkups for
patients, as well as to keep the patient safe and
comfortable. Below is a list of main devices
alongside others depending on the ward's needs
and the category of the patient.
1. Patient Monitor – See 5-4-1-2 (6).
2. Infusion Pump – See 5-4-1-2 (22).
3. Syringe Pump – See 5-4-1-2 (23).
4. Ventilator - See 5-4-2-2 (1).
5. Defibrillator - See 5-4-1-2 (3).
6. Suction Machine - 5-4-1-2 (21).
7. ECG Machine - See 5-4-1-2 (2).
5-4-14 Pharmacy
The pharmacy department is the one that is
responsible for buying, storing, and supplying all
medicines and drugs used within the hospital as
well as making certain products if they aren’t
available commercially. In addition, it provides
information such as dosage and administration,
adverse effects, and drug interactions for medical
practitioners and patients on the safe and effective
use of the medicines supplied to the patients.
5-4-14-1 Pharmacy Devices
Below are the main pharmacy's specialized devices
to facilitate medication dispensing, compounding,
storage, and patient care services.
1. Tablet Counter (Figure 5-106 Tablet Counter.)
– This is a device commonly used in
pharmacies to accurately count and dispense
medications in tablet or capsule form to the
correct dosage prescribed by the doctor.
Tablet counters automate the process of
counting medications, improving efficiency,
reducing errors, and enhancing patient safety
during medication dispensing.
Tablet counters come in various types,
including manual hand-held counters, semi-
automatic counters, and fully automated
electronic counters, each offering different
levels of speed and precision in counting
tablets.
 CHAPTER 5 107

Tablet counters streamline the Drug cabinets come in various

medication dispensing process, saving time for configurations, including wall-mounted
pharmacists and pharmacy technicians, cabinets, floor-standing cabinets, narcotics
especially in high-volume pharmacy settings. cabinets for controlled substances,
Tablet counters can handle a wide range of refrigerated cabinets for temperature-
tablet sizes, shapes, and quantities, making sensitive medications, and mobile cabinets for
them versatile tools for pharmacies managing flexibility in storage arrangements.
diverse medication inventories.
Modern tablet counters may include 3. Fridge, Pharmaceutical – See 5-4-2-2 (17).
features such as digital displays, 4. Balance, Precision – See 5-4-9-2 (1).
programmable settings for different 5. Distiller – See 5-4-9-2 (12).
medications, and automatic bottle-filling
capabilities to further enhance efficiency and
5-4-15 Central Sterile Supply Department
accuracy.
(CSSD)
It is a place in hospitals and other healthcare
Drug Cabinet (Figure 5-107 Drug Cabinet. facilities where medical/surgical supplies and
2. ) – This is a secure storage solution designed equipment, both sterile and non-sterile, are
to store medications and pharmaceutical cleaned, prepared, processed, stored, and issued
supplies. for patient care.
Drug cabinets are equipped with locking
mechanisms, such as key locks, electronic
locks, or combination locks, to prevent
unauthorized access, protect medications
from theft, and ensure compliance with
regulatory requirements.
These cabinets are designed to meet
regulatory standards, including DEA (Drug
Enforcement Administration) requirements
for storing controlled substances securely,
maintaining proper documentation, and
implementing access controls.
Drug cabinets help maintain organization
by providing designated storage
compartments, shelves, and drawers for
different types of medications, facilitating
efficient inventory management and easy
retrieval of drugs. Figure 5-106 Tablet Counter.
108 Healthcare Departments and Devices
It is the department that supplies sterile
articles throughout the hospital. CSSD handles
contaminated, clean, and sterile articles.
5-4-15-1 Hospital Sterile Supply Department
CSSD Devices
The Hospital Sterile Supply Department plays a
critical role in ensuring the cleanliness,
sterilization, and availability of medical equipment
and supplies necessary for patient care. Here is a
list of essential devices commonly found in the
Sterile Supply Department
1. Autoclave, large (Figure 5-108 Autoclave,
large.) – Large autoclaves are designed for
high-capacity sterilization needs, offering a
reliable and efficient method for
decontaminating medical instruments,
laboratory equipment, surgical tools, and
2.
other materials by using steam under
pressure to eliminate pathogens and ensure
sterility.
Large autoclaves come in a range of sizes,
from tabletop or benchtop options to
Figure 5-107 Drug Cabinet.
standalone floor models with chamber
volumes ranging from 65 liters to over 1,000
liters, catering to diverse application
requirements and facility setups.
These autoclaves serve various purposes,
including sterilizing large batches of
equipment and supplies simultaneously,
supporting CSSD operations in hospitals for
sterilizing medical devices, and meeting the
stringent sterilization needs of laboratories
and research facilities.
Large autoclaves may feature user-
friendly designs, top-loading chambers,
manual or automatic operation modes,
noiseless operation, advanced safety
mechanisms, and easy sample handling
capabilities to ensure effective sterilization
processes and user convenience.
Ultrasonic Washer (Figure 5-109 Ultrasonic
Washer.) – Advanced cleaning devices that
utilize high-frequency sound waves
transmitted through a liquid to facilitate the
removal of contaminants from surfaces and
intricate components.
Ultrasonic washers work by generating
millions of microscopic bubbles through
cavitation—alternating high and low-
pressure cycles caused by ultrasonic waves
that implode near the surface being cleaned,
dislodging dirt, and contaminants
effectively.

These devices offer efficient and thorough
cleaning results, reaching intricate areas that
traditional cleaning methods may struggle to
access, reducing manual labor requirements,
minimizing chemical usage, and providing a
non-invasive cleaning process suitable for
sensitive materials.
3. Water Treatment plant (Figure 5-110 Water
Treatment Plant.) - Play a vital role in
ensuring the availability of clean, safe, high-
quality water for various healthcare
applications such as medical procedures,
laboratory testing, dialysis, CSSD,
endoscopy, renal care, sterile processing,
clinical chemistry analyzers, and laundry
services.
Hospital water treatment systems help
prevent waterborne infections, ensure
compliance with regulatory guidelines,
Figure 5-108 Autoclave, large.
CHAPTER 5 109
support hygienic standards, safeguard
patients from waterborne contaminants,
and maintain the integrity of medical
equipment that relies on high-quality water
for proper functionality.
Various technologies are utilized in
hospital water treatment systems, including
ultraviolet disinfection systems, reverse
osmosis units, ultrafiltration systems,
deionized water systems, and other
advanced filtration and purification methods
tailored to meet specific water quality
requirements.
Taking note of another wastewater
treatment system is also a critical aspect of
managing and treating hospital effluents
effectively before their discharge, ensuring
compliance with environmental regulations,
and minimizing the impact of hospital
wastewater on public health and the
environment.
4. Air Filtration Systems (Figure 5-111 Air
Filtration Systems.) – This system plays a
critical role in maintaining clean and healthy
Figure 5-109 Ultrasonic Washer.
110 Healthcare Departments and Devices
air quality within healthcare facilities,
helping to reduce the spread of airborne
contaminants and providing a safe
environment for patients, staff, and visitors.
Hospital air filtration systems are
designed to remove particles, pollutants,
allergens, bacteria, viruses, and other
harmful microorganisms from the air,
ensuring that indoor air quality meets
stringent health and safety standards
essential for patient care and infection
control.
These systems often utilize High-
Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filters,
activated carbon filters, UV-C germicidal
lamps, and other advanced filtration
technologies to capture and neutralize
airborne contaminants effectively, providing
a clean and sterile environment within
hospital premises.
Hospital air filtration systems are
deployed in various areas such as operating
rooms, isolation units, intensive care units,
laboratories, waiting areas, and other high-
traffic zones to minimize the risk of airborne
infections, support respiratory health, and
create a hygienic atmosphere conducive to
healing and recovery.
Figure 5-110 Water Treatment Plant.
By continuously filtering and circulating
the air, these systems help reduce allergens,
odors, mold spores, volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), and airborne pathogens,
promoting a healthier indoor environment,
improving patient comfort, and enhancing
overall air quality in healthcare settings.
Regular maintenance of hospital air
filtration systems is essential to ensure
optimal performance, including timely filter
replacements, system checks, and
adherence to manufacturer
recommendations to uphold the efficiency
and effectiveness of air purification
processes.
5-4-16 Ear Nose Throat (ENT)
This department where an otolaryngologist
provides care for patients with a variety of ear,
nose, and throat problems such as general ear,
nose, and throat diseases, swallowing difficulties,
Balance and hearing disorders, Snoring and sleep
apnea, ENT allergy problems, Voice disorders, Tear
duct problems, etc.
Figure 5-111 Air Filtration Systems.

