Geotech Geol Eng
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-023-02525-2
ORIGINAL PAPER
Predicting Soil Swelling Potential Using Soil Classification
Properties
Victor H. R. Barbosa · Maria E. S. Marques ·
Antônio C. R. Guimarães
Received: 20 November 2022 / Accepted: 8 June 2023
© The Author(s) 2023
Abstract Despite extensive research on unsaturated
soil behavior in recent decades, the field of trans-
portation engineering still lacks technically and eco-
nomically feasible methods for identifying expansive
soils along roads, particularly in regions with limited
laboratory infrastructure that are distant from devel-
oped areas in Brazil. This situation is particularly evi-
dent in the state of Acre, located in the southwest of
the Brazilian Amazon, where the subgrade predomi-
nantly consists of fine, plastic soils and faces chal-
lenges of limited availability of crushed stone and
high precipitation levels. The volumetric variation
of expansive soils in Acre has resulted in significant
financial losses and has affected the lives of the local
population. This paper proposes a simplified method
for the preliminary identification of expansive clays,
which is based on geotechnical characterization tests
that can be performed at local laboratories. The pro-
posed method utilizes the correlation between the
plasticity index (PI) and silt/clay content to deter-
mine ranges that express the highest probability of
V. H. R. Barbosa (*) · M. E. S. Marques ·
A. C. R. Guimarães
Military Institute of Engineering - IME, Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil
e-mail: victorhrb@gmail.com
M. E. S. Marques
e-mail: esther@ime.eb.br
A. C. R. Guimarães
e-mail: guimaraes@ime.eb.br
occurrence of soils susceptible to shrink-swell behav-
ior. This method was developed by correlating geo-
technical parameters of 321 samples from EMBRA-
PA’s SiSolos database with a geotechnical database of
100 local samples.
Keywords Expansive soils · Flexible pavements ·
Amazonia
1 Introduction
Expansive soils affect engineering works across the
globe, causing damage to structures and reducing
their bearing capacity (Pooni et al. 2019). These soils
undergo volumetric variation, swelling as they absorb
moisture, usually due to rainfall, and subsequently
contracting during evapotranspiration. The swelling
is governed by the size and shape of particles, which
depend on their mineralogy, degree of aggregation,
and chemical interaction with adsorbed water (Ter-
zaghi et al. 1996). Nelson and Miller (1992) proposed
that expansion is a more complex phenomenon that
essentially depends on three factors: soil properties,
environmental conditions, and stress state.
In the Southwest of the Brazilian Amazon, stud-
ies on expansive soils for geotechnical purposes are
still incipient, despite the recorded damages caused
by these soils (Barbosa, 2018; Seixas 1997; Cór-
dova 2011; Oliveira and Ferreira 2006). The prob-
lem is further compounded when it is necessary to
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conduct exploratory surveys for long stretches of
roads or rail works. In such cases, direct approaches
for identifying expansive soils, such as undisturbed
samples and edometric tests, become impracticable
and too expensive. Consequently, methodologies that
disregard intrinsic aspects of local soils, such as the
CBR method for expansion, are often used, which is
unsuitable for identifying expansive soils.
Laboratory infrastructure in the region is still very
limited and distant from the country’s major centers,
thus knowledge of subgrade soils is limited, which
contributes to numerous problems associated with
shrink-swell susceptible soils, as shown in Fig. 1.
Another limitation is the high cost of crushed stone
due to the absence of rock formations in the state
(Barbosa, 2018). Crushed stone is essential for infra-
structure works over expansive soil deposits, as it is
used to reinforce the subgrade and in road drainage
systems. This scenario highlights the need to make
better use of scarce local resources, in addition to
conducting more detailed studies of the expansive
characteristics of soils.
To mitigate geotechnical risks in the Amazon
region, it is crucial to establish a method for esti-
mating the shrink-swell susceptibility of the local
soils. This method should utilize simple tests com-
monly employed in geotechnical practice, allowing
for easy and low-cost performance in soil laborato-
