BK 13: Instructor File

Lesson 1: Grammar
1. Using so and not to replace a THAT clause.
Here is the basic formula for using "so" and "not" in this context:

Affirmative Answers (using 'so'):

Formula: [Subject] + [Verb] + so.
Example: "I think you should go." — "I think so too."
Negative Answers (using not'):
Formula: [Subject] + [Verb] + not.
Example: "I believe he is coming." — "I believe not."
These constructions are typically used with verbs of cognition and perception (believe, think,
suppose, expect, assume, etc.). It's a concise way to agree or disagree with a statement without
repeating the whole sentence.

2. Using adjective + THAT clause

To express certainty in English using predicate adjectives such as "certain," "positive," and "sure"
with an affirmative or negative adverbial THAT clause (where "that" is optional), you can follow
specific formulas. These are used after the predicate adjectives in various sentence structures,
including affirmative and negative statements, yes/no questions, and affirmative and negative
answers. Here’s how you can structure these:

Affirmative Statements
Formula: [Subject] + be (am/is/are) + [predicate adjective] + (that) + [clause].
Example: "I am sure (that) she will come."
Negative Statements
Formula: [Subject] + be (am/is/are) + not + [predicate adjective] + (that) + [clause].
Example: "He is not certain (that) he passed the test."
Affirmative Yes/No Questions
Formula: Be (Am/Is/Are) + [subject] + [predicate adjective] + (that) + [clause]?
Example: "Are you positive (that) this is the right way?"
Affirmative Answers (to questions)
Formula for short answer: Yes, + [subject] + [be verb].
Formula for full answer: Yes, + [subject] + [be verb] + [predicate adjective].
Example for short answer: "Yes, I am."
Example for full answer: "Yes, I am sure."
Negative Answers (to questions)
Formula for short answer: No, + [subject] + [be verb] + not.
Formula for full answer: No, + [subject] + [be verb] + not + [predicate adjective].
Example for short answer: "No, I am not."
Example for full answer: "No, I am not sure."
Including "that" in these structures is often optional and omitted in casual speech, but in formal
writing, including "that" can clarify the sentence structure. These formulas are useful in clearly
expressing degrees of certainty in spoken and written English.

3. Using superlative adverbs

Using the -est superlative form of adverbs indicates that out of three or more people or things, one has
the highest degree of the quality the adverb describes. This form is particularly streamlined for a
subset of adverbs that naturally form their superlatives by adding -est (though some might have
irregular forms). Here’s how you can frame sentences in different contexts using the -est form:
Affirmative Statements
Formula: [Subject] + [verb] + the + [adverb]-est.
Example: "She arrived the earliest among all the attendees."
Negative Statements
Formula: [Subject] + [verb] + not + the + [adverb]-est.
Example: "He did not run the fastest in the race."
Affirmative Yes/No Questions
Formula: Did + [subject] + [verb] + the + [adverb]-est?
Example: "Did she arrive the earliest?"
Information Questions
 Formula: Who/What + [verb] + the + [adverb]-est?
Example: "Who arrived the earliest?"
Affirmative Answers
Short Answer: Yes, + [subject] + [verb].
Full Answer: Yes, + [subject] + [verb] + the + [adverb]-est.
Example for Short Answer: "Yes, she did."
Example for Full Answer: "Yes, she arrived the earliest."
Negative Answers
Short Answer: No, + [subject] + did not.
Full Answer: No, + [subject] + did not + [verb] + the + [adverb]-est.
Example for Short Answer: "No, she didn't."
Example for Full Answer: "No, she did not arrive the earliest."
It’s important to remember that not all adverbs fit smoothly into this structure because some of them
form their superlatives irregularly (for example, "well" becomes "best"). Furthermore, the context
sometimes necessitates modifying the sentence structure for clarity or emphasis, especially when
dealing with more complex topics or trying to highlight specific points.
Homonyms v Homophones v Homographs
Homonyms and homophones are both categories of words that are related to the phenomena of words
sounding the same or being spelled the same, but they have different meanings. Despite their
similarities, they have specific characteristics that distinguish them from one another.
Homonyms are words that are spelled the same and also sound the same but have different meanings.
Homonyms can further be divided into two categories:
 Homographs, which are words that are spelled the same but may not sound the same and have
different meanings. Examples include "lead" (to go in front of) and "lead" (a type of metal).
 Homophones, which are words that sound the same whether or not they are spelled differently,
but have different meanings.
Homophones are a type of homonym that specifically deal with words that sound the same. As
mentioned, they might be spelled the same or differently. Their defining characteristic is their
pronunciation. Examples include:
 "To," "Too," and "Two" are all pronounced the same way but have different meanings and
spellings.
 "Flower" and "Flour" sound the same but have different meanings and spellings.
Key Differences:
 Homonyms must both sound the same and be spelled the same to fit into their category but have
different meanings.
 Homophones focus solely on the sound aspect; they sound the same but can have different
spellings and meanings.
Therefore, while all homophones can be considered a type of homonym (focusing on sound), not all
homonyms are homophones, as some homonyms are homographs (focusing on spelling).