5-4-16-1 Ear Nose Thought (ENT) Devices
This unit utilizes a variety of specialized devices and
equipment to diagnose, treat, and manage
conditions related to the ear, nose, throat, head,
and neck. Here is a list of essential devices
commonly found in the ENT department.
1. Otoscopes (Figure 5-112 Otoscopes.) – This is
a fundamental medical device used by
healthcare providers to examine the ear canal,
tympanic membrane, and middle ear for signs
of infection, inflammation, or abnormalities.
Otoscopes provide illuminated
magnification of the ear canal and eardrum,
allowing clinicians to visualize the internal
structures of the ear and assess conditions
such as ear infections, blockages, wax buildup,
or perforations.
Otoscopy is a foundational aspect of ear
health evaluation, enabling early detection of
Figure 5-112 Otoscopes.
CHAPTER 5 111
conditions such as otitis media, otitis externa,
eardrum perforations, foreign bodies in the
ear, and other ear-related disorders that
require prompt diagnosis and treatment.
2. Rhino laryngoscopes (Figure 5-113 Rhino
laryngoscopes.) – These are specialized
medical devices used in otolaryngology to
visualize and examine the nasal passages,
sinuses, pharynx, larynx, and related
structures.
Rhino laryngoscopes are fiber-optic or
video endoscopes equipped with optical
focusing and imaging units that allow
obtaining high-definition images of the nasal
cavities, nasopharynx, and laryngeal region for
diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.
There are both reusable and single-use
rhino laryngoscopes available, each offering
distinct advantages in terms of infection
control, convenience, cost-effectiveness, and
procedural efficiency based on the specific
clinical scenario and institutional preferences.
Rhino laryngoscopes play a crucial role in
procedures such as laryngoscopy, evaluation
Figure 5-113 Rhino laryngoscopes.
112 Healthcare Departments and Devices
of vocal folds, assessment of upper airway
obstructions, foreign body removal, biopsies,
and guiding interventions in the management
of conditions affecting the upper respiratory
tract.
The use of high-definition video rhino
laryngoscopes, like the Olympus ENF-VH
model, provides clear visualization with
superior image quality, flexibility, and small
outer diameter, enhancing diagnostic
accuracy and enabling minimally invasive
examinations with patient comfort in mind.
3. Audiometers (Figure 5-114 Audiometers.) –
Audiometers measure a person's hearing
threshold by testing their ability to hear
sounds of different frequencies and
intensities, providing crucial information for
diagnosing hearing loss, balance issues, and
other auditory-related conditions.
Audiometers come in different types,
including diagnostic audiometers for
comprehensive hearing evaluations, screening
audiometers for quick assessments, and
portable audiometers for on-the-go testing in
various healthcare settings.
Audiometry exams test both the intensity
and tone of sounds, aiding in the evaluation of
hearing function, speech recognition, and
response to auditory stimuli, thereby guiding
appropriate interventions and treatment
plans.
The audiometer comprises components
like a pure tone generator, bone conduction
oscillator, and attenuator, enabling
audiologists to conduct precise assessments of
cochlear function and identify hearing
impairments.
4. Tympanometer (Figure 5-115
Tympanometer.) – This is a diagnostic device
that measures the acoustic immittance in the
external auditory meatus as air pressure
varies, providing valuable information about
the condition of the middle ear, mobility of the
middle ear system, and ear canal volume.
The test checks for signs of problems in the
middle ear, such as fluid accumulation,
perforations in the tympanic membrane, and
issues with the conduction bones, aiding in the
diagnosis of conditions like otitis media,
eustachian tube dysfunction, and other
middle ear pathologies.
During tympanometry, both negative and
positive pressure is applied to the middle ear
using a constant probe tone, allowing one to
assess how the middle ear responds to
pressure changes and identify any
abnormalities affecting sound transmission.
Figure 5-114 Audiometers.

Tympanometry is non-invasive and does not
require a voluntary response from the patient
being tested, making it a valuable tool for
objective assessment of middle ear function,
especially in cases where traditional hearing
tests may be challenging to perform.
Tympanometry is often used alongside
other audiological tests like otoscopy and
pneumatic otoscopy to provide a structures, obtain tissue samples for biopsy,
comprehensive evaluation of middle ear
health and function, offering insights critical
for diagnosing and managing ear-related
disorders.
5. Nasal Endoscope (Figure 5-116 Nasal
Endoscope.) – This is a minimally invasive
diagnostic procedure that allows one to
visualize and examine the nasal and sinus
passages using an endoscope.
Nasal endoscopy involves inserting a thin,
flexible, or rigid tube equipped with a tiny
camera (endoscope) into the nasal cavity to
obtain a detailed view of the nasal anatomy,
sinus structures, and any potential
abnormalities or pathologies within the nasal
passages.
Figure 5-115 Tympanometer.
CHAPTER 5 113
This procedure is commonly utilized to
evaluate conditions such as chronic sinusitis,
nasal polyps, deviated septum, nasal tumors,
infections, allergies, and other disorders
affecting the nasal and sinus regions, aiding in
accurate diagnosis and treatment planning.
Nasal endoscopy offers several advantages,
including the ability to directly visualize nasal
assess the extent of disease, guide surgical
interventions, and monitor treatment
responses, all while minimizing patient
discomfort and recovery time.
Otolaryngologists perform nasal endoscopy in
office settings to assess patients presenting
with nasal symptoms, difficulty breathing,
recurrent sinus infections, or suspected nasal
pathology, utilizing the procedure as a
valuable tool for comprehensive nasal
evaluations and treatment management.
6. Vestibular Testing Equipment (Figure 5-117
Vestibular Testing Equipment.) - This is
specialized diagnostic technology used to
assess the function of the vestibular system,
which contributes to balance, spatial
orientation, and eye movement control.
Vestibular testing equipment aids in
evaluating patients with dizziness, vertigo,
imbalance, and other vestibular disorders by
assessing the function of the inner ear and its
Figure 5-116 Nasal Endoscope.
114 Healthcare Departments and Devices

connections to the brain, helping diagnose 7. Suction machine – see 5-4-1-2 (21).
conditions like Meniere's disease, benign 8. Laryngoscope – See 5-4-2-2 (4).
paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV), and
9. Microscope – See 5-4-9-2 (2).
vestibular neuritis.
Common vestibular tests include
videonystagmography (VNG), 5-4-17 Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation
electronystagmography (ENG), rotary chair Department
testing, video head impulse test (vHIT), caloric
The physiotherapists in this department deal with
testing, and vestibular evoked myogenic
patients who have functional disabilities resulting
potentials (VEMP), each targeting specific
from disease conditions/injuries to restore physical
aspects of vestibular function to provide
and mental functioning impairment to help them
comprehensive diagnostic information.
participate in life to the fullest, this includes
Vestibular testing equipment includes
temporary disability after medical treatment.
videonystagmography goggles with infrared
Physiotherapists often work closely with
cameras for tracking eye movements, caloric
orthopedic teams to promote body healing
irrigation devices for assessing the vestibular
through therapies such as exercise and
response to temperature changes, rotary
chairs for rotational testing, and vHIT systems
for evaluating the vestibular-ocular reflex.
During vestibular testing, patients undergo a
series of assessments that may involve
tracking eye movements, inducing controlled
stimuli like warm or cold air or head impulses,
and observing responses to different
vestibular stimuli, helping clinicians identify
the underlying causes of balance and dizziness
disorders.
Vestibular testing equipment allows for
objective evaluation of the vestibular system,
aiding in accurate diagnosis, treatment
planning, and rehabilitation strategies tailored
to each patient's specific vestibular
dysfunction.

Figure 5-117 Vestibular Testing

Equipment.

manipulation for patients recovering from surgery
and others.
This department can have physiotherapy,
occupational therapy, speech therapy, and
vocational training.
5-4-17-1 Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation
Devices
Physiotherapy and rehabilitation devices are
essential tools used in physical therapy treatments
to improve patients' mobility, strength, and overall
well-being. Below is a list of the main devices.
1. Exercise Equipment (Figure 5-118 Exercise
Equipment.) – Exercise equipment plays a
crucial role in supporting fitness goals and
promoting physical activity.
Exercise equipment comes in various
forms, including cardio machines like
Figure 5-118 Exercise Equipment.
CHAPTER 5 115
treadmills, ellipticals, and stationary bikes,
strength training equipment such as
dumbbells, resistance bands, and weight
machines, as well as accessories like yoga
mats, exercise balls, and ab toners.
2. Electrical Stimulator (Figure 5-119 Electrical
Stimulator.) – This is a therapeutic technique
that involves the application of electrical
impulses to nerves or muscles through special
devices.
Electrical muscle stimulation (EMS),
neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES),
and functional electrical stimulation (FES) are
different forms of electrical stimulation used
in physical therapy and rehabilitation. These
techniques aim to improve muscle strength,
reduce spasticity, and promote movement by
delivering controlled electrical impulses to
targeted areas.
Electrical stimulation is employed to
strengthen muscles, alleviate pain, enhance
blood circulation, and facilitate muscle
Figure 5-119 Electrical Stimulator.
116 Healthcare Departments and Devices
contractions. It is widely used in physical
therapy to aid in muscle rehabilitation and
recovery, particularly in addressing conditions
like foot drop and muscle weakness.
This modality is utilized in various
healthcare settings to assist individuals with
neurological disorders, sports injuries, and
musculoskeletal conditions.
3. Ultrasound Therapy (Figure 5-120 Ultrasound
Therapy.) – This is a non-invasive treatment
modality commonly used in physical therapy
to provide therapeutic benefits for various
musculoskeletal conditions.
Ultrasound therapy involves the
application of high-frequency sound waves to
targeted tissues to generate deep heating
effects, aiding in pain relief, tissue repair, and
muscle relaxation. The therapy sessions
typically last for a short duration, ranging from
5 to 10 minutes per session.
This modality is utilized in physical
therapy to address conditions such as pain,
tissue injuries, muscle spasms, and
Figure 5-120 Ultrasound Therapy.
inflammation. By providing deep heating to
soft tissues, ultrasound therapy promotes
circulation, reduces pain, and supports healing
processes in the body.
Ultrasound therapy is considered safe
when administered by trained professionals,
with minimal risks of adverse effects. The
therapy can help improve blood flow, relax
muscles, and enhance tissue repair, making it
a valuable tool in rehabilitation and pain
management.
By delivering ultrasonic energy through
short bursts or continuous waves, therapeutic
ultrasound devices aid in accelerating the
healing process of soft tissues, improving
mobility, reducing inflammation, and
enhancing overall tissue function.
4. Cryotherapy (Figure 5-121 Cryotherapy.) –
Also known as cold therapy, involves the
Figure 5-121 Cryotherapy.

