GBCNOTES

INTRODUCTION TO GENERAL BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION
EVOLUTION OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
Built environment: Refers to the human-made environment that provide the

settling for human activity, ranging in scale from buildings to parks. It has been
defined as "the human-made space in which people live, work, and recreate on a
day-to-day basis.’’
Evolution of the built environment is explored in terms of the developments in
human habitation in three stages:
1. Prehistoric dwellings: the early man is assumed to have lived in caves

since that is the places we largely find their traces. History also suggests
that there were temporal structures that were used during summer
seasons. These structures were made of leaves and branches of trees
supported by the trees or a ring of stones. Also branches were leaned
against each other to form an inverted V-shape similar to that of a tent.
Also there is evidence of using mammoth tusks as supports with reeds.
2. Traditional dwellings: Once human beings settle down to the business of
agriculture, instead of hunting and gathering, permanent settlements
become a factor of life. The story of architecture can begin.
The tent-like structures of earlier times evolve now into round houses.
Bricks, shaped from mud and baked hard in the sun are used. In keeping
with a circular tradition, each brick is curved on its outer edge.
The floor of each house is excavated some way down into the ground;
then both the floor and the brick walls are plastered in mud.
The roof of each room, still in the tent style, is a conical structure of
branches and mud.
Traditional Dwellings:
- Kenya
i. Maasai- Manyatta
ii. Kamba- Musonge and Kisukuu
iii. Kikuyu – Wattle and daub huts Huts
iv. Luo and Luhya – Wattle and daub huts
v. Mijikenda – Thatch huts
vi. Somali- aqal
- African Dwellings
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GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1
i. Egyptian pyramids
ii. Kraals of Sotho and Tswana
iii. Djenne temple in Mali
iv. Ndebele Huts in Zimbabwe
- The rest of the world
i. Temples in Ancient Greece
ii. Ancient cities of Mesopotamia
iii. Aztec Temples
iv. China cities
Modern dwellings: these are characterized by straight walls which has evolved
to the structures we see around made of various sophisticated materials.
- Bungalow
- Mansion
- Detached(stand-alone) house
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- Semi-detached house
- Townhouses
- Cottage
- Townhouse
- Cabin
- Apartment/Multi-storey house
- Castles and forts
- Palaces
- Villas
- Underground houses
- Tree houses
- Floating houses
-
A. Functions of Buildings:
- Shelter & Comfort

- Safety
- Security
B. Functional requirements of Buildings:
- Shelter & Comfort

- Safety
- Security
- Ease of use and operation
- Ease of maintenance, repair and replacement
- Adaptability and durability
- Re-use of material & technology
C. Categories of Buildings (according to function):
- Residential: Apartments, Flats, Bungalows, etc

- Commercial: Offices, retail shops, malls
- Industrial: Factories, Warehouses, Workshops, etc
- Hospitality: Hotels, restaurants, etc
- Civic: Parliaments, Town/City halls, Courts, Embassies, etc
- Educational: Schools, colleges
- Institutional: Hospitals, Prisons, Funeral Homes, Homes for the elderly,
etc
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- Social: Community Halls, Public Libraries, Theatres, Religious Buildings,
Auditoria, Cinemas and Theatres, etc
- Transport: Bus/ train stations, airports, parking silos, etc
- Sports: Stadia, Gymnasiums, Sports clubs, etc
- Monuments: Statues and memorials
- Others: Security, Military, etc
D. Elements of the Natural environment:
i. Trees, bushes, shrubs

ii. Natural rock outcrops,
iii. Water bodies
iv. Mountains and hills,
v. Caves, etc
Elements of the Man-made environment:
External Internal
 Buildings  Finishes
 Roads  Internal lighting
 Ponds and pools  Circulation space
 Retaining walls  Furniture
 Paved areas  Fixtures and fittings
 Ventilation
components
 Indoor plants
Fig.1: Elements of the built environment (external).
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Fig.2: Elements of the built environment (internal).
Built environment factors.
These are the factors that need to be considered when coming up with
structures. They include
I. Environmental factors
 Planning requirements.
 Land restrictions by vendor or lessor.
 Availability of services.
 Local amenities including transport.
 Levels and topography of land.
 Adjoining buildings or land.
 Use of building.
 Daylight and view aspects.
II. Design factor