Lesson 1: Vocabulary
Lesson 2: Grammar
1. Using compound nouns

Creating sentences with compound nouns, where a noun is used as a modifier for another noun,
can add clarity and detail. Here's a basic formula and examples for different sentence types:

Affirmative Statements
 Formula: [Subject] + [Verb] + [Noun Modifier + Noun].
Example: The dog house is in the backyard.

Negative Statements
Formula: [Subject] + [Do/Does/Did not] + [Base form of Verb] + [Noun Modifier + Noun].
Example: She does not have a travel mug for her coffee.

Affirmative Yes/No Questions

Formula: [Do/Does/Did] + [Subject] + [Verb] + [Noun Modifier + Noun]?
Example: Does your coffee cup have a lid?

Information Questions
Formula: [Question Word] + [Do/Does/Did] + [Subject] + [Verb] + [Noun Modifier + Noun]?
Example: What color is your bike lock?

Affirmative Answers
Formula: [Yes], [Subject] + [Do/Does/Did].
Example: Yes, I do.

Negative Answers
Formula: [No], [Subject] + [Do/Does/Did not].
Example: No, she does not.

The use of compound nouns in English involves combining two or more words to create a noun
that represents a single concept. The formation and usage of compound nouns can be a bit tricky
because they don't follow a single, simple rule for how they're constructed or written. They can be
open (written as two words), closed (combined into one word), or hyphenated. The form they take
can depend on several factors, including common usage, clarity, and even the compound noun's
position in a sentence. Here are some general guidelines to help understand when to use which
form:

Open Compound Nouns

 These are written as two separate words. They tend to be the most common with nouns that have
a broader, more established meaning or when each word retains its individual significance within
the combination.

 Example: swimming pool, coffee table, post office

Closed Compound Nouns
These compound nouns are written as a single word. They are usually formed when a
combination of words is used very frequently, leading to a new, singular concept.
 Example: toothpaste, basketball, notebook

Hyphenated Compound Nouns

Hyphenated compound nouns are joined together by a hyphen. This form is often used when the
combination of words is less established in the language, to avoid ambiguity, or to form
compound adjectives before nouns.
 Example: mother-in-law, check-in (as in check-in counter), well-being

Guidelines to Choose the Right Form

1. Check a Dictionary: Because there's no strict rule that applies to every case, the best way to be
sure about a compound noun is to look it up in a reputable dictionary. The dictionary will provide
the most accepted form.

2. Consistency: Be consistent in your use of compound nouns. If you start a document using
"notebook" as one word, keep it that way throughout.

3. Usage Trends: Some compound nouns evolve. They might start as two words, then become
hyphenated, and eventually merge into one. Being aware of current usage (again, via a dictionary
or other reputable source) is helpful.

4. Clarity: Choose the form that is clearest and understandable to the reader, especially in contexts
where ambiguity (confusion) could arise.

5. Grammatical Position: Sometimes, the same words can be hyphenated or not depending on their
role in the sentence. When used as a noun, it might be open or closed, but when used as an
adjective before a noun, it might be hyphenated.

