Introduction and Prior Knowledge ● teaching practices that rely, to a great

extent, on a teacher’s ability to deliver

Principle: a guide orderly and clear lessons
Strategy: plan of action ● making explicit learning goals, providing
summary of previous lessons or asking
Most Common Teaching & Learning Strategies fact-based questions are examples of
● Lecture practices that help to structure lessons.
● Case Studies
● Discussion 1st Principle:
● Active learning Students’ prior knowledge (PK) can help or hinder
● Cooperative learning learning
● Integrating technology
● Distance learning Qualities of PK that help or hinder learning
● Helps learning
Teaching and Learning (T&L) strategies may be grouped ○ When PK is:
with specific examples ■ activated
1. Active learning ■ sufficient
● promoting the engagement of students in ■ appropriate
their own learning ■ accurate
● under this strategy, students’ discussions,
group work, co-operation, reflection, are ● Hinders learning
the necessary support to foster these ○ When PK is:
activities play a central role ■ inactive
● inclusion and the use of information and ■ insufficient
communication strategies (ICT) in the ■ inappropriate
classrooms can foster an interactive and ■ inaccurate
individual learning environment.
Activate Prior Knowledge (PK)
2. Cognitive activation ● help student to activate PK so they can build on it
● refers to the use of practices capable of productively
challenging students in order to motivate ○ example: ask students questions specifically
them and stimulate higher-order skills, designed to trigger recall to help them use
such as critical thinking, problem solving, PK to aid the integration and retention of
and decision making. new information
● this strategy not only encourages students
to find creative and alternative ways to Accurate but insufficient PK
solve problems, but enables them to ● insufficiency can be determined by asking students
communicate their thinking processes and orally or procedurally according to Declarative
results with their teachers and peers. Knowledge (DK) processes:
○ Rehearsal
3. Teacher-directed instruction ○ Meaningful learning
● ability of the teacher to develop lesson ○ Organization
orderly ○ Elaboration
○ Visual imagery

● DK is “the knowing of basic facts and the recall of
stored information. Teachers often use the words,
explain, describe, summarize and list when writing
declarative knowledge objectives.”
Possible ways of learning declarative knowledge
Inappropriate prior knowledge
Teacher should:
a. clearly explain the conditions and contexts of
applicability e.g. use of abstract principles but
provide many examples
b. point out differences, as well as similarities, when
employing analogies, and
c. deliberately activate relevant prior knowledge to
strengthen appropriate
Principle: Cognitive development involves relating new
information to PK.
Concept “teaching” – What old and new ideas can you
relate to?
Inappropriate PK
● Research says -deeply held misconceptions often
persist despite direct instructional interventions
○ Isolated ideas or beliefs
○ More cognitive energy is required for
students to get motivated to correct PK
■ e.g. belief earth is flat; blind people
have more sensitive hearing; ways
of computing a math problem;
evolutionism Vs creationism
Gauging extent & nature of prior knowledge
● Levelling-off test
● Inventory concepts (listing of concepts during day
1 of the semester)
● Self-assessment test
● Declarative knowledge
● Brainstorming
● Concept mapping
● Mind mapping
Concept Map
● developed by Joseph D. Novak in the 1970’s
● a diagram that depicts suggested relationships
between concepts; can be articulated in linking
phrases such as causes and effects
● It assists in building on learned knowledge by
connecting new information back to it.
Summary
● students’ prior knowledge can help or hinder
learning.
● helpful PK are those that are activated, accurate,
appropriate and sufficient.
● the challenge is to make and keep the learning
process of each student towards these kinds of PK.
● instructional strategies are helpful. But how can
student-teachers devise and implement
helpful-to-learning strategies?
2nd Principle: Knowledge Organization
● How students organize knowledge influences how
they learn and apply what they know.
Knowledge can be organized in ways that either How do we learn?
do or do not facilitate: Stages of Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget)
a. learning
b. performance
c. retention
how one remembers a significant historical date

How does a mind develop and organize ideas?