III. Soil bearing capacity /Subsoil conditions.
IV. Regulatory factors/ Building Regulations.
V. Physical considerations
 Natural contours of land.
 Natural vegetation and trees.
 Size of land and/or proposed building.
 Shape of land and/or proposed building.
 Approach and access roads and footpaths.
 Services available.
 Natural waterways, lakes and ponds.
 Restrictions such as rights of way;
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 Tree preservation and ancient buildings.
 Climatic conditions created by surrounding properties, land
or activities.
 Proposed future developments
FEATURES OF A BUILT ENVIRONMENT
BUILDING ENVELOPE: refers to an enclosure of a built environment, which

comprises of walls, doors, windows, roof, skylights, and other openings for light
and ventilation.
I. Separate the indoor environment of the building from the outdoor

environment.
II. Protects the building’s interior and occupants from the weather
conditions and other external elements.
III. It affect the visual and thermal comfort of the occupants, as well as
energy consumption in the buildings.
A building envelope is usually designed with respect to various determinants

such as: environmental, technological, sociocultural, functional and aesthetic.
Building envelope components can be divided into:
i. Opaque components: thy include e walls, roofs, slabs, basements walls and
opaque doors.
ii. transparent components: includes windows, skylights, ventilators, doors
that are more than one half glazed, and glass block walls
ADJOINING FEATURES: these are all features or structures surrounding the

building envelope which include roads, other buildings, vegetation, relief etc.
Definitions:
Substructure ~ all structure below the superstructure which in general terms is

considered to include all structure below ground level but including the ground
floor bed.
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Superstructure ~ can be defined as all structure above substructure both
internally and externally.
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Site preparation means making the site ready for building activities. The
process includes the following activities:
a) Clearing the site.
b) Stripping the site.
c) Site organization.
d) Site layout.
e) Site movement.
f) Site investigation
g) Site security, etc.
i. Clearing the site

 All the vegetation such as bushes and shrubs should be removed. The
roots of trees and bushes should be dug out and cleared away.
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 The site needs to be clear of rocks and boulders in the area where the
building will be set out. If they are large then the rocks and boulders
must be broken into smaller pieces and taken away.
 Site clearance is done by a combination of manual and mechanical methods
Methods of clearing the site
i. Pushing out by means of a bulldozer

 This may be done provided that the roots are neither deeply embedded
nor extensively spread in the ground.
ii. Digging out by means of a mechanical excavator, using a back-actor,

front bucket or hand excavation using pick axe and spade.
 In the case of hand excavation it may be better to cut through the
majority of the roots and leave the remainder to decay in the ground or
to be excavated at a later date during reducing levels or trench
excavation work.
iii. Pulling out by means of chains or wire wrapped around the tree and
attached to a dozer, tractor or lorry.
 These tracked or wheeled plants will require good ground traction.
iv. Burning down

 Small bushes and shrubs may be burnt down provided suitable precautions
are taken to restrict flame spread.
v. Cutting down
 Trees or hedges may be cut down either partially or fully.
 Partial cutting, that is the removal of the branches, is carried out using
an axe, panga, hand saw or mechanical saw.
vi. Destruction
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 There are occasion when there is time lag between the felling of trees
and the start of construction work and in such a case a hole is bored down
into the stump of the tree and chemicals such as creosote may be poured
in.
 These have the long term effect of destroying the stump and the roots.
Very large stumps may be removed by use of small explosive charges.
Reasons for clearing the site

i. To improve sight
ii. To remove obstacles e.g. shrubs and bushes.
iii. To improve mobility of machines and personnel.
iv. To remove vegetable matter
Tools for clearing the site

 These can be grouped into two categories:
a) Hand tools
b) Machines
a) Hand tools
 These includes:
i. Panga
ii. Axe
iii. Pick axe
iv. Mattock
v. Jembe
vi. Hand saw
vii. Shovel
viii. Spade, etc.
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b) Machines
 The machines are used in large building site and they include the
following:
i. Tracked bulldozer
ii. Wheeled mechanical shovel
iii. Tractor mounted hydraulic back-actor
iv. Dumper track, etc.
Site stripping
 This is the removal of the vegetable soil or top soil from the position
where the building will stand.
 Where disposal of this rubbish may cause problems to a building, felled
tree, grass and shrubs may be burnt provided permission is obtained from
the relevant authorities and the local chiefs.
 Roots of trees should be completely removed to ensure that they do not
cause damage to the building by cracking the foundation and the walling
units.
 In towns some tree may have preservation orders. It is an offence to
destroy such trees and the contractor may be heavily fined for the
offence
 Enquiries should be made to the town planning office to ascertain that
trees with preservation orders do not exist within the proposed site
before clearance is started.
Reasons for stripping the site

i. Top soil has no structural value.
ii. Top soil may encourage plant life under the structure.
iii. Roots of germinating trees may cause cracking to buildings.
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Site layout
 Site layout is the process of arranging the site such that every item is
placed at the correct place in relation to the place of work e.g. materials,
tools, equipments and site offices.
 Correct site layout is necessary for the following reasons:

a) To avoid double handling of materials.
b) To reduce traffic congestion
c) To minimize long distance travelling by the workers
d) To improve labour control.
Site requirements
 A well managed site should have the following facilities and services.
i. A site office with secure storage and workshops.
ii. A toilet.
iii. A supply of fresh water for drinking, washing and for the building work.
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 If water is not available from main supply, then a storage tank should be
filled from time to time
iv. An electrical supply for power tools.
 Electricity can be supplied from the mains or a petrol generator.
v. A telephone which is secured so that it is used for authorized calls.