Examples in Different Contexts:

 As nouns: They're going to the swimming pool. / Have you bought a basketball?
 As adjectives: They have a swimming pool policy. / This is a basketball strategy.
The rules around compound nouns can be quite fluid and subject to change, so when in doubt,
consulting a current dictionary is the best option.
2. Using could to politely ask permission

For constructing affirmative yes/no questions to request permission using "could" and responding
with "can" or "can't," follow this formula:
Affirmative Yes/No Questions Asking for Permission
 Formula: Could + [Subject] + [Base form of Verb]?
 Example Question: Could I use your phone charger?
Affirmative Answer
 Formula for Yes: Yes, you + can.
 Example Yes Answer: Yes, you can.
Negative Answer
 Formula for No: No, you + can't.
 Example No Answer: No, you can't.
This structure helps you tactfully ask for permission and provides clear responses using "can" or
"can't."

3. Modal review (click here to link for lesson)

Expressing possibility, ability, and making permission requests involve nuanced usage of modal verbs
like may, might, could, can, and phrases like "be able to." Here's how you can use them in different
contexts:
Expressing 50% Possibility
May, Might, and Could
Formula: [Subject] + may/might/could + [Base form of Verb].
Example: She might go to the party tonight.
Expressing Present and Past Ability
Can, Could, and Be Able To
Present Ability
Formula: [Subject] + can/be able to + [Base form of Verb].
Example: I can swim. / I am able to swim.
Past Ability
Formula: [Subject] + could/was/were able to + [Base form of Verb].
Example: She could swim when she was younger. / She was able to swim in the
competition last year.
Requests for Permission
May, Can, and Could
Asking Permission
May/Can I...?
Formula: May/Can + I + [Base form of Verb]...?
Example: May I leave early today?
Could I...? (More polite)
Formula: Could + I + [Base form of Verb]...?
Example: Could I borrow your pen?
Responding to Permission Requests
Affirmative Answer
Formula for Yes: Yes, you + can.
Example: Yes, you can.
 Negative Answer
Formula for No: No, you + can't.
Example: No, you can't.
4. Using count and noncount nouns
Here is a general guide on how to use them in sentences across different categories:

Count Nouns
Count nouns refer to items that can be counted (e.g., a book, two chairs, several apples).
 Singular Count Noun: a/an/the + [singular noun] + [singular verb]
o Example: A dog barks.
 Plural Count Noun: [plural noun] + [plural verb] (Use "some" for indefinite amounts.)
o Example: Dogs bark. / Some dogs bark.

Non-Count (Mass) Nouns

Non-count nouns refer to substances, concepts etc., that cannot be divided into separate
elements. You cannot count them (e.g., water, rice, knowledge).
 Formula: [non-count noun] + [singular verb] (Use “some” for indefinite amounts.)
o Example: Water flows. / Some water flows.

Expressions of Quantity with Count and Non-Count Nouns

A Piece of, A Bottle of, A Bit of (for both count and non-count nouns)
 Formula for Non-Count: a piece of/a bit of/a bottle of + [non-count noun]
o Example: A piece of information / A bottle of water
 Formula for Count (used when making count nouns singular): a piece of + [singular count
noun] (used in cases like "a piece of cake")
 o Example: A piece of cake
A Pound of, A Cup of (primarily for non-count nouns but can be used with count nouns
when considering their quantity in weight or volume)
 Formula: a pound of/a cup of + [non-count noun] or [plural count noun for quantity]
o Example: A pound of cheese / A cup of berries
Sheets, Loaves, and Other Countable Forms for Typically Non-Count Nouns
For some non-count nouns, certain units make them countable:
 Example: A loaf of bread, two loaves of bread / A sheet of paper, three sheets of paper

Using Articles with Count and Non-Count Nouns

 Singular Count Nouns: Typically require an article or another determiner.
 Plural Count and Non-Count Nouns: Do not take "a" or "an" but can use some, much, a lot of,
etc.

Special Note on Articles

 Definite Article (the): Can be used with both count and non-count nouns when specifying.
o Example (Count): The apple was tasty.
o Example (Non-Count): The information was useful.