1. Schemas
● simple, sensory and motor oriented skills
that young children, particularly infants,
use to better understand the world around
them

2. Assimilation
● an object or environmental factor fitted
into a particular mindset
● a new object into an old schema
Novices
● more sparse knowledge organizations compared to 3. Accommodating
experts, but the basis for their organizational ● mind-set changing to better fit the
structures also tends to be superficial environment or objects
● an old schema to a new object
Experts
● have ability to classify information in more How do we connect ideas?
meaningful —and thus more practically useful— - Bloom’s taxonomy
ways is linked to their ability to recognize
meaningful patterns
○ solving problems
○ enhancing memory
● “Research has shown that experts tend to
automatically process information in coherent
chunks based on their prior knowledge and then
use these chunks to build larger, more
interconnected knowledge structures.”

● effective instruction can help students develop
more connected and meaningful KO that better
support their learning and performance.
● students performed better when KO matched the
requirements of the task, and they performed worse
when it mismatched.
How people organize their knowledge tends to vary as
a function of their:
● experience,
● nature of their knowledge,
● the role that that knowledge plays in their lives thus
make use of these avenues.
What to do?
● to foster ways of organizing knowledge that
promote learning and performance
● because KO development supports the tasks being
performed
● we should reflect on what activities and experiences
students are engaging in to understand what KO
they are likely to develop.
● and because KO are most effective when they are
well matched to the way that knowledge needs to
be accessed and used
● we should consider the tasks students will be asked
to perform in a given course or discipline in order
to identify what KO would best support those
tasks.
Literature mapping
● one strategy of organizing a pool of knowledge
gathered from the literature.
● central idea begins with the study problem.
● a research question may be –What are needed in
order to improve the teaching programs into
culturally responsive?
Summary
● how students organize knowledge influences how
they learn and apply what they know.
 ● there are theories that help understand how ○ positive outcome expectancies
knowledge acquisition can be organized. What are (POE)
some of these? ■ if i do all the assigned
● literature mapping is an example of a knowledge readings and participate in
acquisition strategy. class discussions, I will be
able to learn the material
3rd Principle: Motivation well enough to solve
● students’ motivation generates, directs, and sustains problems on the exam and
what they do to learn. achieve a passing grade
○ negative OE (NOE)
Motivation ■ no matter how hard I
● latin word, “movere” meaning to “move” work in this course, I
● the personal investment that an individual has in won’t get a good grade
reaching a desired state or outcome
● backbone of learning process How can we hold on to our POE?
● motive is defined as a reason for doing something, ● in order to hold a positive expectancy for success, a
especially one that is hidden or not obvious. student must believe that he/she is capable of doing
● students motivation is one large area for research a particular work.
(obviously a problematic area) ● this belief in personal agency is a driving
○ according to study of Yilmaz et al (2017) motivation.
“Variables Affecting Student Motivation
Based on Academic Publications” 2. Efficacy expectancy
● belief that one is capable of identifying,
organizing, initiating, and executing a
course of action that will bring about a
desired outcome efficacy is the ability to
produce a desired or intended result.

What determines a student’s expectation for success?

● prior knowledge or experience in similar contexts
● if a student has experienced success in a particular
activity in the past, she is more likely to expect
● Students’ motivation leads to achieving goals……if success in a similar activity in the future. And, vice
they believe that they can successfully achieve goals. versa.

