Listening skill is the ability to accurately receive and interpret messages in the communication

process.
Active listening, a specific type of listening skill, emphasizes understanding the speaker before seeking
to be understood as the listener. It involves techniques such as paying attention, withholding
judgment, reflecting, clarifying, summarizing, and sharing.
Why do We Teach Listening?
Listening promotes effective communication, facilitates language acquisition, provides exposure to
authentic language input, develops comprehension skills, and fosters interactive learning experiences.
Communication Skills: Listening is a fundamental aspect of communication.
Real-Life Communication: Listening skills are essential for learners to engage in real-life
communication situations.
Language Acquisition: Listening plays a crucial role in language acquisition.
Authentic Language Input: Teaching listening provides learners with exposure to authentic language
input, such as natural conversations, interviews, lectures, and recordings.
Comprehension Skills: Teaching listening helps learners develop comprehension skills.
Interactive Learning: Listening activities can be interactive and engaging, involving learners in
meaningful interactions, discussions, and collaborative tasks.
Myths about Listening

Listening equals comprehension. Listening is the same as hearing.

Listening cannot be taught and it is passive. Listening is the same as reading.
The Listening Comprehension Process
Bottom-up Process: This component involves the analysis of acoustic signals, such as phonemes, into
meaningful units like words and phrases.
Top-down Process: The top-down process focuses on using prior knowledge, contextual clues, and
background information to predict and anticipate upcoming content.
Interactive Process: The interactive model combines elements from both the top-down and bottom-
up processes while also considering additional factors such as motivation, emotion, and cognitive
load.
Types of Listening
Intensive Listening: This type of listening involves focusing on a short segment of language and
analyzing it in detail.
Extensive Listening: Extensive listening, on the other hand, involves listening to longer segments of
language, such as lectures, podcasts, radio programs, or extended conversations.
What kind of listening should students do?
Listening for Inference. Listening for Detail. Listening 4 Gist/pleasure
What Is Special About Listening?
Real-Time Processing: Unlike reading, where learners can go back and re-read text at their own pace,
listening happens in real-time.
Acoustic Signals: The input in listening is an acoustic signal, the sounds of language or phonemes.
Ephemeral Nature: Spoken language, particularly informal speech, is ephemeral and transient.
Limited Control over Input: Unlike reading, where readers have control over the pace and can stop,
backtrack, or skip sections, listeners have limited control over the input.
Interconnected Skills: Listening is closely interconnected with other language skills such as speaking,
reading, and writing.
The Principles Behind the Teaching of Listening
Preparation: Teachers should invest time in selecting authentic materials that are suitable for their
students' proficiency levels.
Repetition: Listening to materials multiple times is essential for improving listening comprehension.
Encouraging Response to Content: It's crucial for students to respond not only to the language but
also to the content of the listening materials.
Different Listening Tasks for Different Stages: Different listening stages may require varying tasks or
activities to cater to students' needs and interests.
Features of Spoken Discourse Causing Difficulty
Speed: Fluent speakers, particularly native speakers, often speak at a relatively fast pace.
The Unplanned Nature of Spoken Discourse: Unlike scripted or prepared speech, everyday
conversations and interactions involve spontaneous speech, including hesitations, fillers, false starts,
and repeats.
Accents: Second language learners encounter various English accents, including those of their
teachers, peers, and speakers in the media.
Blends and Reductions: In spoken discourse, words are often blended together, and certain sounds or
syllables may be reduced, making words sound different from their written form.
How Should Listening be Taught?
A. Planning a listening course
Determining Learners' Needs, Developing Course Goals and Outcomes, . Selecting Suitable Listening
Materials.
The Listening Lesson
A. The pre-listening phase of a listening lesson
Choosing a strategy, Brainstorming, Predicting, Picture description, Questioning, Story building.
B. The while-listening phase
Predicting, Sequencing, True–false, Matching, Key words, Chart filling.
C. The post-listening phase
Analyzing problems, . Extension activities, Language study, Read and compare, Summary.
How can listening be assessed?
A. Summative Assessment
Identifying Listening Performance to Measure, Sourcing Suitable Listening Samples, Developing Test
Items.
B. Formative Assessment
Learner Checklists, Questionnaires, Listening Diaries, Teacher Checklists, Interviews.
 What is the Reading Skill?
Jeremy Harmer defines reading as one of the four skills that students should master, emphasizing the
development of reading comprehension.
Reading is considered a unified skill that involves various subskills, such as word recognition,
comprehension, and fluency.
The Importance of the Reading Skill
Why is reading important?
− Reading stands as an essential skill for virtually all language learners.
− Reading in a foreign language offers a dynamic display of written language usage.