application of low temperatures for
therapeutic purposes.
Cryotherapy can help alleviate muscle
pain, manage joint and muscle disorders such
as arthritis, promote faster healing of athletic
injuries, reduce joint and muscle pain,
soreness, and swelling, and potentially destroy
cancer cells in certain cancer treatments.
Cryotherapy works by exposing the body
to subzero temperatures either locally or
across the whole body for a specific duration.
Whole-body cryotherapy sessions typically
last 2 to 4 minutes and involve temperatures
below -200°F, offering potential therapeutic
benefits.
While cryotherapy can be beneficial,
especially in controlled medical settings,
whole-body cryotherapy may pose risks to the
skin due to extreme cold exposure.
5. Assistive Devices (Figure 5-122 Assistive
Devices.) – These are tools and technologies
designed to aid individuals with disabilities or
limitations in performing daily tasks,
enhancing their independence and quality of
life.
Assistive devices encompass a wide range
of products, including wheelchairs, hearing
aids, prosthetic limbs, mobility scooters, and
Figure 5-122 Assistive Devices.
CHAPTER 5 117
communication devices. These devices cater
to diverse needs, from physical impairments
to sensory limitations, cognitive challenges,
and communication difficulties.
Assistive devices promote greater
independence, mobility, accessibility, and
social inclusion for individuals with disabilities.
They enable users to engage in work,
education, recreation, and community
activities, fostering empowerment and
participation in society.
Ongoing advancements in assistive
technology have led to the development of
novel solutions such as exoskeletons for
enhanced mobility, smart glasses for visual
assistance, brain-computer interfaces for
communication, and wearable sensors for
health monitoring. These innovations
continually expand the possibilities for
individuals with disabilities to lead fulfilling
and active lives.
Figure 5-123 Monitoring Devices.
118 Healthcare Departments and Devices
6. Monitoring devices (Figure 5-123 Monitoring
Devices.) - Encompass a wide range of
technologies designed to track and analyze
various physiological parameters, ensuring the
continuous assessment of health metrics.
Monitoring devices include wearable fitness
trackers, smartwatches, blood pressure
monitors, glucometers, pulse oximeters, ECG
monitors, sleep trackers, and smart scales.
These devices offer real-time data collection
on vital signs, activity levels, sleep patterns,
and overall health indicators.
Monitoring devices enable individuals to
proactively manage their health by monitoring
key metrics, detecting anomalies, and
facilitating early intervention. They promote
self-awareness, encourage healthy behaviors,
and assist in chronic disease management
through personalized health insights.
5-4-18 Gastroenterology
This department investigates and treats disorders
affecting the digestive system, including the
gastrointestinal tract, liver, bile duct system, and
pancreas.
In this unit diagnose and manage a wide range
of conditions, such as acid reflux, ulcers,
inflammatory bowel disease, liver diseases,
pancreatic disorders, gastrointestinal cancers, and
other digestive issues impacting patients' health.
5-4-18-1 Gastroenterology Devices
1. Endoscopes (Figure 5-124 Endoscope.) –
Endoscopes are essential instruments used
in medical procedures to visualize and
inspect internal organs.
An endoscope is a specialized inspection
instrument comprising components such as
an image sensor, optical lens, light source,
and mechanical device. It allows to examine
the interior of hollow organs or cavities
within the body with precision.
Endoscopes enable to observation of
detailed images and videos of organs and
structures inside the body by inserting a
long, thin tube equipped with a camera
through natural openings. This process aids
in diagnosis and treatment planning for
various medical conditions.
Endoscopes play a crucial role in
gastroenterology, respiratory medicine,
urology, and other medical specialties,
allowing for minimally invasive examinations
and procedures that help detect
abnormalities and guide interventions.
2. Sphincterotome (Figure 5-125
Sphincterotome.) – These are specialized
instruments used in endoscopic procedures
for various medical interventions.
A sphincterotome typically consists of a
metal wire covered by an insulating sheath,
with a portion of the wire exposed at the
distal end. It may feature a short radio-
opaque, tapered tip for precise manipulation
during procedures.
Some sphincterotomes come in a short
wire design to expedite instrument
exchange, reduce the risk of wire loss, and

facilitate physician-controlled guidewire
manipulation.
Sphincterotomes are utilized in various
endoscopic procedures, including pancreatic
sphincterotomy, biliary sphincterotomy, and
other interventions aimed at accessing and
treating specific anatomical structures
within the body.
3. Manometry Equipment (Figure 5-126
Manometry Equipment.) – This is a critical
tool used in medical settings to assess
pressure and motility within the
gastrointestinal tract.
Manometry equipment measures the
pressure exerted by muscles in different
parts of the gastrointestinal system,
providing valuable data on how well these
muscles are functioning. This information
aids in diagnosing conditions such as
esophageal disorders, anorectal
dysfunctions, and gastric motility issues.
During manometry tests, a thin, flexible
tube with pressure sensors is inserted
through the nose or mouth and positioned in
the esophagus, stomach, or rectum. The
patient swallows or performs specific tasks
Figure 5-124 Endoscope.
CHAPTER 5 119
while the equipment records muscle
contractions and pressure changes.
Manometry equipment is instrumental in
evaluating conditions such as
gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD),
achalasia, and irritable bowel syndrome
(IBS). It helps healthcare providers tailor
treatment plans based on accurate
assessments of gastrointestinal function.
4. Capsule Endoscope (Figure 5-127 Capsule
Endoscope.) - This is a minimally invasive
procedure that involves swallowing a tiny
capsule equipped with a camera to visualize
the gastrointestinal tract.
Capsule endoscopy allows to obtaining of
of detailed images of the digestive system,
particularly the small intestine, by utilizing a
small camera device housed within a pill-
shaped capsule.
Figure 5-125 Sphincterotome.
120 Healthcare Departments and Devices
During capsule endoscopy, the patient
swallows the video endoscopy capsule,
which travels through the digestive tract,
capturing images along the way. This non-
invasive method enables comprehensive
visualization of regions inaccessible by
traditional endoscopic procedures to
investigate gastrointestinal conditions such
as bleeding, tumors, ulcerative colitis
symptoms, and other abnormalities within
the small intestine.
5. Ultrasound – See 5-4-11-2 (4)
5-4-19 Ophthalmology
The main specialized doctor of this department is
an ophthalmologist who is specialized in
Figure 5-126 Manometry Equipment.
diagnosing and treating eye-related conditions.
Ophthalmologists work in general eye clinic
appointments, laser treatments, optometry (sight
testing), prosthetic eye services, ophthalmic
imaging (eye scans), etc.
5-4-19-1 Ophthalmology Devices
The below devices and instruments are vital in
diagnosing, treating, and managing various eye
conditions, enabling ophthalmologists to provide
effective care to patients.
1. Operation Microscope (Figure 5-128
Operation Microscope.) – is an essential
optical instrument designed for surgical
settings to provide surgeons with high-quality,
magnified, and illuminated images of the
operating field. These microscopes play a
critical role in various surgical procedures,
enabling precision, accuracy, and improved
visualization during intricate operations.
2. Phacoemulsification Machine (Figure 5-129
Phacoemulsification Machine.) – are
Figure 5-127 Capsule Endoscope.