Use of "Some" for Plural Count and Non-Count Nouns in Offers, Requests, and
Uncountable Quantities
 Formula: [Some] + [plural count noun/non-count noun]
o Example (Count): Would you like some cookies?
o Example (Non-Count): I need some advice.

4. Using Phrasal Verbs

Phrasal verbs are combinations of verbs and particles (such as prepositions or adverbs) that create
new meanings. They are commonly used in English and can often be idiomatic or have multiple
meanings.
Do Over:
o Meaning: To repeat or redo something.

o Sentence Example: After making mistakes in the first draft, she decided to do over her
entire essay.
Threw Away:
o Meaning: To discard or dispose of something.

o Sentence Example: He accidentally threw away the important document instead of

filing it.
Wakes Up:
o Meaning: To become conscious after sleeping.

o Sentence Example: She wakes up early every morning to go for a run.

 Puts Out:
o Meaning: To extinguish or stop something (such as a fire or a cigarette).

o Sentence Example: The firefighters worked hard to put out the raging forest fire.

Throws Out:
o Meaning: To discard or get rid of something.

o Sentence Example: He throws out old magazines to declutter his room.

Pick Up:
o Meaning: To collect or acquire something.

o Sentence Example: Don’t forget to pick up groceries on your way home.

Woken Up:
o Meaning: The past participle form of “wake up.”

o Sentence Example: She had already woken up by the time I arrived.

Thrown Out:
o Meaning: The past participle form of “throw out.”

o Sentence Example: The broken chair was thrown out because it couldn’t be repaired.

Lesson 2: Vocabulary
Lesson 3: Grammar
Sentencing Formulas
1. A person who teaches is a teacher

The use of "-er" and "-or" suffixes in English is a method to convert verbs into nouns that describe a
person or a thing which performs the action of the verb. These suffixes generally apply to create agent
nouns. Here’s a basic formula for this process:
Basic Formulas:
For -er:
o Verb base + -er = Agent noun

o Example: teach (verb) + -er = teacher (the one who teaches)

For -or:
o Verb base + -or = Agent noun

o This is often used after verbs that end in -ate or verbs of Latin origin.

o Example: act (verb) + -or = actor (the one who acts)

o Note: Sometimes, the verb undergoes slight modification before adding "-or".

Guidelines:
 -er: This is the more commonly used suffix and can be attached to a wide range of verbs without
changing the spelling of the verb. It generally denotes a person who does something.
o work -> worker

o paint -> painter

o read -> reader

-or: This suffix is typically used with verbs that derive from Latin, often ending in "-ate". In some
instances, the verb base may slightly change, particularly dropping the "-ate" before adding "-or".
o navigate -> navigator

o create -> creator

o decorate -> decorator

Exceptions and Variations:

 Spelling Changes: For some verbs ending in a consonant with a preceding short vowel, the final
consonant may be doubled before adding "-er".
o run -> runner

 Dropping Letters: For verbs ending in "e", the "e" is usually dropped before adding "-er".
o bake -> baker

 Changing Y to I: For verbs ending in a consonant plus "y", the "y" changes to "i" before adding
"-er".
o carry -> carrier

 For "-or", aside from dropping "-ate", sometimes "-e" is dropped before adding "-or".
o compete -> competitor

Remember, while these patterns hold true in many cases, there are exceptions due to the complex nature
of English spelling and word formation, so some words may not follow these rules exactly.
2. Using modals in reported speech
 Let's break this down for different scenarios based on whether the original speech is an
affirmative or negative statement, and whether you're forming an affirmative or negative indirect
statement, question, or answer.

Affirmative Statements
Direct Speech: "I can come to the party."
Indirect Speech (Reported):
 Said: She said (that) she could come to the party.
 Told: She told me (that) she could come to the party.

Negative Statements
Direct Speech: "I can't come to the party."
Indirect Speech (Reported):
 Said: He said (that) he couldn't come to the party.
 Told: He told me (that) he couldn't come to the party.