ries, requiring minimal sample volumes, and ena-
bling broad coverage at various depths. Moreover,
Fig. 1  The effects of soil expansion in Rio Branco city, showcasing a cracks in the flexible pavement, b uplift and cracks at the
edges of a road, and c cracks in the building’s counter floor
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the method should deliver reasonably precise out-
comes across an extensive geographical range.
The use of Atterberg limits to classify soil
shrink-swell susceptibility is a common approach.
Researchers such as Seed et al. (1962) and Van der
Merwe (1964) have proposed procedures to estimate
soil expansion based on Atterberg Limits. They
developed charts to classify soils into four expan-
siveness ranges using equations based on Atterberg
limits and soil size.
Mckeen and Hamberg (1981) also presented
a method to empirically obtain the suction com-
pression index, γh, without conducting tests that
involve the use of filter paper or psychrometers. In
this method, γh can be obtained through a graphi-
cal procedure that relates different mineralogical
groups to Skempton’s activity, cation exchange
capacity (CEC), and COLE expansion tests. Covar
et al. (2001) improved this method using 6,500
soil samples from the United States Department of
Agriculture (USDA).
The methods presented in Seed et al. (1962), Van
der Merwe (1964), and McKeen and Hamberg (1981)
should be used with caution. The direct application
of soil classifications developed for different geologi-
cal formations can lead to significant discrepancies in
results. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a clas-
sification method based on the tests conducted in the
specific region and that is also practical and easy to
use due to logistical reasons.
Geotech Geol Eng
The main objective of this research is to propose
a method that mitigates geotechnical risks associated
with expansive soils in pavements, by increasing their
design life and reducing costs. The proposed method
relies solely on conventional engineering tests related
to particle size and Atterberg Limits.
2 Geotechnical Characterization
2.1 Localization
The studied region is in the state of Acre (152,581
­km2), which is the westernmost region of the Brazil-
ian Amazon and shares borders with Bolivia and Peru
(Fig. 2). According to the Köppen Classification, the
climate in Acre is of the AW type, which is a humid
tropical climate. The average annual temperature is
around 25 ºC, and the average annual precipitation
varies from 1700 mm to 2000 mm (IBGE, 2005;
Embrapa, 2017).
Fig. 2  Area of study illustrating the Acre soil classes. Adapted from SEMA (Acre, 2010)
The subsoil in Acre is part of a sedimentary basin
with a wide variety of soils (Fig. 2 and Table 1),
whose genesis is directly related to the uplift of the
Andes. About 80% of the state is located within the
Solimões Formation, which has a high occurrence of
silt–clay sediments composed of 2:1 clay minerals,
resulting in poor drainage and a low leaching rate.
"Less weathered soils and a drier pedoclimate are
predominant, which is an unexpected characteristic
considering the local hot and humid climate, and dif-
fers from other soils in the Amazon basin (Amaral,
2007; SEMA, Acre, 2010). Since Brazilian deposits
are mainly composed of typical tropical soils with
low silt content, it might not be possible to simply
extrapolate these parameters to the high silt content
Acre soils (Kotlar, 2020).
From the Pedological Map of Acre, a predomi-
nance of argisols and cambisols can be observed.
Despite the map’s small scale, it is estimated that at
least 70% of the area has a high potential for expan-
sion, with a greater concentration in the central
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Table 1  Soil class Soil Classes* Area (ha) Percentage (%) Swelling potential
distribution and potential
for swelling in the Acre Argissolos (Ultisols) 6,275,532 38,32 Low/High
region. Adapted from
Cambissolos (Inceptisols) 5,168,451 31,56 High
SEMA (Acre, 2010)
Luvissolos (Alfisols) 2,390,496 14,6 High
Gleissolos (Entisols) 978,561 5,98 Low
Latossolos (Oxisols) 515,489 3,15 Low
Vertissolos (Vertisols) 498,064 3,04 High
* Soil classifications in
parentheses correspond to Plintossolos (Plinthosols) 361,142 2,21 Low
the Brazilian categories in Neossolos (Entisols) 189,154 1,16 Low
the USDA Soil Taxonomy Total 16,376,890 100,00 –
(USDA, 1999)