specialized devices used in cataract surgery to
break up and remove cataracts from the eye's
internal lens. These machines utilize advanced
technology to perform precise emulsification
procedures, enhancing surgical outcomes and
patient recovery.
These machines emit high-frequency
signals when occlusion is reached during
surgery, ensuring controlled and effective
emulsification of cataracts.
3. Vitrectomy Machine (Figure 5-130 Vitrectomy
Machine.) – is a specialized surgical tool used
in ophthalmology to perform vitrectomy
procedures, which involve removing the
vitreous gel from the eye to address various
retinal conditions.
Vitrectomy machines are designed to
facilitate precise and controlled removal of
Figure 5-128 Operation Microscope.
CHAPTER 5 121
the vitreous humor, enabling surgeons to
perform delicate retinal surgeries with
enhanced visualization and maneuverability.
The latest vitrectomy machines, such as
the Constellation system, offer advanced
features and capabilities that ensure optimal
surgical outcomes and efficiency in
ambulatory surgery centers.
4. Slit Lamps (Figure 5-131 Slit Lamp.) – are
essential diagnostic instruments used in
ophthalmology and optometry for detailed
examination of the eye's anterior segment.
Figure 5-129 Phacoemulsification
Machine.
122 Healthcare Departments and Devices
Slit lamps combine a microscope with a
bright light source to enable ophthalmologists
to examine various eye structures with
precision and clarity.
The slit lamp exam, also known as
biomicroscope, is a standard procedure that
provides detailed insights into ocular health,
aiding in the assessment of conditions such as
cataracts, glaucoma, and corneal
abnormalities.
These devices are versatile and serve as
the primary diagnostic tool for evaluating the
cornea, conjunctiva, iris, lens, and other
external eye structures during clinical
examinations.
Slit lamps play a crucial role in pre-
assessing potential contact lens wearers and
conducting aftercare for existing wearers,
highlighting their significance in eye care
practices.
Figure 5-130 Vitrectomy Machine.
5. Digital Refraction System (Figure 5-132 Digital
Refraction System.) – These systems allow for
comprehensive control of the refraction exam
through a centralized panel, enhancing
accuracy and data management in
determining lens combinations and refractive
errors.
With features like binocular
autorefraction, keratometry, and subjective
refraction capabilities, digital refraction
systems provide a compact and versatile
solution for eye care practices, improving
workflow efficiency.
Figure 5-131 Slit Lamp.

6. Binocular Indirect Ophthalmoscope (Figure
5-133 Binocular Indirect Ophthalmoscope.) –
is a sophisticated optical instrument essential
in ophthalmology for examining the back of
the eye, particularly the fundus. It allows
ophthalmologists to visualize and assess the
retina, optic disc, and other structures at the
back of the eye with enhanced stereoscopic
vision, aiding in diagnosing various eye
conditions.
This technique involves using a light
source and lenses to create an inverted image
of the fundus, providing detailed views for
diagnostic purposes in ophthalmic
examinations.
7. Ophthalmic Examination Device (Figure 5-134
Ophthalmic Examination Device.) – 8.
encompasses a wide range of tools and
instruments utilized in eye care practices to
assess and diagnose various ocular conditions.
Figure 5-132 Digital Refraction System.
CHAPTER 5 123
Ophthalmic examination devices include
slit lamps, tonometers, autorefractors,
keratometers, fundus cameras, and more,
each serving specific purposes in evaluating
different aspects of eye health.
These devices play a crucial role in
conducting comprehensive eye examinations,
enabling to evaluation of visual acuity,
measure intraocular pressure, assess
refractive errors, examine the retina, and
diagnosis of ocular diseases
Ophthalmic examination devices are vital
in detecting eye conditions early, monitoring
disease progression, and ensuring optimal eye
health through routine screenings and
checkups.
Applanation Tonometer (Figure 5-135
Applanation Tonometer.) – is a vital diagnostic
test used to measure intraocular pressure
Figure 5-133 Binocular Indirect
Ophthalmoscope.
124 Healthcare Departments and Devices
(IOP) in the eye, particularly important for
conditions like glaucoma.
Applanation tonometry utilizes devices
like the Goldmann Applanation Tonometer,
involving gentle contact with the cornea to
assess IOP accurately.
This test aids in detecting elevated IOP, a
crucial factor in diagnosing and managing
conditions such as glaucoma, where increased
pressure can lead to optic nerve damage.
During application tonometry, the force
needed to flatten a specific area of the cornea
is measured, providing valuable information
on the pressure inside the eye.
Applanation tonometry is a standard
practice in ophthalmology clinics, offering
insights into ocular health and helping
clinicians monitor and treat patients at risk of
vision-related complications.
Figure 5-134 Ophthalmic Examination
Device.
9. Color vision tests – are assessments designed
to evaluate an individual's ability to perceive
and distinguish various colors accurately.
Color vision tests help identify color vision
deficiencies, such as color blindness, enabling
to diagnosis of specific types of color vision
impairments and providing appropriate
recommendations.
Common methods for assessing color
vision include the Ishihara Color Test,
Farnsworth D-15 Test, Holmgren Wool Test,
and the Hardy-Rand-Rittler Test, each utilizing
different patterns or hues to evaluate color
perception
Accurate color vision testing is crucial in a
variety of professions, such as aviation,
transportation, and graphic design, where the
ability to discern colors correctly is essential
for safety, efficiency, and performance.
Individuals diagnosed with color vision
deficiencies can benefit from adaptive
strategies, specialized lenses, and color vision
correction aids that help enhance color
discrimination and facilitate daily activities.
Figure 5-135 Applanation Tonometer.

10. Corneal Pachymetry - this involves measuring
the thickness of the cornea, offering valuable
information for various eye health
assessments and procedures.
Corneal pachymetry is a crucial test that
provides insights into corneal health, making it
particularly significant for evaluating
conditions like glaucoma, refractive errors,
and before ocular surgeries.
A pachymetry test is typically quick, and
painless, and involves using a specialized
instrument called a pachymeter to measure
corneal thickness. This measurement is
essential for assessing various eye conditions
accurately.
Corneal pachymetry plays a vital role in
ophthalmology practices, aiding in pre-
operative assessments for refractive surgeries,
post-operative monitoring, and assessing
corneal health in both routine and specialized
eye care settings.
5-4-20 Rheumatology
Specialist doctors called rheumatologists run this
unit and mainly diagnose conditions and treat
autoimmune and inflammatory diseases that
primarily affect the musculoskeletal system such as
autoimmune diseases, vasculatures,
inherited connective tissue disorders, arthritis
problems, pain disorders affecting
joints, osteoporosis, etc.
5-4-20-1 Rheumatology Devices
Assistive devices such as button hooks, zipper
pulls, and dressing sticks can aid individuals with
decreased grip strength and joint mobility in
CHAPTER 5 125
performing daily tasks more comfortably and
independently. These devices aim to minimize
stress on painful joints and enhance overall
function.
Adaptive equipment tailored for arthritis in
the hands and fingers can help protect and
preserve small joints, allowing individuals to
perform activities with greater ease and reduced
discomfort.
Simple self-help devices like jar openers,
reachers, and easy-grip utensils are designed to
assist individuals in managing arthritis symptoms
and maintaining independence in daily routines.
5-4-21 Obstetrics and Gynecology
In this department, the gynecologists and
obstetrics paired together forming the combined
area of (OB and GYN) to investigate and treat
problems related to the female urinary tract and
reproductive organs, such as endometritis,
infertility incontinence, etc.
5-4-21-1 Obstetrics and Gynecology Devices
Obstetrics and Gynecology (OB/GYN) devices play
a vital role in women's healthcare, providing
essential tools for diagnostic, therapeutic, and
surgical procedures.
Instruments like cannula and curettes are
essential in OB/GYN procedures for tasks such as
aspiration or tissue collection, Instruments like
specula are used to assist in visual examinations of
the vagina and cervix during gynecological exams,
another instrument is colposcopes (Figure 5-136
Colposcope.) which are specialized optical
instruments used for examining the cervix, vagina,
and vulva for signs of disease, Fetal Dopplers, such
126 Healthcare Departments and Devices
as the Sonotech Xpress, are used to monitor fetal
heart rates during pregnancy.
The main device in this unit is an ultrasound
machine which is crucial for imaging and
monitoring the fetus during pregnancy.
5-4-22 Nephrology
This department sometimes called the renal
department, in which patients receive care and
treatment for problems such as auto-immune
disorders, diabetes, kidney stones, high blood
pressure, etc.
The kidney specialists called Nephrologists will
liaise with the transplant team in cases of kidney
transplants as well as supervise the dialysis unit to
treat patients with kidney failure who are waiting
for a kidney transplant or who are unable to have
a transplant for any reason.
Figure 5-136 Colposcope.
5-4-22-1 Nephrology Devices
Hemodialysis machines (Figure 5-137
Hemodialysis.) are crucial in renal care, effectively
filtering blood through a dialyzer to eliminate
waste and excess fluids, replicating the kidney's
natural filtration process.
The machine filters blood through a dialyzer,
acting as an artificial kidney, with safety features
ensuring the process's safety and efficacy.
Hemodialysis machines consist of membranes
that serve as filters and use a specialized liquid
called dialysate to remove waste products from
the blood
These devices play a critical role in managing
kidney-related conditions by efficiently cleansing
the blood and maintaining overall health.
Hemodialysis machines are integral in
facilitating the filtration of wastes, salts, and fluids
from the blood when the kidneys can no longer
perform this function adequately.
Hemodialysis machines are indispensable
tools in providing life-sustaining treatments for
individuals with kidney failure, offering a lifeline for
those in need of regular dialysis therapy.
5-4-23 Cardiology
This department provides medical care to patients
who have problems with their heart or blood
circulation. It serves both people on an inpatient
and outpatient basis. It is where cardiologists
perform procedures such as Electrocardiogram
(ECG) and exercise tests to measure heart function,
Echocardiograms (ultrasound scan of the heart),
24-hour blood pressure tests, Insertion of