− Consistent reading exposes students to the language, facilitating language acquisition either
consciously or subconsciously.
Reading serves multifaceted purposes:
− Any exposure to English language contributes positively to language acquisition.
− Reading materials serve as valuable models for writing, aiding students in developing their
writing skills.
− Reading offers opportunities for language study, including vocabulary, grammar, punctuation,
and sentence structure.
− Engaging reading texts can introduce new subjects, spark discussions, ignite imagination.
The reading process involves a dynamic interplay between bottom-up and top-down processing
mechanisms. Bottom-up processing entails the sequential analysis of text elements, starting from
individual words and progressing to phrases and sentences, ultimately leading to comprehension.
Conversely, top-down processing relies on the reader's background knowledge, conceptual
understanding, and strategic approaches to decipher the meaning of the text. In reading, top-down
processing emphasizes the reader's active involvement in comprehending the text, guided by their
goals, expectations, and cognitive strategies. Interactive processing integrates both bottom-up and
top-down processing, highlighting their collaborative function. Reading is viewed as an interactive
endeavor, where the reader continually engages with the text.
comprehension in reading can be categorized into various levels associated with understanding the
text. This encompasses grasping details, main ideas, implied meanings, and more.
Reading Skills and Strategies: skills are viewed as unconscious habits developed through practice,
while strategies are intentional and goal-oriented responses to reading tasks. Afflerback et al. (2008)
propose that strategies are employed when skills are lacking.
Types of reading skills: Skimming, scanning, Intensive Reading and extensive reading, Speed Reading.
Fluent readers are adept at using a range of strategies
Teachers play a crucial role in teaching effective reading strategies by modelling them directly.
The think-aloud procedure is a valuable instructional tool where teachers guide students through
comprehension problems by thinking aloud and subsequently leading discussions to summarize the
strategies employed and their outcomes.
What is good reading material?
While some argue that providing beginners with authentic texts from reputable sources like The New
York Times or The Guardian may overwhelm them due to the complexity of language, others advocate
for a balanced approach. This balance entails exposing beginners to authentic materials that are
comprehensible, such as menus, signs, timetables, and instructions. However, for longer prose, texts
tailored to the students' proficiency level (adapted texts) can be employed, provided they closely
resemble authentic English.
What different kinds of reading are there?
For instance, if the students are professionals, then teaching business-related texts would be
pertinent. Similarly, science students would benefit from reading scientific texts. However, for a
diverse group with varied interests and career paths, a more diverse range of reading materials is
preferable.
It's essential for materials designers and teachers to align the reading activity with the type of text.
However, understanding the message of a text is not the sole objective. It's also crucial for students
to grasp how texts are structured.
What do teachers have to do?
Firstly, they must select appropriate texts, teachers should strive to actively engage students with the
topic or task at hand, teachers must provide guidance on how to approach the reading process.
What happens when it’s finished?
it would be unwise to simply move on to another task 5 and forget about the text altogether. Instead,
reading practice should be integrated into a comprehensive teaching and learning sequence.
Various follow-up tasks can be implemented to maximize learning outcomes: the reading text can
serve as a springboard for discussions, roleplays, or letter-writing activities.
models for students' own writing tasks.
What are the principles behind the teaching of reading? an active cognitive process, not a passive
skill.
Stages of reading lessons: The PDP model, consisting of Pre-reading, During reading, and Post-reading
stages.
Defining the Speaking Skill
Speaking is one the four language skills and is the most important and frequently used skill in any
setting. People who know a language are referred to as speakers of that language.
According to Cora and Knight (2000), speaking is the act of producing and generating spoken language
in order to deliver a message in a variety of situations and contexts.
It is a process of interaction where speakers intend to build meaning through producing, receiving,
and processing information (Bailey, 2005).
It is a complicated skill which involves linguistic, social, cultural, psychological, and paralinguistic
components.
Florez (1999) defines speaking as an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves
producing, receiving and processing information.
What makes speaking difficult? There are some idiosyncrasies of spoken language that make listening
skills somewhat difficult to acquire:
Clustering: Fluent speech is phrasal, not word by word.
Redundancy: The speaker has an opportunity to make meaning clearer through the redundancy of
language.
Reduced forms: Contractions, elisions, reduced vowels, etc., all form special problems in teaching
spoken English
Performance variable: performance hesitations, pauses, backtracking, and corrections.
Colloquial language: the words, idioms, and phrases of colloquial language.
Rate of delivery: help learners achieve an acceptable speed.
Stress, rhythm, and intonation: The stress-timed rhythm of spoken English and its intonation patterns
convey important messages.
Reasons for teaching speaking
Rehearsal: Speaking activities provide chances to practice real-life speaking in the classroom.