Expectancies Students are more likely to expect future successes in

● beliefs on expectations achieving a goal, if they attribute them to:
● internal causes
Forms of Expectancies ○ own talents, creativity or abilities
1. Outcome expectancy ● controllable causes
● A belief that specific actions will bring ○ own efforts or persistence
about a outcome ● example: many long hours spent on planning and
○ Outcome can be: execution (effort) in designing a project or writing a
paper
Students are less likely to expect future successes in
achieving a goal, if they attribute them to:
● external causes
○ easy assignment
● uncontrollable causes
○ luck
● student’s motivation is likely to be low if he/she
attributes his/her failure to a lack of ability (sees
ability as fixed or not amenable to change)
○ “i am not good at math.”
○ “i am just not a good writer.”
Case stories tell
● if students do not find the content of the course
interesting or relevant, they may see little or no
value in mastering it and may fail to engage in the
behaviors required for deep learning.
● if students do not expect to be successful in a
course, they may disengage from the behaviors
necessary for learning.
Sources/Determinants of subjective value
● attainment value
○ the satisfaction that one gains from
mastery and accomplishment of a goal or
task
○ e.g. great satisfaction from solving complex
mathematical theorems and consequently
work for many hours simply to
demonstrate her ability to solve them.
● intrinsic value
○ the satisfaction that one gains simply from
doing the task rather than from a
particular outcome of the task
○ e.g. students work tirelessly to design and
build a beautifully crafted stage set or
spend hours writing a computer program
simply because they love it
● instrumental value
○ the degree to which an activity or goal
helps one accomplish other important
goals, such as gaining extrinsic rewards.
○ e.g, students, who study business only
because of the salary and prestige they
expect a job in business will bring, are
motivated to study and attend their classes
by the instrumental value the classes
provide toward their desired salary and
status. (long- term & short-term goals)
Goals differ in perspective of
● student
● teacher
● parent
● other
Performance goals
● student’s performance goals involve protecting a
desired self-image and projecting a positive
reputation and public persona.
● when guided by performance goals, students are
concerned with normative standards
● goal is to demonstrate competence in order to
appear intelligent, gain status, and acquire
recognition and praise.
Learning goal
● students try to gain competence and truly learn
what an activity or task can teach them
● learning goal is better as a student’s goal than the
performance goal.
Research suggests..
● students who hold learning goals, as compared to
those who hold performance goals, are more likely
to:
○ use study strategies that result in deeper
understanding
○ seek help when needed
○ persist when faced with difficulty, and
○ seek out and feel comfortable with
challenging tasks.
Research says on “goal”
● “i desire to finish work as quickly as possible with as
little effort as possible.” This is an example of a
work-avoidant goal.
 ● such shows little interest in learning and appear
alienated, discouraged, or disengaged
● student thinks: “i can’t see how knowledge can be
applied.”
● students who hold multiple types of goals are
more successful than those with just one type of
goal
Types of goals
● affective goals (engaging in stimulating activities)
● social goals(making friends)
● conflicting goals (making good in the exam and
study group session)
How do Students’ Perceptions of the Environment
Affect the Interaction of Value and Expectancies?
● the framework for understanding motivation
suggests that if a goal is valued and expectancies for
success are positive and the environment is
perceived to be supportive, motivation will be
highest.
● motivation may suffer …if any of 3 (expectancies,
values & healthy environment) is lacking.
● may result to disengaged from learning situations
and may experience:
○ apathy (lack of interest, enthusiasm,
concern)
○ general passivity (acceptance of what
happens, without active response or
resistance
○ alienation (state of being alone)
○ anger
So how do we define motivated students?
● all three levels that influence motivation are aligned
in a positive direction
● as a consequence, students seek to learn, integrate,
and apply new knowledge and view learning
situations as opportunities to extend their
understanding.
Teaching Strategies That Help Students Build
● positive Expectancies
● ensure Alignment of Objectives,
● assessments, and Instructional Strategies
● create Assignments That Provide the
● appropriate Level of Challenge
● provide early success opportunities
● articulate your expectations
● Provide Rubrics and Targeted Feedback
● Be Fair
● Educate Students About the Ways We Explain
Success and Failure
● Describe Effective Study Strategies
Strategies to establish value
● Connect the Material to Students’ Interests
● Provide Authentic, Real-World Tasks
● Show Relevance to Students’ Current Academic
Lives
● Demonstrate the Relevance of Higher-Level Skills
to Students’ Future Professional Lives
● Identify and Reward What You Value
● Show Your Own Passion and Enthusiasm for the
Discipline
Strategies That Address Value and Expectancies
● Provide Flexibility and Control
● Give Students an Opportunity to Reflect
A Self-Assessment Instrument on Rubrics
a. I have used them but don’t know when or how to