pacemakers, Cardiac catheterization (coronary
angiography) to see if there are any blocks in the
arteries, MRI scans, Myocardial perfusion scans,
Radionuclide tests, etc.
5-4-23-1 Cardiology Devices
Cardiology devices encompass a diverse range of
tools that play a critical role in diagnosing and
treating various heart conditions.
1. Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator (ICD)
(Figure 5-138 Implantable Cardioverter
Defibrillator (ICD).) – This is a cardiac therapy
device designed to detect and manage life-
threatening rapid heart rhythms by delivering
corrective shocks as needed.
An ICD is a battery-powered device placed
beneath the skin to monitor heart rate
Figure 5-137 Hemodialysis.
CHAPTER 5 127
irregularities and deliver lifesaving shocks to
restore normal heart rhythm.
It detects dangerously fast heartbeats,
known as ventricular arrhythmias, and
intervenes by administering an electrical
shock to stabilize the heart's rhythm.
This medical device is crucial for
individuals with abnormal heart rhythms,
providing timely interventions through
electrical pulses to correct dangerous cardiac
irregularities.
2. Heart Lung Machine (Figure 5-139 Heart Lung
Machine.) – This is a critical piece of
equipment used during open-heart surgery to
temporarily take over the heart and lung
functions.
The Heart-Lung Machine diverts blood
away from the heart, allowing surgeons to
empty and stop the heart, providing
oxygenation and circulation while the heart is
not functioning.
Figure 5-138 Implantable Cardioverter
Defibrillator (ICD).
128 Healthcare Departments and Devices

This innovative device facilitates open-
heart procedures by maintaining blood flow
and oxygenation, enabling surgeons to
perform intricate cardiac surgeries effectively.
The Heart-Lung Machine consists of a
pump that mimics the heart's function and an
oxygenator that replicates lung oxygenation,
creating a bypass detour for blood circulation
during surgery.
It serves as a lifeline for patients
undergoing cardiac procedures, ensuring
continuous oxygen supply and blood
circulation to sustain life during surgical
interventions.
day, with some cases requiring an overnight
stay in the hospital for monitoring.
4. ECG – See 5-4-1-2 (2).
5. Pacemaker – See 7-4-3-2 (2).
6. Defibrillator – See 7-4-1-2 (3).
5-4-24 Neurology
These neurologists run this department to deal
with disorders of the nervous system “brain and
spinal cord”. Neurologists diagnose and treat
patients with epilepsy, spinal bifida, movement
disorders, dementias, stroke, brain tumors,

3. Cardiovascular Angioplasty (Figure 5-141

Cardiovascular Angioplasty.) – This is a
minimally invasive procedure aimed at
opening blocked or narrowed blood vessels
supplying the heart muscles.
It involves the use of a thin tube with a
balloon attached that is inserted into the
narrowed artery. The balloon is inflated to
widen the artery, restoring proper blood flow
to the heart.
This procedure is crucial for individuals
with blocked arteries, as it helps alleviate
chest pain (angina) and reduce the risk of
heart attacks by improving blood circulation to
the heart muscle.
In some cases, a stent—a small metal mesh
tube—may be inserted during angioplasty to
help keep the artery open and prevent it from
re-narrowing.
Following the procedure, patients may
recover quickly and often go home the same Figure 5-139 Heart Lung Machine.

headache, neuromuscular diseases, peripheral
nerve tumors, paralysis, nerve pain, sleep
disorders, speech disorders, and many other
conditions.
5-4-24-1 Neurology Devices
The below devices are neurology devices that
encompass a wide array of specialized tools and
equipment designed to diagnose, monitor, and
treat neurological conditions.
1. Transcranial Dopplers (Figure 5-140) – These
are essential tools in neuroimaging, providing
noninvasive and real-time measures of
cerebrovascular function.
Transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasound
plays a crucial role in measuring cerebral blood
flow velocity changes due to neural activation
during cognitive tasks, aiding in the diagnosis
of acute ischemic stroke and providing
valuable information about microcirculation.
Figure 5-140 Transcranial Dopplers.
CHAPTER 5 129
Widely used in outpatient and inpatient
settings.
2. Intracranial Pressure Monitor (Figure 5-143
Intracranial Pressure Monitor.) – This is a
critical diagnostic procedure that involves
placing a device inside the head to measure
and monitor the pressure within the skull.
Intracranial Pressure (ICP) monitoring is
essential in neurology to assess and manage
conditions like encephalitis, head trauma,
tumors, and hydrocephalus where
abnormalities in cerebrospinal fluid pressure
may impact brain function.
Various methods, such as intraventricular
monitoring with a ventriculostomy,
intraparenchymal strain gauge, or fiber-optic
monitor, are employed for accurate ICP
monitoring, aiding in diagnosing and treating
high or low CSF pressure-related issues.
Figure 5-141 Cardiovascular Angioplasty.
130 Healthcare Departments and Devices
3. Electromyograph (EMG) (Figure 5-142
Electromyograph (EMG).) – This is a diagnostic
tool used to evaluate the electrical activity of
skeletal muscles and the nerves controlling
them by capturing and recording the electrical
signals produced by muscles during
contraction, providing valuable information
about muscle function and nerve activity.
EMG is instrumental in diagnosing
neuromuscular disorders, assessing muscle
response to nerve stimulation, and identifying
conditions affecting muscle control and
movement.
During an EMG test, small electrodes are
placed on specific muscles to record electrical
activity, helping detect nerve and muscle
abnormalities for accurate diagnosis and
treatment planning.
Figure 5-142 Electromyograph (EMG).
4. Polysomnography (Figure 5-144
Polysomnography.) - This is a comprehensive
diagnostic tool used in sleep medicine to
monitor and record various physiological
parameters during sleep.
A polysomnography monitors multiple
body functions simultaneously during sleep,
including brain waves, eye movements,
muscle activity, heart rhythm, and breathing
patterns, providing valuable data for
diagnosing sleep disorders.
Polysomnography helps to diagnose
conditions such as sleep apnea, narcolepsy,
insomnia, and periodic limb movement
disorder by analyzing sleep stages, breathing
disturbances, and abnormal sleep patterns
During a polysomnogram, sensors are placed
on the patient's scalp, face, chest, limbs, and
fingers to monitor various physiological
parameters while they sleep in a controlled
Figure 5-143 Intracranial Pressure
Monitor.

environment, allowing for a comprehensive
assessment of sleep quality and patterns.
5-4-25 Oncology
The oncologists in this department diagnose and
treat patients using radiotherapy and a full range
of chemotherapy for cancerous tumors and blood
disorders.
Oncology involves a multidisciplinary
approach, where medical oncologists, radiation
oncologists, surgical oncologists, pathologists,
radiologists, and other specialists collaborate to
deliver comprehensive care, treatment planning,
and supportive services to cancer patients.
5-4-25-1 Oncology Devices
The below oncology devices play a critical role in
the diagnosis, treatment, and management of
cancer patients.
1. Linear Accelerator (Figure 5-145 Linear
Accelerator.) – This is a crucial device utilized
in various fields, including medicine and
particle physics.
Figure 5-144 Polysomnography.
CHAPTER 5 131
A linear accelerator is a type of particle
accelerator that incrementally boosts the
kinetic energy of charged ions or subatomic
particles through oscillating electromagnetic
fields.
The machine accelerates electrons or
protons close to the speed of light using an
electromagnetic field, enabling precise control
over the acceleration process.
In medicine, a medical linear accelerator
customizes high-energy X-rays or electrons to
conform to a tumor's shape, aiding in the
destruction of cancer cells while minimizing
damage to surrounding healthy tissues.
2. Brachytherapy Machine (Figure 5-146
Brachytherapy Machine.) – These are integral
to the delivery of brachytherapy, a specialized
form of internal radiation therapy used in
cancer treatment.
Brachytherapy machines are designed to
deliver precise doses of radiation to targeted
areas within the body by placing radioactive
sources directly near or inside tumors. This
localized approach helps to effectively destroy
Figure 5-145 Linear Accelerator.
132 Healthcare Departments and Devices
cancer cells while minimizing exposure to
surrounding healthy tissues.
Brachytherapy machines come in various
forms, including high-dose rate (HDR)
brachytherapy machines and low-dose rate
(LDR) machines. HDR machines deliver
radiation quickly in short bursts, while LDR
machines emit radiation at a slower rate over
a longer period.
These machines are equipped with
advanced control systems to regulate the
radiation dose and ensure the accurate
placement of radioactive sources. Safety
features are integrated to protect both
patients and healthcare providers during
brachytherapy procedures.
Brachytherapy machines are versatile
tools used in the treatment of different types
of cancers, such as cervical, prostate, breast,
and skin cancer. Their ability to adapt to
varying treatment needs makes them
essential in delivering personalized and
effective cancer care.
Figure 5-146 Brachytherapy Machine.
3. Chemotherapy Infusion Pumps (Figure 5-147
Chemotherapy Infusion Pumps.) – Play a
crucial role in the delivery of chemotherapy
drugs to cancer patients, they are specialized
devices that deliver a controlled and
continuous supply of chemotherapy drugs into
the patient's bloodstream. This method
ensures a steady infusion rate, optimizing the
effectiveness of the treatment.
There are various types of chemotherapy
infusion pumps, including elastomeric pumps
and electronic pumps.
These pumps enable the precise
administration of chemotherapy doses at
predetermined rates, typically through an
intravenous (IV) line located in the patient's
chest or arm. They provide a consistent
delivery mechanism, enhancing treatment
efficacy while allowing patients to receive
therapy in the comfort of their homes.
Chemotherapy infusion pumps have
revolutionized cancer care by offering
flexibility in treatment administration,
improving patient adherence, and potentially
extending survival rates for individuals with
metastatic cancers.
4. PET-CT Scanner – See 5-4-8-1 (3).