region, as evidenced by the frequent reconstruction of
the BR-364 Highway.
2.2 Geotechnical Database
EMBRAPA is a federal government corporation that
conducts agricultural research and maintains a data-
base of thousands of soil profile samples from across
Brazil. These samples were obtained through techni-
cal-scientific projects conducted by the institution’s
researchers and provide a detailed description of the
morphological, physical, chemical, and mineralogical
characteristics of the soil profiles. The resulting data
are compiled in the Brazilian Soil Information Sys-
tem (SISolos), which is maintained by EMBRAPA
(Embrapa, 2020).
For this study, we compiled all data related to the
Solimões Formation in the state of Acre from 1975 to
2010. The samples were taken from soils of different
pedological classifications, with a predominance of
investigations conducted along the BR-364 road, the
only east–west road segment in the state of Acre, as
shown in Fig. 2.
Among the parameters conventionally employed
by EMBRAPA researchers in the SISolos database,
physical and chemical tests were used to identify
the mineralogical composition of the clay fraction.
Chemical data was utilized to analyze the weather-
ing indice Ki and the CEC. Initially, 635 samples
were selected for the study, but some of them lacked
chemical attributes for correlation analysis. After
conducting the data analysis, only 321 samples from
Solimões Formation were retained, and approxi-
mately 99% of these samples had particles with an
equivalent diameter < 2.0 mm, as demonstrated in
Table 2.
2.3 Physical Properties
Physical indexes commonly used in geotechnical
characterization are not typically utilized by agricul-
tural researchers, resulting in the absence of Atter-
berg Limits in EMBRAPA’s soil investigation rou-
tine. These indexes are fundamental to understanding
expansive soil behavior; therefore, the physical
indexes corresponding to the 321 samples compiled
in Table 2 were inferred through correlation.