Feedback: students try to use any or all of the language they know provide feedback.
Engagement: speaking activities can and should be extremely engaging for the students.
Automaticity: the more students have opportunities to activate the various elements of language
they have stored in their brains, the more automatic their use of these elements become.
Internalization: Students are more likely to internalize and improve the target language if they are
provided with purposeful speaking tasks/activities that go further than controlled language practice
and the linguistic, phonological aspects.
Classroom Speaking Activities:
Role play, Discussion, Information-gap activities, Telling stories, Balloon debate, Favorite objects, Oral
presentations.
The teacher’s role during the speaking activities:
− Be a guide on the side and not a sage on the stage;
− Facilitate interactions without dominating them;
− Organize interactions and write scripts;
− Monitor students’ performance and write notes;
− Give feedback to help students to improve their future performance;
− Re-teach certain aspects if necessary based on weaknesses observed;
 − Intervene sometimes when the activity does not go smoothly;
− Provide corrections but only after the activity is over;
− Provide any tools necessary for carrying out the activity.
Main principles and guidelines for teaching speaking
Oral language, because of its circumstances of production, tends to differ from written language in its
typical grammatical, lexical, and discourse patters. The implication here is that oral skills and oral
language should be practiced and assessed under different conditions from written skills, and
therefore teaching should be adjusted accordingly.
Learning to speak in a second or foreign language will be facilitated when learners are actively
engaged in attempting to communicate.
Both bottom-up and top-down processes are important, and therefore the teacher should draw on
both to help his/her students to speak up and use the language functionally.
All speaking activities should focus in a balanced manner on both accuracy and fluency.
Addressing fluency and accuracy
Fluency involves maintaining the flow of speech without disruptive pauses, restarts and breakdowns.
It usually develops when students have a good grasp of grammar, vocabulary and fixed expressions.
Accuracy conventionally refers to features of grammar, pronunciation and word choice, but, there are
many other aspects of spoken language that are involved in oral communication, including choosing
appropriate topics, using language that matches the formality or informality of the occasion and using
conventions associated with different genres – such as conventional ways of opening and closing small
talk and conversations.
Correcting speaking
When students are repeating sentences, trying to get their pronunciation exactly right, then the
teacher will often correct (appropriately) every time there’s a problem, but constant interruption from
the teacher will destroy the purpose of the speaking activity.
Many teachers watch and listen while speaking activities are taking place. They note down things that
seemed to go well and times when students couldn’t make themselves understood or made
important mistakes. When the activity has finished, they then ask the students how they thought it
went before giving their own feedback.
Writing is a language skill, an everyday practice, a form of literacy, a communicative activity, and
sometimes a means through which learners can be assessed, especially in the EFL context.
Why teach writing?
Reinforcement: Some students acquire language in an aural/oral way, but most of us benefit more
when they see the language written down.
Language development: The mental process involved in writing helps us to learn the language.
Writing as a skill: The most important reason for teaching writing is that it is a basic skill.
Learning style: Some students are quick at picking up the language just by looking and listening. Some
others need time to think things through and to produce language in a slower way. Writing is a quite
reflective activity.
Stages of the Writing Process
Prewriting: This is the planning phase of the writing process.
Drafting: Students create their initial composition by writing down all their ideas in an organized way.
Revising: Students review, modify, and reorganize their work by rearranging, adding, or deleting
content.
Editing: At this point in the writing process, writers proofread and correct errors in grammar and
mechanics, and edit to improve style and clarity.
Publishing: In this last step of the writing process, the final writing is shared with the group.
What kind of writing should students do?
The type of writing students should do depends on the students’ level, age, and interests.
Approaches to teaching Writing: Many approaches have dominated the teaching of writing.
The product approach is used to refer to the orientation which views the act of writing as an end-
product.
The process approach is a reaction to the model-based approach which viewed writing as a linear
end-product.
The Genre Approach stresses the link between the social context in which a piece of writing is
produced and the linguistic choices made by writers to achieve social purposes.
Ways of correcting students writing
Overcorrection can have a demotivating effect. The teacher has to achieve a balance between
accurate and truthful correction on the one hand and treating students sensitively and
sympathetically on the other hand.
Selective correction: One way to avoid overcorrection is to tell students that we will focus on one
aspect in their writing.
Using marking scales: Teachers may want to give a mark for each aspect of writing.
Using correction symbols: Another way is to give students a list of correction symbols.
Reformulation: is a way of showing students how they could write something more correctly.
Referring students to a dictionary or a grammar book: sometimes teachers indicate that a mistake
has been made then tell students to go and look the problem up in a dictionary or a grammar book.