5-4-26 Urology
The urologists run this department to investigate
all areas linked to kidney and bladder-based
problems.
The urology department typically performs
the procedures such as flexible cystoscopy bladder
checks, urodynamic studies (eg for incontinence),
prostate assessments and biopsies, and shockwave
lithotripsy to break up kidney stones.
5-4-26-1 Urology Devices
The field of urology relies on a range of specialized
equipment to diagnose and treat various urological
conditions.
1. Dornier Compact Sigma Lithotripsy Machine
(Figure 5-148 Dornier Compact Sigma
Lithotripsy Machine.) – This is a versatile
modular lithotripter designed to provide
2. Holmium Laser (Figure 5-149 Holmium Laser.)
Figure 5-147 Chemotherapy Infusion
Pumps.
CHAPTER 5 133
efficient extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy
(ESWL) for the treatment of kidney stones.
The Compact Sigma offers versatility by
combining advanced lithotripsy technology
with the integration of C-arms, ultrasound
scanners, and a fully motorized patient table.
This modular design enhances the capabilities
of the lithotripter for optimized treatment
outcomes.
Equipped with a fully motorized, four-axis
table, the Compact Sigma is suitable for both
ESWL and endourology procedures. Its
exchangeable features and efficient system
design contribute to enhanced treatment
efficiency and patient comfort during
lithotripsy sessions.
The Compact Sigma is recognized for its
modular configuration, allowing for tailored
treatment approaches by integrating various
options such as C-arms and ultrasound
scanners. This flexibility enables healthcare
providers to customize the lithotripter setup
based on specific patient needs and
procedural requirements.
– is a high-power solid-state laser utilized in
various surgical procedures across multiple
medical specialties, including urology,
orthopedics, gynecology, and dentistry.
The Holmium laser offers precision and
versatility in surgical applications, particularly
in urologic procedures like prostate surgery. It
is commonly used for treating conditions such
as benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) through
techniques like Holmium Laser Enucleation of
the Prostate (HoLEP).
134 Healthcare Departments and Devices
Known for its effectiveness and safety
profile, the Holmium laser enables surgeons to
perform minimally invasive procedures with
reduced risk and enhanced patient outcomes.
Its ability to target specific tissues with high
accuracy makes it a preferred choice in various
medical interventions.
Operating at near-infrared wavelengths,
the Holmium laser delivers energy through
fiber optics, allowing for precise tissue
ablation and coagulation. Its versatility and
compatibility with optical fibers make it
suitable for a wide range of surgical
disciplines.
3. Ultrasound machine - See 5-4-1-2 (6).
4. X-Ray C-Arm – See 5-4-24-2 (3).
Figure 5-148 Dornier Compact Sigma
Lithotripsy Machine.
5-4-27 Orthopedics
This is where problems affecting the
musculoskeletal system “muscles, joints, bones,
ligaments, and tendons” are dealt with.
Depending on the size of this department
it may be separated into different units such as
trauma unit which handles mainly fracture,
dislocations, and soft-tissue injuries of the
extremities, joint replacement unit,
musculoskeletal tumor unit, sport medicine and
arthroscopy unit, pediatrics unit, hand unit, spine
surgery unit, etc.
5-4-27-1 Orthopedics Devices
Orthopedic devices play a crucial role in the
treatment and management of musculoskeletal
conditions. Generally speaking, orthopedics relies
on implants, hardware, instruments, and
apparatus rather than devices. Below are some of
these tools used in the orthopedics department.
Trauma implants such as tibial nails, external
fixation devices, clamps, and trocars are utilized in
the surgical management of traumatic injuries to
stabilize fractures and promote healing. These
implants assist in restoring the structural integrity
of bones post-injury.
Orthopedic hardware includes a variety of
fixation devices like screws, washers, plates, wires,
rods, nails, and spinal fixation devices. These are
instrumental in stabilizing bone fractures,
correcting deformities, and supporting the skeletal
structure during the healing process.
General orthopedic supplies encompass a
range of supportive devices such as arm

immobilizers, slings, back/lumbar supports, biopsy
needles, cast cutters, padding, and protectors.
These supplies aid in postoperative care,
rehabilitation, and comfort for patients
undergoing orthopedic procedures.
Total knee prostheses and shoulder implants
are examples of orthopedic implants used in joint
replacement surgeries to alleviate pain, improve
mobility, and enhance the quality of life for
individuals with degenerative joint conditions.
These prostheses mimic the function of natural
joints.
5-4-28 Medical Gas
This department is the one responsible for
supplying specialized gases such as Oxygen,
Medical air, Nitrous oxide, Nitrogen, and Carbon
dioxide to various areas of the healthcare facilities
such as ORs, wards, and ER.
Figure 5-149 Holmium Laser.
CHAPTER 5 135
5-4-28-1 Medical Gas Devices
The below devices are essential tools used in
healthcare settings to deliver therapeutic gases for
various medical purposes.
1. Oxygen cylinder (Figure 5-151 Oxygen
cylinder.) – essential in oxygen therapy, are
high-pressure storage vessels designed to
deliver supplemental oxygen to individuals
with respiratory issues.
Oxygen cylinders store compressed
oxygen gas under high pressure, allowing for
the controlled release of oxygen to patients in
need of respiratory support, or to individuals
with lung problems, or facing breathing
difficulties.
Oxygen cylinders come in various types
designed for different purposes, from portable
cylinders that provide mobility to patients to
larger cylinders used in healthcare facilities.
Proper handling, storage, and usage
procedures are vital to ensure the safe and
effective delivery of oxygen to patients.
Medical oxygen cylinders contain highly
pure oxygen gas without any other gases to
prevent contamination. The purity of the
oxygen gas ensures optimal therapeutic
benefits for patients requiring oxygen therapy.
2. Medical Gas Outlet (Figure 5-150 Medical Gas
Outlet.) - These are specialized outlets for
providing safe and convenient access to
medical gases for clinical applications.
136 Healthcare Departments and Devices

Medical gas outlets serve as connection 5-4-29 Catering

points where medical equipment, such as
oxygen delivery systems or anesthesia
machines, can receive a regulated supply of
medical gases like oxygen, air, nitrous oxide,
carbon dioxide, and vacuum. These outlets
ensure a reliable source of essential gases for
patient care.
Medical gas outlets are designed with
safety features to prevent mix-ups and ensure
the correct gas is delivered to the intended
equipment. They offer convenience by
allowing healthcare providers easy access to
the required gases during medical procedures
and treatments.
Diet is an essential part of recuperating from illness
or surgery. Hospitals tend to provide nutritious and
healthy diet food based on the requirements of the
different categories of patients. Providing a good
diet depends on a lot of factors to prepare food
that is tasty, safe, and nutritional in a hygienic
manner.
5-4-29-1 Catering Devices
a diverse range of specialized devices and
equipment plays a crucial role in food preparation,
cooking, serving, and storage of food for the

3. Anesthesia Machine – See 5-4-1-2 (1).

4. Medical Gas Regulator – See 5-4-1-2 (5).
5. Oxygen Concentrator – 5-4-1-2 (26).
6. Ventilator – See 5-4-2-2 (1).

Figure 5-151 Oxygen cylinder. Figure 5-150 Medical Gas Outlet.