Table 2  Main parameters analyzed from the EMBRAPA database for the Solimões Formation in the state of Acre
Statistical Particle size analysis Chemical analysis
parameter
Sand (2.0– Sand (0.2– Silt (0.05– Clay < 0.002 mm Silt / Clay CEC ­(cmolc/kg) CEC (Clay frac- Ki
0.2 mm) 0.05 mm) 0.002 mm) tion) ­(cmolc/kg)

N 321
Mean 19.7 8.2 38.4 33.7 1.6 16.4 53.2 2.9
Sd 13.7 10.6 15.0 14.8 1.7 14.4 48.4 1.0
Max 59.0 63.0 77.0 66.0 20.7 86.8 377.4 8.1
Min 0.0 0.0 9.0 3.0 0.2 0.8 6.0 0.1

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The physical indexes were obtained through lin-
ear regressions applied to a dataset of 100 soil tests
conducted in Rio Branco by Borges (2019). Conse-
quently, linear equations with high determination
coefficients were obtained for the liquidity limit (LL),
plasticity limit (PL), and plasticity index (PI), based
on the clay fraction (%), as illustrated in Fig. 3. As
expected, the linear regression analysis revealed a
strong correlation between the < 2 µm fraction of soil
particles and their plasticity, with a determination
coefficient ­R2 = 0.94. Figure 3 displays the data of the
linear regressions.
2.4 Weathering Index Ki
Concentration of oxides, or their interrelation, pro-
vides important indications for soil characteris-
tics such as weathering and probable mineralogi-
cal composition. Smectites are formed in conditions
where silica (SiO2) is abundant due to the 2:1 struc-
ture (silica:alumina), like the flocculated structures
formed between silica and alumina. These structures
are formed in soils with high pH, high electrolyte
concentration, and higher concentrations of Mg2+ and
Ca2+ than Na+ and K+. Additionally, climatic condi-
tions with higher evapotranspiration than precipita-
tion, and poorly drained sites with low leaching also
contribute to smectite formation, which is the source
of swelling in expansive soils (Mitchell, 2005).
To evaluate the soil’s expansive behavior, it is nec-
essary to distinguish highly weathered clayey soils
from soils with more expansive clay minerals. There-
fore, soils with a predominance of smectites in the
Fig. 3  Relationship between the Atterberg Limits and clay fraction from 100 samples collected in Rio Branco. The plots include a %
clay x plasticity index (PI), b % clay x plastic limit (PL), and c % clay x liquid limit (LL)
clay fraction usually have a higher molecular ratio
of SiO2 to Al2O3 greater than 2. On the other hand,
values below 2 indicate that highly weathered soils,
formed by kaolinite and iron and aluminum sesquiox-
ides, are not related to expansive behavior (Mitchell,
2005; IBGE, 2005).
In this study, the weathering index Ki utilized
was determined using Eq. 01 (IBGE, 2005), with
the oxide content determined through the solubiliza-
tion of soil samples with a 1:1 H2SO4 (sulfuric acid
attack), as described by Embrapa (2017). Soils with a
high degree of weathering have Ki values ≤ 2.0, while
soils with a low degree of weathering have Ki val-
ues > 2.0 (Mitchell, 2005).
( )
Si O2
Ki = 1.7 × (1)
Al2 O3
2.4.1 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) of the Clay
Fraction
In general, the expansion potential increases with the
total number of exchangeable cations required to bal-
ance negative charges on the surface of clay miner-
als, also known as cation exchange capacity (CEC).
Higher CEC values indicate the presence of more
reactive clay minerals, such as smectites, which are
associated with higher soil activity. Conversely, lower
CEC values indicate the presence of more stable clay
minerals, such as kaolinite, which are associated with
lower soil activity (Nelson et al. 2015).
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The clay fraction cation exchange capacity (CEC)
is defined as the CEC of soil particles divided by the
clay fraction of the soil. CEC values ≥ 27 ­cmolc / kg
of clay indicate high activity, while < 27 indicate low
activity, according to the classification adopted by
the USDA (1999) and EMBRAPA (2018). The CEC
values used in this study correspond to the T-value,
which is determined by the sum of exchangeable cati-
ons and the potential acidity (H+ + Al3+) (Embrapa,
2017).
3 Method for Assessing the Shrink‑Swell
Susceptibility of Studied Soils
3.1 Physical and Chemical Attributes
The main physical and chemical attributes of the
Solimões Formation soils in the state of Acre state
were selected and analyzed on box plots, using the
procedures presented in item 2. Figure 4a shows a
predominance of the silt and clay fractions, with frac-
tions varying between 20 and 50%, respectively, from
the first to the third quartile. Granulometry is one of
the factors that most influence the physical–chemi-
cal factors related to volumetric variations in soils
(Mitchell, 2005), thus it is the first to be analyzed.
From these results, it can be deduced that the occur-
rence of expansive soils in the region is possible since
expansive behavior is associated with decreasing par-
ticle sizes.
Fig. 4  Box plots of the physical characteristics of Solimões Formation soils in the state of Acre, illustrating granulometry a and
Atterberg Limits b
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The Atterberg Limits were analyzed in Fig. 4b,
where LL varied between 28 and 48%, from the 1st
to the 3rd quartile; PL had a smaller range, with a
median value of 19%; and high plasticity, with PI
varying between 11 and 27%, and a median of 19%.
Soils with higher plasticity tend to have more expan-
sive clay minerals (Nelson et al. 2015).
The parameters related to soil mineralogy are pre-
sented in Fig. 5. The median Ki value is 2.7 and the
median CEC value is 47 ­cmolc / kg, both of which
are associated with soils containing expansive clay
minerals.
The results presented in Figs. 4 and 5 indicate a
high shrink-swell susceptibility of the Solimões For-
mation soils samples from Acre, which is consistent
with field observations. Correlating these parameters
is necessary to determine the range that indicates
expansive soils.
3.2 Correlations Analysis of Data
After identifying the predominance of silt and clay
fractions in the soils, the granulometry was corre-
lated with Ki and CEC parameters. Subsequently, the
mineralogical relationships were expressed in terms
of parameters routinely used in transportation engi-
neering works, such as the Plasticity Index. Figure 6
illustrates the relationship between silt/clay ratio and
plasticity index, with data sorted according to the
mineralogical divisions presented in Sects. 2.4 and
2.5.
Geotech Geol Eng