Affirmative Yes/No Questions

When converting questions into reported speech, 'said' changes to 'asked if/whether'. Note: 'Told' is not
typically used with questions in reported speech.
Direct Speech: "Can you come to the party?"
Indirect Speech (Inquiry):
 Asked: She asked if/whether I could come to the party.
Affirmative and Negative Answers
Direct Speech (Affirmative): "Yes, I can come to the party."
 Said (Answer Reported): He said (that) he could come to the party.
Direct Speech (Negative): "No, I can't come to the party."
 Said (Answer Reported): She said (that) she couldn't come to the party.
Key Changes for Modals, Pronouns, and Possessive Adjectives:
 First to Third Person Shift: "I" becomes "he" or "she," "my" becomes "his" or "her," etc.
 Modals: Can change to could, may to might, etc., to reflect a shift in certainty and time.
 Possessive Adjectives: Adjust according to the change in the narrator and context, e.g., "my" to
"his/her."
Remember, when transforming direct speech into reported speech, it's essential to be mindful of the
context, as it can affect the veracity and the perspective from which the statement is reported.

3. Using separable phrasal verbs

Understanding how to correctly position objects with separable phrasal verbs is crucial for clarity and
fluency in English. Generally, separable phrasal verbs can take an object in between the verb and the
particle or after the particle. However, when the object is a pronoun, it usually must come between the
verb and the particle. Below is the sentence formula for the application of separable phrasal verbs in
various sentence structures:
1. Statements
  Noun Object: You can position the noun object either before or after the particle.
o Before Particle: Subject + Phrasal Verb + Noun Object + Particle.

o After Particle: Subject + Phrasal Verb + Particle + Noun Object.

 Example: She picks up the book. / She picks the book up.
 Pronoun Object: The pronoun object must come before the particle.
o Subject + Phrasal Verb + Pronoun Object + Particle.

 Example: She picks it up.

Affirmative Yes/No Questions
When forming questions, the structure changes slightly due to the inversion of the subject and the
auxiliary verb.
 Noun Object:
o Auxiliary + Subject + Phrasal Verb + Particle (+ Noun Object).

 Note: Here, placing the noun object after the particle is more common to avoid
separation.
 Example: Did she pick up the book?
 Pronoun Object:
o Auxiliary + Subject + Phrasal Verb + Pronoun Object + Particle.

 Example: Did she pick it up?

3. Affirmative and Negative Answers
Short answers typically follow the structure of the question, but longer responses might resemble
statements.
 Affirmative:
o Yes + Subject + Auxiliary.

 Example: Yes, she did.

o Yes, Subject + Auxiliary + Phrasal Verb + (Pronoun Object) + Particle.

 Example: Yes, she picked it up.

 Negative:
o No + Subject + Auxiliary + not.

 Example: No, she didn't.

o No, Subject + Auxiliary + not + Phrasal Verb + (Pronoun Object) + Particle.

 Example: No, she didn't pick it up.

The key to mastering separable phrasal verbs lies in practice and familiarity with common phrasal verbs
that are separable. Remember that pronoun objects always go between the verb and the particle, while
noun objects have more flexibility.
Lesson 3: Vocabulary
Lesson 4: Grammar
1. The Conditional: General Truths and Commands

Creating sentences using the subordinating conjunction 'if' to introduce a factual condition clause involves
a straightforward formula, regardless of the position of the 'if' clause (before or after the main clause).
Here’s how to structure these sentences in different contexts:
Affirmative Statements
If Clause Before the Main Clause:
o If [simple present tense], [simple tense].

o Example: If it rains, the ground gets wet.

Main Clause Before the If Clause:

o [Simple tense] if [simple present tense].

o Example: The ground gets wet if it rains.

Negative Statements
If Clause Before the Main Clause:
 o If [simple present tense, negated], [simple tense].

o Example: If it doesn't rain, the ground stays dry.

Main Clause Before the If Clause:

o [Simple tense] if [simple present tense, negated].

o Example: The ground stays dry if it doesn't rain.

Affirmative Yes/No Questions

If Clause Embedded in a Question:
o (Do/Does) [subject] [base form of the verb] if [simple present tense]?

o Example: Does the ground get wet if it rains?

Information Questions
Beginning with a Question Word:
o What happens if [simple present tense]?

o Example: What happens if it rains?