patient, The catering devices include cooling
equipment, food holding and warming devices,
refrigeration, and storage devices, serving
equipment, cleaning and sanitization devices, etc.
5-4-30 Laundry
The hospital environment is known to be infectious
and contaminated which is why it requires
continuous effective hygiene and infection control
protocols. That is why different kinds of linen such
as patient linen, kitchen linen, hospital curtains,
staff uniforms, blankets, mattresses, etc. Must be
properly and professionally cleaned to make sure
any germs or possible toxins have been removed to
ensure comfort and safety.
5-4-30-1 Laundry Devices
Below are a variety of specialized devices and
equipment that are essential for the efficient
cleaning of textiles within a hospital setting
1. Washer Extractor () – This is a robust laundry
machine designed for commercial and
industrial use, capable of handling large
quantities of laundry efficiently, it operates
similarly to a front-loading residential washing
machine but on a much larger scale, catering
to the demands of commercial settings. It
effectively removes dirt and contaminants
from textiles while extracting excess water to
prepare them for drying.
Washer extractors are commonly utilized in
industrial laundry facilities to handle extensive
loads of laundry, making them ideal for hotels,
hospitals, and large-scale laundry operations.
CHAPTER 5 137
Washer extractors offer a range of program
options tailored to different laundry
requirements. These programs dictate factors
such as temperature, cycle duration, and
agitation level to achieve optimal cleaning
results while preserving the quality of textiles.
2. Dryer () – These are essential laundry
appliances designed to remove moisture from
washed items efficiently, expediting the drying
process.
Dryers work by tumbling clothes in a
heated drum, allowing warm air to circulate
and evaporate moisture from the fabric. The
evaporated water is then vented outside (in
vented dryers) or condensed into a reservoir
(in condenser dryers), depending on the dryer
type.
There are various types of dryers
available, including vented dryers that release
warm air through a vent, condenser dryers
that collect moisture in a separate container,
and heat pump dryers that recycle hot air for
increased energy efficiency.
Modern dryers come equipped with
features such as sensor drying technology,
which detects the moisture level in the load
and adjusts the drying time accordingly. This
helps prevent over-drying and reduces energy
consumption.
Dryers offer convenience by significantly
reducing the time required to dry laundry
compared to air-drying methods. They also
contribute to maintaining the softness and
quality of fabrics while preventing mildew
growth that can occur in damp conditions.
138 Healthcare Departments and Devices
3. Ironer (Figure 5-154) – This is a specialized
laundry device used to press and finish large
pieces of fabric efficiently.
An ironer consists of heated rollers that
rotate to iron and press flat textiles such as
bed linens, tablecloths, and large garments.
The fabric passes through the rollers, which
apply heat and pressure to remove wrinkles
and create a smooth finish.
There are various types of ironers available,
including chest ironers (flatwork ironers with a
single large heated roller), multi-roll ironers
(incorporating multiple rollers for enhanced
efficiency), and rotary ironers (where the
fabric is fed in at one end and emerges pressed
at the other).
Ironers are commonly used in commercial
laundry facilities, hotels, hospitals, and textile
manufacturing plants to handle high volumes
of linen and fabrics efficiently. They offer a
Figure 5-152 Washer Extractor.
time-saving solution for pressing large textiles
in a uniform and professional manner.
Modern ironers feature automation and
control systems that allow operators to set
parameters such as temperature, speed, and
pressure to achieve desired ironing results.
This automation enhances efficiency and
ensures consistent quality across the ironed
items.
4. Trolley, Linen – See 7-4-5-2 (5).
5-4-31 Information Technology (IT)
The demand for the use of IT and computers within
hospitals has grown rapidly and has become
necessary to enable hospitals to meet their
medical and business responsibilities since it has an
Figure 5-153 Dryer.

essential role to play in assisting staff to manage
and care for patients.
A hospital IT department is not only
responsible for clinical software but also for
ensuring the smooth operation of medical wards,
operating rooms, labor and delivery suites,
emergency department, billing systems, ordering
and receiving lab results, etc.
5-4-31-1 Information Technology (IT) Devices
Hospital information technology devices play a
vital role in managing patient data, improving
healthcare delivery, and enhancing operational
efficiency within healthcare facilities. Here is a list
of essential IT devices commonly used in hospitals
1. Electronic Health Record (HER) Systems –
These are digital platforms designed to store,
manage, and share patient health information
efficiently within healthcare settings.
An EHR is a real-time, patient-centered
electronic record that contains
comprehensive health information about
individuals and can be accessed securely by
authorized users across multiple healthcare
facilities and agencies.
2.
Figure 5-154 Ironer.
CHAPTER 5 139
EHR systems enable the creation, storage,
retrieval, and sharing of structured patient
data, including medical history, diagnoses,
medications, immunizations, radiology
images, laboratory results, and treatment
plans, to support informed decision-making
and continuity of care.
EHRs streamline clinical workflows,
improve care coordination, enhance patient
safety, reduce medical errors, increase
efficiency in healthcare delivery, and
empower patients to participate in their
healthcare management through access to
their health records.
EHR systems promote interoperability by
facilitating the exchange of health information
among healthcare providers, laboratories,
pharmacies, and other authorized entities to
ensure seamless care transitions, improve
care quality, and enhance care outcomes.
EHR platforms prioritize data security and
privacy through encryption, access controls,
audit trails, and compliance with regulatory
standards like HIPAA (Health Insurance
Portability and Accountability Act) to
safeguard patient confidentiality and protect
sensitive health information from
unauthorized access or breaches.
Medication Management System – A
Medication Management System is a
comprehensive solution used in healthcare
settings to streamline medication workflows,
enhance patient safety, and optimize
medication administration processes.
Medication Management Systems
automate various aspects of medication
140 Healthcare Departments and Devices
handling, including prescribing, dispensing,
administering, and monitoring medications, to
reduce errors, improve accuracy, and ensure
patient compliance with treatment plans.
These systems typically include
Automated Dispensing Cabinets (ADCs),
Barcode Medication Administration (BCMA)
systems, Electronic Medication
Administration Records (eMAR), Clinical
Decision Support (CDS) tools, and Smart
Infusion Pumps to support different stages of
medication management.
Medication Management Systems help
healthcare providers verify medication orders,
check for drug interactions, allergies, and
dosage errors, ensure timely medication
administration, track medication usage, and
enhance medication reconciliation to promote
patient safety and quality of care.
These systems integrate with Electronic
Health Record (EHR) systems, pharmacy
information systems, and other clinical
software to maintain accurate medication
records, synchronize medication data,
automate refill requests, and facilitate
seamless communication across healthcare
teams.
Medication Management Systems
incorporate safety features such as barcode
scanning, dose alerts, automated inventory
management, controlled access to
medications, and electronic documentation to
prevent medication errors, improve
adherence, and enhance regulatory
compliance.
By reducing manual tasks, mitigating
medication-related risks, providing real-time
medication information, and offering decision
support tools, Medication Management
Systems optimize workflow efficiency,
enabling them to focus on patient care
delivery.
5-4-32 Biomedical Engineering
Biomedical engineering plays a crucial role in
the maintenance and management of medical
devices, ensuring that healthcare facilities can
provide safe and effective patient care. The
maintenance of medical equipment
encompasses a range of activities from routine
checks and calibration to repairs and software
updates, all aimed at prolonging the life of the
equipment and ensuring it operates within its
intended specifications.
The main types of maintenance
performed by biomedical engineers are:
• Preventive Maintenance: This is a scheduled
maintenance activity aimed at preventing
future problems and equipment failures. This
includes cleaning, calibration, and replacing
worn parts before they fail.
• Corrective Maintenance: Repairing or
replacing equipment after a fault has occurred.
This ensures that the equipment is brought
back to working condition as quickly as
possible.
The maintenance of medical devices is
critical for several reasons:

• Patient Safety: Properly maintained equipment
reduces the risk of device failure, which can
lead to misdiagnoses or injuries.
• Compliance: Many countries have regulations
requiring regular maintenance and
documentation to ensure devices meet safety
standards.
• Cost Efficiency: Regular maintenance can
extend the life of expensive medical
equipment, making healthcare more
affordable.
It is also a biomedical engineering department's
responsibility to maintain and manage the medical
devices through:
• Assessment Checklists: Developing detailed
checklists to assess the performance status of
medical equipment.
• Documentation: Keeping detailed records of
maintenance, repairs, and service history for
each piece of equipment. This helps in tracking
performance and planning future maintenance
activities.
• Training: Ensuring that biomedical engineers
and technicians are well-trained in the latest
maintenance techniques and understand the
operation of various medical devices.
Continuous education is vital due to the rapid
advancement of medical technologies.
• Quality Control: Implementing quality
management practices to ensure that
maintenance activities meet or exceed
regulatory standards and manufacturer
specifications (PMC).
The specific tools required for medical device
maintenance can vary widely depending on the
CHAPTER 5 141
type of equipment being serviced. However, some
common tools include:
• Multimeters, for measuring electrical
properties such as voltage, current, and
resistance.
• Different meters, for different measurements
such as temperature, humidity, length, speed,
pressure, etc.
• Calibration equipment, to ensure that devices
are producing accurate readings.
• Software tools, for updating device firmware,
running diagnostics, and analyzing device logs.
• Hand tools, for opening devices and replacing
parts.
5-5 Recapitulation
Now return to the objectives and self-evaluation
questions at the beginning of the chapter and see
how well you can answer them. If you cannot
answer certain questions, place a checkmark next
to each, and reread appropriate parts of the text.
Next, try to answer the following questions, using
the same procedure.
Questions
1. What is the difference between corrective
maintenance and preventive maintenance?
2. List two radiological devices used in
treatment, with their operation principle.
3. Talk about hospital laboratory inter-
departmental and intra-departmental design.
4. Name 5 specialized labs with their specialty.
142 Healthcare Departments and Devices

5. Talk about the main device in the nephrology Suggested Readings

department.
• Steven Schreiner, Joseph D. Bronzino, Donald
6. What are the three challenges to consider R. Peterson, “Medical Instruments and
when maintaining good surgical practice? Devices Principles and Practices”, 1st Edition,
(2016, CRC Press), ISBN 9781439871454.
7. What is a ventilator, and what is it used for?

