Pulsed Neutron – Sigma cheat sheet

1. Objectives 6. Data loading 10. Saturation computation

Estimate the water saturation (Sw) behind casing by Start by defining well information: ID, Once all the Σ components are determined,
emitting neutrons and analysing produced Gamma deviation, perfs, reservoir zones. Sw is computed based on the selected model.
Rays (GR). This information is vital for: Load OH GR for depth correlation.
- Reservoir monitoring Effective porosity (𝜑𝑒𝑓𝑓 ) and Vshale Results are presented as a resulting S w, Bulk Volume
- Identifying by-passed hydrocarbons (HC) are required for sigma interpretation. Analysis (BVA) and Pore Volume Analysis (PVA). The
- Monitoring the water-HC contacts Sigma envelope track shows the overlay of the
- Sweep efficiency Load passes in .las or .dlis format with . Identify the measured Σ and calculated Sw =0 and Sw =1 Σ curves.
- CO2 injection monitoring Σ to be used to compute Sw. Tools output various Σlog The measured Σ must remain within the endpoints,
- Updating reserves using different regressions, diffusion corrections, etc. otherwise it is necessary to review the input Σ
components. This might include adding new zones.
2. Tool description
Modern Pulsed Neutron Logging tools emit neutrons
that interact with the matter (borehole, completion
and formation) and generate GR.
Neutrons are generated by an electrical accelerator 7. Quality check
tube, which collides deuterium and - Verify that passes are on depth. Can use PL GR
tritium to generate high energy (14 against OH GR, or CCL against well schematic or
MeV) neutrons. These are emitted
correlation CCL. This may involve or
in short bursts by applying a large
- If multiple valid passes were recorded and show
voltage. Neutrons have a depth of statistical differences, compute a lateral average.
investigation between 7 and 14 in.
- Identify borehole fluids as this impact the Σ (neutron
PNL tools contain 2 or 3 GR
detectors located at a distance of diffusion). Compute the pressure
30 to 90 cm from the generator. - high amplitude fluctuations and telemetry
Scintillation crystals like LaBr3, noise.
LaCl3 and GSO are used as they 11. Time-lapse
have a better spectral performance - and to non-representative Sigma logs run at repeated time are used to monitor
than the conventional NaI. measurements and flat lining hydrocarbon depletion, water encroachment, etc. If
the Σ of the various components has not changed, the
3. Principle - Sigma 8. Interpretation settings variation of Sw is independent of the Σmatrix and Σshale,
The type of neutron-nuclei interaction is a function of Define the calculation model based on the 𝛴𝑛𝑒𝑤 −𝛴𝑜𝑙𝑑
as per ∆𝑆𝑊 = . Use to compare Sw
the energy. Early interactions of fast neutrons lead to lithology and available data: Clean formation, 𝜑∗(𝛴𝑤 −𝛴ℎ𝑐 )