Affirmative Answers
Basic Affirmative Response:
o Yes, [simple present tense].

o Example: Yes, it gets wet.

Negative Answers
Basic Negative Response:
o No, [simple present tense, negated].

o Example: No, it doesn't get wet.

Notes:
 When using 'if' to introduce a factual condition, the clause that contains 'if' is typically in the
simple present tense to express general truths or habitual actions.
 The main clause often follows in the simple present to denote automatic or habitual results,
though it can vary based on specificity and context.
 The placement of the 'if' clause (before or after the main clause) generally does not affect the
overall meaning of the sentence, but it can impact the sentence's emphasis or stylistic flow.

2. Asking questions with HOW + adjectives

 When using "how" followed by a descriptive adjective to make inquiries specifically about
aspects like linear measurement (length, height, width, depth), age, weight, and temperature, you
generally follow this formula:
Formula:
How + (Descriptive Adjective) + is + Subject?
Specific Forms Based on Inquiry Type:
Length, Height, Width, Depth:
o How long is the bridge?

o How tall is the building?

o How wide is the river?

o How deep is the pool?

Age:
o How old is the person?

 Example: How old is your brother?

Weight:
o How heavy is the object?

 Example: How heavy is the suitcase?

Temperature:
o How hot/cold is the place?

 Example: How hot is it in Dubai during summer?

Key Points:
  These inquiries focus on specific attributes or dimensions of the subject in question.
 The adjective changes based on the aspect you're asking about (e.g., length, age, weight).
 This structure can be adapted for various contexts, ensuring you're asking about the precise aspect
of interest.
Remember, while these examples focus on singular subjects, questions can be adjusted for plural subjects
too, but the basic formula remains consistent.

3. Using indefinite Pronouns

To effectively use the pronouns "a little," "a few," "a lot," "much," "some," and "any" in
sentences, it's crucial to understand their appropriate contexts and grammatical structures. These pronouns
are primarily used to indicate quantity or degree, and their usage varies between countable and
uncountable nouns.
A Little
 Usage: With uncountable nouns (referring to a small amount).
 Structure: A little + [uncountable noun].
 Example: I need a little milk for the recipe.
A Few
 Usage: With plural countable nouns (referring to a small number).
 Structure: A few + [countable noun, plural].
 Example: There are a few apples left in the basket.
A Lot
 Usage: With both countable and uncountable nouns (informal, referring to a large amount or
number).
 Structure for Countable: A lot of + [countable noun, plural].
 Example for Countable: She has a lot of books.
 Structure for Uncountable: A lot of + [uncountable noun].
 Example for Uncountable: There is a lot of sugar in this recipe.
Much
 Usage: Predominantly with uncountable nouns in negative sentences, questions, and in formal or
written English.
 Structure: Much + [uncountable noun].
 Example: There isn’t much time left.
Some
  Usage: With both countable and uncountable nouns in affirmative sentences to indicate an
unspecified amount or number.
 Structure for Countable: Some + [countable noun, plural].
 Example for Countable: I bought some flowers.
 Structure for Uncountable: Some + [uncountable noun].
 Example for Uncountable: I need some water.
Any
 Usage: With both countable and uncountable nouns in negative sentences and questions to refer
to an unspecified amount or number.
 Structure for Countable in Questions/Negatives: Any + [countable noun, plural].
 Example for Countable in Questions/Negatives: Do you have any questions? / We don’t have
any tickets left.
 Structure for Uncountable in Questions/Negatives: Any + [uncountable noun].
 Example for Uncountable in Questions/Negatives: Is there any sugar left? / There wasn’t any
water in the bottle.
Key Points:
 "A little" and "a few" convey small amounts, but "a little" is used with uncountable nouns, and "a
few" with plural countable nouns.
 "A lot" can apply to both countable and uncountable nouns for large quantities.
 "Much" is common in questions and negatives, mainly with uncountable nouns.
 "Some" and "any" are flexible pronouns that can work with both countable and uncountable
nouns but are typically used in affirmative sentences (some) and questions or negative sentences
(any).

Lesson 4: Vocabulary