Ask me: Sometimes it is difficult to explain the mistake on paper, or it is impossible to understand
what the student meant. In such cases, teachers can ask students to ask them so that they sort out
the problem face to face.
Remedial teaching: hen teachers read students work and come across mistakes which many in the
class are making, remedial teaching will then be necessary.
 What is Lesson Planning?
Lesson planning is a crucial process in education that involves the preparation and organization of
instructional activities to facilitate effective teaching and learning.
The importance of lesson planning lies in several key aspects:
Professionalism and Commitment: A well-thought-out lesson plan demonstrates a teacher's
dedication to their students and the teaching profession.
Framework and Structure: A lesson plan provides a framework and structure for the lesson, offering
an overall shape to the teaching process.
Guiding Student Learning: Planning helps teachers set clear objectives and goals for their students,
guiding them towards a specific destination in their learning journey.
Flexibility and Adaptability: While planning provides a roadmap, it also encourages flexibility.
Student Confidence and Engagement: A well-prepared lesson instills confidence in students, showing
them that the teacher has considered their learning experience.
What are aims of a plan?
Coherence: a good lesson plan should exhibit coherence, meaning that students can perceive a logical
pattern within the lesson. Lack of coherence can lead to confusion and hinder student engagement, as
a disjointed lesson may fail to maintain student interest and focus.
Variety: A lesson plan should offer a range of activities that allow students to engage in different
tasks, fostering interest and participation. o Repetitive or monotonous activities can lead to student
disengagement and reduced motivation, highlighting the need for a diverse and engaging lesson
structure.
Balanced Approach: The ideal lesson plan strikes a balance between coherence and variety, ensuring
that there is a logical flow to the lesson while incorporating different types of activities to maintain
student interest.
What are the Elements of a Lesson Plan?
Student Information, Learning Objectives, Teaching Methodology, Anticipated Problems and
Solutions, Lesson Sequencing, Flexibility.
What Questions Should Be Asked?
Who are the students for this activity? Understanding the makeup of the class
What will be needed? Deciding on the necessary materials and equipment for the lesson.
How does it work?: Clarifying the mechanics of the activity.
How will it fit in with what comes before and after it? Ensuring that each activity aligns with the
overall lesson plan and connects logically with preceding and subsequent activities is important.
Why do you want to do it? Having a clear purpose for each activity.
What will it achieve? Defining specific aims for each activity.
How long will it take? Estimating the duration of each activity.
What might go wrong? Anticipating potential problems that may arise during the lesson.
Steps to Plan a Sequence of Lessons
Sequence the language being taught. Identify the overall objectives.
Anticipate potential problems Plan for variety and coherence.
Monitor and adjust. Schedule the sequence.
Reflect and evaluate. Plan for different skills.
 What is Assessment?
According to McMunn (2000, p.6), "Assessment is an ongoing process through which teachers and
learners interact to promote greater learning".
It involves using a range of strategies to make decisions regarding instruction and gathering
information about learner performance or behavior to diagnose learner problems monitor their
progress, give feedback for improvement.
Assessment is a continuous process aimed at describing and measuring learners' understandings,
perceptions of knowledge, learning abilities, and individual skills. More precisely, it is a classroom task
used to support learning by gathering data and giving feedback (Black and William1998).
It is defined by Palomba and Banta (1999, p.4) as follows: “Assessment is the systematic collection,
review, and use of information about educational programs undertaken to improve learning and
development”.
Assessment can be defined as a dynamic and continuous process within education, aiming to obtain
information relative to predetermined learning goals.
Roles of Assessment
Monitoring student progress, Identifying learning needs, Providing feedback, Evaluating teaching
effectiveness, Motivating learners, Promoting learner autonomy, Certification and placement.
Types of Assessment
Diagnostic Assessment: it is done before starting a new course or unit; It helps teachers identify the
existing knowledge, skills, strengths, and weaknesses of their students. The results guide teachers in
planning appropriate lessons, materials, and activities based on the learners' needs. It bridges the gap
between the current level of students and the desired learning goals.
Formative assessment: it is an ongoing process throughout the learning journey,
Summative Assessment: this type of assessment typically occurs at the end of a course, unit, or
academic term. It evaluates the overall achievement and mastery of learning objectives. Common
methods include final exams, standardized tests, projects, or presentations. The results are often used
for grading, certification, or placement purposes. It provides a comprehensive picture of the students'
learning outcomes.
Self-assessment: it promotes learner autonomy and self-regulated learning. Students reflect on their
own work. They identify their strengths and weaknesses.
Peer assessment: it involves students evaluating and providing feedback on each other's work. It
promotes collaboration and critical thinking. It encourages active engagement.