inelastic followed by elastic interactions. After Shaly Single-Water, Shaly dual-water. computed at different times using a PVA plot:
thousands of μ- All the models require
seconds the slow an input Σlog and 𝜑𝑒𝑓𝑓 .
neutrons are in Neutron porosity can be
thermal energy converted to 𝜑𝑒𝑓𝑓 by
state, with a high subtracting the effect of
probability of being the shale. The required
absorbed by a Σ components depend
nucleus. After the on the model.
nucleus captures Vshale can be computed from GR and a correlation
the neutron, it (Stieber, Clavier, etc.). Pressure and Temperature can
returns to its original energy by releasing GR. be loaded to calculate Σw and ΣHC.
The probability of a nuclei to capture a neutron is Sigma water requires the input of the formation water
called ‘capture cross-section’ or simply Sigma (Σ). Of salinity, as they follow a near-linear relationship. 10k
all the elements found downhole, it is the chlorine ppm is 25 c.u., 120k ppm is 64 c.u.
present in salty water the nucleus with higher sigma. Sigma HC requires API, Rs, gas gravity, and uses 12. Handling Uncertainty
After the PNL tool Clavier correlation. Oils between 20 to 60 API are The uncertainty of the input parameters on the water
emits the neutron between 20.5 and 22.5 c.u. Gas is between 5 and 10 saturation estimation propagates in a volume-
burst, the GR detectors c.u. Both are function of P&T. weighted average fashion. Using it is
measure counts versus Sigma matrix: Function of the lithology. A table shows possible to define
time. The rate of decay reference values: Quartz 4.25 c.u., Calcite 7.2 c.u., etc. uncertainty ranges for
(𝜏𝑑 ) is related to Σ. A Sigma shale: Function of the composition. Emeraude the Σ components, Vsh
rapid decay (high Σ) selects the maximum measured Σ as first estimate. and 𝜑𝑒𝑓𝑓 . Run
occurs in large Sw of thousands of
enough salinity. 9. Cross-plots Montecarlo realizations
Σlog is corrected for background and borehole effects. Initial estimates of Σ components can be QCd to compute statistical
and improved using various cross-plots. Define Sw results: P10, P50,
4. Sw from sigma in intervals of constant lithology. P90, Std Dev.
Each fluid and rock type in the Σ (y-axis) vs. 𝝋𝒆𝒇𝒇(x-axis) In general, Σhc is the
formation has a different Σ component the with
results in three end-points:
depending on the composition. The smallest impact on
𝜑𝑒𝑓𝑓 =0 is Σmatrix. 𝜑𝑒𝑓𝑓 =1 has
measured Σlog responds as the the calculation, as its value is reasonably constrained.
two options: Sw =1 (blue line)
volume-weighted average of all the Σw can be accurately estimated from correlations
and Sw =0 (green line), from
components. based on salinity. When the log is recorded in
where Σw and Σhc can be
A burst of neutrons interacting with intervals of different salinity (i.e. formation and
determined.
the formation on the left will
produce the following response: shifts the Σ axis based on Vsh and Σshale. injection), different zones must be defined.
𝛴𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 𝛴𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 ∗ (1 − 𝜑) + 𝛴𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ∗ 𝜑 ∗ 𝑆𝑤 + 𝛴𝐻𝐶 ∗ 𝜑 ∗ (1 − 𝑆𝑤 ) Note that for low 𝜑𝑒𝑓𝑓 the range between Sw =0 and 1
The analyst’s job is to select the most representative becomes very small, affecting the quantification 13. Applications to CCS
Σ components that vary with depth (lithology and capability. PNL Sigma is recommended of porosity The Σ of the CO2 is close to 0 c.u. resulting on a high
fluid type changes). In shaly formations is necessary higher than 10%. contrast with the brine in saline aquifers used for CO2
to consider Vshale and Σshale.
storage. Sigma logs can be used for injection
Section 8 shows how to determine Σ components. Σeq vs. 𝝋𝒆𝒒 can be used to monitoring and to track the CO2 plume. The time-
Fresh water and oil have similar Σ (~22 c.u.), so this determine Σmatrix and Σw in lapse below shows the computed CO 2 saturation
technique cannot distinguish between the two. A intervals where Sw is known before the injection (second track). During injection,
minimum salinity of 40k ppm is recommended for (i.e. resistivity) and has not due to buoyancy the CO2 moves to shallower depths
quantitative purposes. changed at the time of the PNL. than the perforated interval (3rd to 5th track). After
This is the case of a Sigma log injection stops, CO2 diffuses away from the near-
5. Operations right-after completion (typical wellbore region and is trapped by other mechanisms
PNL tools are run in tandem with pressure, for time-lapse) or unwept (residual, solution), resulting in a drop in saturation.
temperature, GR/CCL. Fluid identification tools are intervals.
beneficial as the borehole fluids impact on the Σeq and 𝝋𝒆𝒒 are linearly related between Σmatrix and
response.
Σw through:𝛴𝑒𝑞 = 𝛴𝑀 (1 − 𝜑𝑒𝑞 ) + 𝛴𝑊 𝜑𝑒𝑞
PNL acquisition relay on highly-statistical GR
Σmatrix vs. 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒙 shows a trend
detection. In Sigma mode, one or two passes
of data funnelling towards the
between 5 and 9 m/min are typical.
value of Σmatrix as the 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥
Sigma is commonly recorded with the well shut-in.
approaches 1.
However, if near wellbore fluid invasion is suspected,
flowing PNL should be considered.