Fig. 5  Box plots of the chemical characteristics of Solimões Formation soils in the state of Acre, illustrating Ki a and CEC b

Fig. 6  Results of geotechnical tests carried out on 321 soil samples collected from the state of Acre. The following correlations were
investigated: a Silt/Clay x PI x Ki; b Silt/Clay x PI x CEC

Table 3  Silt/Clay x PI models 3.3 Chart for the Assessment of the Shrink‑Swell

Correlation (321 samples) Model R2 Susceptibility of Soils in the Solimões Formation
in the State of Acre
S/C x PI x CEC ≥ 27 PI = 52.84exp (-0.7617CEC) 0.73
S/C x PI x CEC < 27 PI = 36.08exp(-0.7009CEC) 0.62 Using the models presented in Table 3, a 95% con-
S/C x PI x Ki > 2 PI = 40.55exp(-0.6084CEC) 0.63 fidence interval was applied to determine the lower
S/C x PI x Ki ≤ 2 PI = 39.40exp(-0.7920CEC) 0.59 and upper limits of the range for shrink-swell suscep-
tibility of soils in the Solimões Formation, consider-
ing the clay fraction Ki and CEC attributes (Fig. 7).
The presented data in Fig. 6 demonstrates a notice- The two limits were then combined to obtain a region
able trend, particularly in the range indicating the with a higher probability of occurrence of expansive
prevalence of expansive clay minerals. According to soils, and the resulting chart is presented in Fig. 8.
Table 3, the exponential regression model exhibits the All analyses were performed using MATLAB and its
best fit for the given data. Curve Fitting Toolbox.

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Fig. 7  Confidence intervals

for Ki > 2 and CEC ≥ 27
­cmolc / kg of silty clay soils
in the state of Acre

Fig. 8  Chart for assessment

of the shrink-swell suscep-
tibility of silty-clay soils in
the state of Acre

3.4 Evaluation of the Shrink‑Swell Susceptibility of subsequent step involved comparing the proposed
Samples From Brazil. method with established procedures documented in
the literature, utilizing additional tropical Brazilian
After developing the graph depicted in Fig. 8, the soils associated with expansive behavior.

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Figures 9, 10, and 11 illustrate the soil swelling
susceptibility of 37 Brazilian samples using differ-
ent methods. Table 4 summarizes the data of the 37
samples utilized, comparing the swelling suscepti-
bility obtained in this study with that of the Van der
Merwe (1964) and Seed et al. (1962) methods. The
first 27 samples investigated in Seixas (1997) and
Barbosa (2022) relate to the subgrade of the Rio
Branco International Airport and its surroundings,
which exhibit an expansive nature that causes the
frequent occurrence of ripples and cracks in nearby
pavements.
There is a correspondence between the proposed
method and the charts widely used in the literature
to assess the susceptibility of soil samples to expan-
sion, particularly for samples from the Solimões

Fig. 9  Van der Merwe

(1964) classification chart
for the swelling suscepti-
bility of 37 Brazilian soil
samples with a history of
failures related to expansive
soils

Fig. 10  Seed et al. (1962)

classification chart for the
swelling susceptibility of 37
Brazilian soil samples with
a history of failures related
to expansive soils