vi. Space for storing materials and machinery.
vii. A contractor name board is useful for publicity and to identify the site
for deliveries.
Site organization
 It is very important to make sure that the offices, stores for materials,
tools and machines are conveniently placed.
 This should also include toilets, water points and sheds.
Site movement
 The site layout should allow free movement of vehicles and people working
on the site.
Fencing and hoarding
 This is making bounds of a site by laying obstacles.
Types and materials for fencing

a) Poles and barbed wire fence
b) Poles and mesh wire/chicken wire fence.
c) Use of thorny tree branches
d) Live fence e.g. Kay apple. Acacia, euphorbia, etc.
e) Poles and chain link wire fence.
Hoarding
 This is a screen erected at a construction site in urban areas. Hoardings
have to be approved by the local authorities. The method of erection has
also to be approved.
Reasons for fencing and hoarding a site

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i. To keep animals, thieves and intruders away.
ii. To avoid pilfering (stealing) of materials and tools by workers.
iii. To check arrival and departure time for the workers.
Site investigation
 Site investigation is the work carried out on the proposed site for putting
up a building after the client has selected the site.
Types of site investigation
 There are two types of investigations i.e.:
a) That carried out by the client and the architect for the purpose of
determining the feasibility of the site for its proposed purpose, i.e.
where the building could be most economically positioned having regard to
the foundations. Topography, services, adjacent buildings and access.
b) That carried out by the builder or contractor for the purpose of

preparing an accurate tender.
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Investigations carried out by architect or somebody with building
experience.
i. Physical features on the site i.e. topography.
 The surface of the site should have a gentle slope to facilitate nayural
drainage to prevent flooding.
ii. Vegetation
 The trees should be planted tp provide shade and protect building from
being damaged by wind.
 The grass and flowers need to improve the surrounding and to stop soil
erosion.
iii. Types of soils
 The architect or in case of large projects the structural engineer is

interested in obtaining a sol report on the zone of subsoil likely to affect
or to be affected by the foundation.
 The full soil report will show:
a) Detail of the nature and type of strata encountered at various depths at

given positions on and possibly around the site.
b) The level at which ground water was encountered on a particular day(s).
c) Results on laboratory tests on subsoil samples to indicate the likely soil

strengths, permeability and elasticity.
d) The result of the chemical analysis of the soil and ground water to
determine any possible adverse effects on the foundation structure.
iv. Services
 The service authorities; i.e. water, gas, electricity, post office and sewers
will be able to indicate on copies of the site survey plan, the presence of
pipes and cables and their appropriate positions.
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 The authorities will also be able to provide information on the availability
of supplies to the site.
v. The Local Highway Authorities will be able to inform the architect of any
road-widening schemes or new road developments which may affect the
site together with any restrictions which may be imposed on highway
access to and from the site.
vi. The Water Authority or Coastguards Services can usually provide

information on river levels, tides, velocities of tidal and river currents
and areas subject to flooding.
vii. The location of mines and shafts under the site may be found from the
record of National Coal Board and other similar bodies; but information
relating to mines in operation prior to the First World War is seldom
available since these mines were privately owned and few if any records
were kept.
Investigations carried out by a builder or contractor
 When a builder is given possession of a building site he will have been

provided with a site layout plan and drawings necessary for him to erect
the building.
 The builder will have the task of investigating the site to assess the
following:
i. Site access
 There are two components to this factor:
a) Access to site
 There may be limitations imposed by the locality of the site such as road
widths, weights and parking restrictions, traffic density and bridge
weights or other environmental considerations such as noise levels and
other nuisance problems.
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 Each of these may affect the choice of vehicles and methods of delivery
of goods and materials both to and from the site.
b) Access on the site
 Once the materials or vehicles have reached the site there should be
ready access to the various working areas or stores so that there is no
time lost in waiting for items to be dealt with.
 This may necessitate the construction of temporary roadways or the