8. what is common among patients in the ICU? • By W. Mark Saltzman, Biomedical engineering:
bridging medicine and technology (Cambridge
9. What is the range of procedures that can be text in biomedical engineering) 2nd edition.
done by endoscope machine?

10. Name three medical devices that may be used • John Enderle Ph.D. Joseph Bronzino,
in pharmacy. Introduction to Biomedical Engineering 3rd
Edition, ISBN-10 012349794, (Academic Press,
11. What are the gases used in medical facilities?
2011).
and where they can be needed within a
hospital.

12. What is the benefit of an air filtration system?

13. What is the main goal behind the

physiotherapy and rehabilitation department?
 CHAPTER 5 143

Appendix A
Medical Terminology

The medical field contains a lot of different aspects Breaking a word down into its parts should
where terms came in place such as anatomical help readers determine the meaning of an
structures, procedures, conditions, processes, and unfamiliar term. For example, hypothermia has the
treatments that is why special terminology called prefix hypo- (meaning below normal), the root
medical terminology is used to describe the above therm (heat or warmth), and the suffix -is
aspect. Medical terms may appear intimidating, (condition).
but once you understand the basic word structure
and the definitions of some common word Below are some of the main word parts that
elements, the meaning of thousands of medical make up most of the medical terms.
terms can be easily parsed.
Prefixes Meaning
Medical terms are primarily derived from a- without, absence, not
Greek and Latin words. They are structured from a ab- away from, off
prefix, root, and suffix. These word components
ad- toward
are assembled like building blocks to create a vast
vocabulary.
amphi- on both sides, bilateral
an- absence of
▪ Prefix: When included, the prefix appears at ante- before, in front of
the beginning of a medical term and usually antero- in front
indicates a location, direction, type, quality, anti- against
or quantity. ap- separation
▪ Root: The root gives a term its essential apo- separation
meaning. Nearly all medical terms contain auto- self
at least one root. When a prefix is absent, Bi- two
the term begins with a root. bio- about life
▪ Suffix: The suffix appears at the end of a dy- slow
term and may indicate a specialty, test, cardio- pertaining to the heart
procedure, function, disorder, or status. cephalo- head
Otherwise, it may simply define whether the Chron- time, long time
word is a noun, verb, or adjective. chiro- hand
▪ Combining vowel: A combining vowel chole- bile
(usually the letter “o”) may be added co- together
between word parts to aid in pronunciation. con- with
144 Appendix A

costo- rib iso- equal, same

cysto- sac, bladder kilo- 1000
dactylo- digit (finger, toe) leuko- white, clear
derma- skin litho- stone
dermato- skin macro- abnormally large, large
di- twice mal- bad
dia- apart, through media- middle
dys- abnormal, difficult, painful mega- great size; 1,000,000
ec- out of melano- black
ecto- outside meso- middle
ex- out of meta- more than, after, next
en- within micro- small; 0.000001
endo- within mono- one
ento- within morpho- form
entero- intestines multi- many
epi- upon myelo- bone marrow
ex- away from myo- muscle
exo- outside of neo- new
extro- outside nephro- kidney
eu- normal, good neuro- nerves
gastro- stomach ob- in front of
Hema-, hemo- blood odonto- tooth
hemato- blood ophthalmo- eye
Hemi half ortho- straight, normal
hetero- different osteo- bone
homo- the same, or the same sort oto- ear
hydro- water pan- all
hypno- sleep para- beside
hypo- beneath, lower than patho- pertaining to disease
hyper- above peri- around
hypo- below pneumo- lungs, respiration
hystero- uterus pod- foot
ileo- ileum poly- many
in-, il-, ir- within, not, inside post- after
infra- beneath pre- before
inter- between pro- before
intra- within procto- rectum
 Medical Terminology 145

pseudo- false dorsa back

руо- pus echo returned sound
Pyr- fire, heat electr electric
quadra- four enceph brain
enteron intestine
re- again
epithelium skin
retro- located behind, backward esophagus gullet
rhino- nose faci face
semi- half gaster stomach
sphygmo- pulse Hema,hemo blood
sub- near, moderately, under hepar liver
super- excessive, above hydro water
supra- above hysteria womb
sym- union kypsis bladder
syn- union larynx throat
lingu tongue
tachy- fast, extremely fast
myelos marrow
trans- across nasus nose
tri- three nephros kidney
ultra- beyond neuron nerve cell
uni- single odons tooth
odynia pain
ophthalm eye
opsikas eye
Roots Meaning os bone
aden gland oston bone
angi blood vessels ostrium mouth
aort aorta otis ear
arteri arteries ped,Pod foot
arteria artery pharynx throat
arthros joint phlebos vein
auris ear pleura chest
brachi arm pneumones lungs
carci cancer
psyche mind
cardi heart
carp wrist
pulmones lungs
cephalo brain pyelos kidney
chem drug pyretos fever
cholecyst gall bladder ren kidney
colon intestine rhin nose
costa rib rhythmos rhythm
crani skull, head spondylos vertebra
derma skin scapul shoulder
146 Appendix A

stoma mouth -osis condition or disease

therm heat -otomy cut in
thorax chest -pathy disease
trachea windpipe -penia deficiency
tympan eardrum -phobia dread, fear
trophe nutrition -pnea breathing
ven vein -plasty plastic surgery repair
vesica bladder -rrhea excessive flow
-sclerosis hardening
-scope instrument for examining
-scopy visual examination
Suffixes Meaning -stomy opening
-a, -e, -um, -is noun form -tomy incision
-agogue inducing agent -um, -us structure
-agra sudden acute pain
-algia painful Suggested Readings
-cele tumor, swelling
-centesis puncture into 1. OpenMD Medical Dictionary and word parts
-clasia remedy glossary, which provides definitions for 750
-ectomy removal medical roots, prefixes, and suffixes.
-ecstasis dilation 2. The Understanding Medical Words
-edema swelling Tutorial by MedlinePlus provides a concise
-emia blood introduction to medical terminology and
-genic causing several quizzes.
-gram image, record
-graph graphic record
-ia, -ism, -sis, -y condition
-iatry, -iatrics, -ics specialty
-ian, -ist specialist
-iasis process or procedure
-itis inflammation
-logy study, or science
-mania abnormally preoccupation
-meter resembling
-oid resembling
-oma mass, tumor
-opia vision
Medical Terminology 147
 Embark on a fascinating journey into the
148 Appendix A world of biomedical engineering with this
insightful book that delves into key topics shaping
t he field. From providing a comprehensive overview
of biomedical engineering to exploring the
intricacies of anatomy and physiology,
electricity and electronics, and healthcare facilities
main devices, this book offers a perspective on the
intersection of science, technology, and healthcare.

Whether you are a student aspiring to enter the

field of biomedical engineering or a seasoned
professional looking to expand your knowledge,
"Biomedical Engineering Fundamentals" offers valuable
insights and practical guidance that make a meaningful impact
on healthcare delivery.

Meet Jihad Algadi, a talented book author and specialized biomedical

engineer with a master's degree in science. With over 9 years of
extensive experience in installation, demonstration, servicing, and
maintenance of medical devices. Jihad's expertise has taken hin through
various areas of study thats goes beyond technical skills as he also excels
as a project manager in the healthcare industry. His unique blend of
technical knowledge and practical experience has allowed him
to delve deep into the world of biomedical engineering and
share his insights through his captivating books. By
combining his academic background with hands-on
work in the field, Jihad offers the knowledge on
the intersection of medical science, technology,
and healthcare in a way that both informative
and engaging for readers. Dive into
Jihad's books to discover the world
Of biomedical engineering
through the eyes of a true
expert who seamlessly
bridges the gap
between theory
and practice.