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Fig. 11  Proposed clas-
sification chart for the
swelling susceptibility of 37
Brazilian soil samples with
a history of failures related
to expansive soils
Formation, ranging from 01 to 22. Additionally, it is
worth noting that the graph proposed in this research
better identifies the expansive behavior in soils with
high silt/clay ratios, as evidenced by samples 28,
35, 36, and 37. This finding suggests the high cation
exchange capacity in these soils, despite their lower
clay fraction when compared to other deposits.
3.5 Flowchart of the Shrink‑Swell Susceptibility
Identification Method
The flowchart of the procedures required to deter-
mine the degree of soil sample’s swelling susceptibil-
ity is illustrated in Fig. 12, which employs the graph
depicted in Fig. 8.
4 Conclusions
A broad database was utilized in this study to devise
a graphical method for the initial assessment of soil
shrink-swell susceptibility in the Solimões formation
in Acre. The implementation of agricultural tests has
been demonstrated to be technically suitable, which is
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critical for transportation engineering in the region,
where limited geotechnical data is accessible.
The chart provides the benefit of using low-cost
and simple geotechnical tests commonly employed
in transportation geotechnics, such as the Atterberg
Limits and complete granulometric analysis, includ-
ing sedimentation. Moreover, it is applicable to a
broad spectrum of soils found in Brazil.
Due to the high silt content in soils of Acre, cor-
relations based on granulometric attributes have
demonstrated greater statistical significance with
the silt/clay ratio content compared to the percent-
age of clay. This methodology could potentially be
extended to forecast expansive behavior in other
regions of Brazil, particularly those possessing sim-
ilar physical–chemical characteristics.
It is important to note that although the chart
provides an indication of the swelling susceptibility
of soils in the state of Acre, its use does not pro-
vide a definitive identification of expansive soils.
Therefore, it is recommended for preliminary stud-
ies and to plan more detailed tests for infrastructure
projects. It could be a useful tool for construction
managers to identify and investigate the occurrence
of expansive soils at specific locations.
Geotech Geol Eng

Table 4  Comparison of the swelling susceptibility of 37 Brazilian soil samples associated with expansive behavior
Sample Research Location Clay PI (%) Silt / Clay Swelling susceptibility
(% < 2 µm)
Van der Seed et al. (1962) This paper
Merwe
(1964)

1 Barbosa (2022) Solimões Formation 50 29 0.78 High High High

2 (Acre state) 37 27 0.97 High Medium Very high
3 62 41 0.51 Very high High Very high
4 33 38 1.27 Very high High Very high
5 Seixas (1997) Solimões Formation 46 32 0.47 Very high High High
6 (Acre state) 45 32 0.52 Very high High High
7 46 29 0.44 High High High
8 45 36 0.55 Very high High Very High
9 45 33 0.48 Very high High High
10 45 28 0.51 High High High
11 48 35 0.36 Very high High High
12 55 41 0.33 Very high High High
13 64 38 0.12 Very high High High
14 41 28 0.45 High High High
15 51 36 0.24 Very high High High
16 53 24 0.29 Low Medium Low
17 53 35 0.29 Very high High High
18 57 31 0.27 High High Low
19 64 37 0.09 Very high High High
20 44 33 0.46 Very high High High
21 44 33 0.46 Very high High High
22 50 26 0.46 High Medium Low
23 Pereira (2004) Curitiba—Paraná 58 54,5 0,46 Very high Very high Very high
24 75 55,5 0,31 Very high Very high Very high
25 78 39,4 0,25 Very high High High
26 67 47,6 0,37 Very high High Very high
27 30 18,1 1,15 Medium Medium High
28 Morais (2017) Salgueiro—Pernam- 13 10 2,69 Low Low High
buco
29 Morais (2017) Cedro—Ceará 46 24 0,26 High Medium Low
30 Morais (2017) Ipojuca—Pernam- 57 37 0,29 Very high High High
buco
31 Souza (2009) Coari—Amazonas 28 21 0,56 Medium Medium Low
32 Oliveira et al. (2006) Bacia do Recôn- 71 53 0,28 Very high Very high Very high
33 cavo—Bahia 63 46 0,46 Very high High Very high
34 70 57 0,38 Very high Very high Very high
35 23 20 1,60 Medium Medium Very high
36 Soares et al. (2013) Santa Maria—Rio 28 30 1,50 High High Very high
Grande do Sul
37 Ribeiro Júnior et al. Cuiabá—Mato 32 22 1,81 Medium Medium Very high
(2006) Grosso

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Fig. 12  Flowchart representing the method for identifying the swelling susceptibility
Funding The authors have not disclosed any funding.
Data Availability Enquiries about data availability should be
directed to the authors.
Declarations
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no
known competing financial interests or personal relationships
that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this
paper.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Com-
mons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits
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