early partial completion of permanent carriageways.
ii. Existing services
 These include water, telephone, electrical cables and sewers.
 The building should not interfere with the existing services during
construction.
 Adequate protection to the services should be given when working around

the services
 Where possible the provision of temporary services should be tied in with

the future permanent services connections to the site, so that little or no
additional cost is incurred.
iii. Adjoining structures
 Protection to adjoining structures should be undertaken. This is

particularly necessary where the foundations of the new building are
taken below the foundation level of the adjoining buildings.
 Shoring should be carried out in adjoining buildings to ensure stability.
 During demolition work protection to adjoining structures should be

considered so that the structural stability of the structure is not
affected in any way.
iv. Soil conditions
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 Subsoil merit special considerations because of their effects on the
building work.
a) Hard rock
 Hard rock provides a good foundation but increases excavation costs and
may cause difficulties in the disposal of the sewage effluent on isolated
sites
b) Gravel
 A natural coarse grained deposit of rock fragments and finer sand. Many
of the particles are larger than 2mm.
 Gravel is probably the ideal subsoil being strong and easily drained.
c) Sandy soil
 Sandy soil is composed of slightly larger particles than clay soil. Clean
sand breaks down completely when dry and individual particles are gritty
to fingers.
 When sand soil is cleaned and graded it is used for building purposes.
 Sand drains well but if loose could be subject to movement; in practice it

is usually combined with clay or gravel.
d) Clay soil
 Clay often has a good beating capacity but does not drain well. It is
necessary to take the foundation down to at least one metre below
ground level because of the variations that occur with different climatic
conditions.
 Clay soil is composed of very fine particles. It breaks down easily under
water
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 When wet it sticks and expands. When dry it shrinks and cracks hence it
is unsuitable and expensive to build on.
e) Chalk
 Provides a stable and easily drained sub soil of good bearing capacity.
f) Made up grounds
 Made up grounds is where soil or other fill has been deposited to make up
levels and lengthy periods are required for settlement; it may be
necessary to use raft or pile foundations.
g) Loam soil
 It is a mixture of sandy soil and clay soil with high content of humus. It is
used for dressing in readiness for flower beds for tree planting on site.
h) Silt
 It is a finer variety of soil whose particles have smooth texture. It is

relatively impervious and contains organic matter
 It dries quickly and can be dusted off fingers when dry.
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LEVELING
Stripping and Reducing Levels

 First the site should be stripped off the top soil (vegetable soil) and the
shaped to its formation level referred to as reducing levels.
 Reducing levels generally refers to the leveling of the site by cutting the
higher portions and filling the lower ones.
 When reducing levels you may need to cut and carry away the spoil to
another site for dumping or cut and use the spoil for filling the lower
parts to level.
I. Cut and Fill

 This is the usual method because if carried out the amount of cut will
equal the amount of fill.
II. Cut
 This method has the advantage of giving undisturbed soil over the whole
of the site but has the disadvantage of the cost of removing the spoil
from the site.
III. Fill
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 A method not recommended because if the building is sited on the filled
area; either deep foundation would be needed or the risk of settlement
at a later stage would have to be accepted.
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SETTING OUT
 Setting out is the process of transferring the dimensions from the working
drawings to the site on the ground.
 Steel tapes should be used up to 30m.
 Linen or plastic coated tapes should be avoided in measuring long distances
as they are liable to stretch.
 Tools and materials

i. Panga
ii. Club hammer
iii. Pegs
iv. String
v. Nails
vi. Spike (sharp stick)
vii. Building Square
viii. Profile boards
ix. Pencil
x. Hand saw
xi. Spirit level
xii. Plumb bob
xiii. Tape measure
xiv. Claw hammer
xv. A sledge hammer of weight 2kg.
Procedure of Setting out Circular Buildings

i. Centre peg c is driven in position (R + M) metres long from the reference
point S.
 A nail is fixed at the top of the peg
ii. A string is measured equal to the length of the radius required and then one
end of it is tied to the centre peg while the other is fixed to a spike.
iii. The string is stretched and the wall boundary marked.