use them.
b. I have experienced devising my own.
c. I have experienced applying what I devised.
Rubric
● a scoring tool that explicitly represents the teacher’s
performance expectations (or grading guide) for an
assignment or piece of work.
● divides the assigned work into component parts
● provides clear descriptions of different levels of
quality associated with each component
● provides formative feedback to support and guide
ongoing learning efforts
● application: papers, projects, oral presentations,
artistic performances, etc
4 Stages in Constructing a Rubric
1. Reflecting
● What do we want from the students?
● Why did we create this assignment?
● What happened the last time we gave it?
● What are the expectations ?
● What exactly is the task assigned?
● What skills will students need to have or
develop to successfully complete this
assignment?
● What evidence can students provide in this
assignment that would show they have
accomplished what you hoped they would
accomplish when you created the
assignment?
● What are the highest expectations you have
for the student performance on this
assignment?
● What is the worst fulfillment of the
assignment you can imagine short of
simply not turning it in at all?
2. Listing
● What are the details of the assignment &
what specific learning
objectives we hope to see in the completed assignment?
● Basic particular items/list
● What exactly is the task assigned?
● What skills will students need to have or
develop to successfully complete this
assignment?
● What evidence can students provide in this
assignment that would show they have
accomplished what you hoped they would
accomplish when you created the
assignment?
● How will you describe your highest/lowest
levels of performance?
3. Grouping and Labeling
4. Applying
Advantages of Using Rubrics
● Since set of criteria are made explicit & descriptive,
both teacher & students would know the weights
of importance of work objectives
● Grading of papers will be made consistent
● Presence of rating descriptors lessens time of
grading
● More applicable to large classes due to its consistent
rating process
● Informs teachers of students’ strengths &
weaknesses and topics/skills needing attention
● Monitoring & assessing tool of students’ progress
Summary
● Students’ motivation generates, directs, and
sustains what they do to learn.
● Expectancies & values influence student’s
motivation towards the achievement of goals.
● Students should be striving for learning goals.
● Rubrics are an instructional strategy. How students
are able to devise and implement one provides
meaningful learning experiences.
4th Principle: Mastery
● To develop mastery, students must acquire
component skills, practice integrating them, and
know when to apply what they have learned.
What is mastery
● refers to the attainment of a high degree of
competence within a particular area.
“Area” or range of mastery can be narrowly or broadly
defined:
● Discrete skill (procedural – e.g. using a Bunsen
burner)
● Content knowledge (knowing the names of all
Philippine presidents)
● Extensive knowledge and skills within a complex
disciplinary domain (e.g. Extension Education –
theories & related concepts, approaches,
application and issues )
For students to achieve mastery within a domain, they need
to:
● develop a set of key component skills
● practice them to the point where they can be
combined fluency and used with a fair degree of
automaticity
● know when and where to apply them appropriately
Elements of Mastery
Expertise can be a potential problem for teachers!
Experts’ attributes
● organize knowledge into large, conceptual “chunks”
that allow them to access and apply that knowledge
with facility
● able to employ shortcuts and skip steps because
they immediately recognize meaningful patterns
and configurations based on their previous
experiences
● can perform with ease and automaticity because of
their extensive practice in a narrowly defined area
● can link specific information to deeper principles
and schemas and able to transfer their knowledge
across contexts in which those principles apply
Expert blind spot
● Term used when expert instructors are blind to the
learning needs of novice students.
● It is similar to a fold-blinded expert unaware of
how to teach what he knows.
Be consciously aware of 3 particular elements of mastery
that students must develop:
1. acquisition of key component skills,
● basketball game
● preparing sushi
● acting in theatre
● administering SPSS (Statistical Package for
the Social Sciences) in research
● driving a manual car (including road rules)
Research says…there is a need to…
● “Unpack” or “decompose” complex tasks
 ○ disregard of even simple
component skills may be
dangerous
● Identify and reinforce weak component
skills through targeted practice

2. practice in integrating them effectively,

● Decomposition to Recomposition to
Application
● Decomposing is breaking complex tasks
down
● Recomposing is building component parts
of a task to see the whole of it.
● This helps teachers pinpoint skills that
students need to develop through targeted
practice.

Advantages of practicing a task component

● Practicing a component skill in isolation -
allows students to focus their attention
solely on the skill that needs work (e.g.
dribbling, shooting)
● Practicing the whole task - students see
how the parts fit into the whole in a
context that is authentically complex (e.g
shooting with defense)
● Other applications: Group research work

3. knowledge of when to apply what they have

learned.
4.