A uniform tension should be applied to the string while marking to maintain
the radius required.
iv. The pole positions are the marked around the circumference.
 If the wall is to be constructed of bricks, blocks or stones, then the trench
width would have to be marked.
Later the wall thickness is marked on the foundation strip.
 The marks for the trench and the wall width is done by repeating step (iii)
using the appropriate radii.
 A trammel could be used to mark the width of the trench and the wall
thickness.
Advantages of Using a Trammel

i. A trammel could be used to mark the width of trench and wall thickness.
ii. There is no problem encountered because of tension.
Methods of setting out rectangular buildings

 There are three methods of setting out namely:
i. The 3:4:5 methods
ii. The builder’s square method
iii. The use of leveling instruments
 The 3:4:5 methods
i. The reference points S1 and S2 are located on the site boundary.
ii. The positions of peg A and B are located by measuring the distances S 1A and
S2B and pegs driven in position.
iii. A string is stretched between A and B.
 This is the baseline (face line) of the building.
iv. Along line AB the position of the corner ‘C’ is located

v. The right-angled corner of the building at ‘C’ is set out.
 The setting out of a right angled corner may be done using different
methods.
a) Peg ‘C’ marking the corner of a building is driven in position.
b) A distance of 3 units from peg ‘C’ is measured along the baseline AB and ‘C 1’
fixed in position.
c) Peg ‘C2’ is located by measuring 5 units from ‘C1’and 4 units from ‘C’
respectively, thus forming a right angle at ‘C’.
vi. A string is stretched from ‘C’ to ‘E’ through ‘D’.
 The position of peg ‘D’ is located by measuring to width.
vii. Peg ‘G’ is located along baseline AB by measuring to length of the building.
viii. By establishing right angles at ‘D’ and ‘G’ the corner ‘K’ can be located.
ix. Check the diagonals and erect profile boards.
x. Mark the position of the wall on the profiles with either nails or saw cuts.
 Advantages of 3:4:5 methods
a) Simple to use
b) Does not require any calculations.
c) Can be applied to large buildings.
d) Accuracy of setting out is self evident.
e) In the event of error is simple and quick to rectify.
 Disadvantages3:4:5 methods
i. Two tape measures are required which may be difficult to obtain in rural
areas.
ii. Effects of wind on tapes and line may lead to inaccurate work especially on
long buildings.
The Builder’s Square Method
i. Set out the front or building line in the usual manner with pegs or marks at
the required distances.
ii. Place the builder’s square so that the front line touches one side of the
square right through its length.
iii. Stretch lines from the centre peg so that it is parallel to the second side of
the square and establish the third peg.
iv. With the aid of a tape measure mark out the breadth and length of the
proposed building.
v. Transferring the builder’s square to the remaining corners and repeating the
above operations; a simple rectangular building can be set out.
vi. After establishing the four corner pegs profiles may be erected the same
way as described above.
Advantages of Builder’s Square Method

i. Simple to use.
ii. Does not require any calculations.
iii. Can be very accurate when used for small rectangular buildings.
iv. Quick in application.
Disadvantages of Builder’s Square Method

i. Unseasoned timber can twist and warp leading to errors when used.
ii. Unsuitable for long buildings.
The site square method

Advantages site square method
i. Can be used for large buildings with some accuracy.
ii. Transfer of lines to profile boards is done easily.
 Disadvantages site square method

i. The range of accuracy is limited to 33m.
ii. Distances cannot be read off the instrument directly but need to be
measured with a tape measure.
Profile Boards
 A profile board is a framework made of stout pegs driven into the ground
and a horizontal cross board nailed onto them.
 Profiles are used as guides to establish the position of walls and foundation
trenches.
When erecting profiles, it is required that each of them should be level and
clear off the walls to be constructed.
 A spirit level is used when leveling the cross-boards.
To avoid splitting the cross board during erection, pegs are hammered
alternately while maintaining an appropriate level profile.
 The trench width and the wall thickness are marked on the profile boards
using either nails or saw cuts.
Strings are stretched between the marks of opposite profiles to establish
the trench width and wall thickness.
 The trench lines are transferred to the ground using plumb bob or spirit
level and marked using a panga or a jembe.
 This method of transfer could also be used when transferring wall line to
the foundation strip.
EXCAVATION OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
 Excavation is the process of removing the soil until a firm solid ground is
reached.
 It is the requirement of the Kenya building code that foundation be taken

down to a firm base.
The depth to which the foundation is laid depends on the nature of the
building.
 Excavation to the required depth is carried out by hand (manual)on small

jobs and by machines for bigger jobs.
Factors Influencing the Methods of Excavations
 Methods of excavation to be used are governed by:
i. The size of the area
ii. Volume of soil to be excavated

iii. Type of soil on site
iv. Time factor
v. Availability of equipment
vi. Depth of excavation
Manual Excavation
 It is the removal of soil from excavation using hand tools such as:
i. Jembe
ii. Pick axe
iii. Mattock
iv. Panga
v. Spade/shovel
vi. Wheelbarrow
vii. Claw hammer
viii. Sledgehammer
ix. Iron pans/metal karai’s
x. Crow bar
xi. Hand auger
Mechanical Excavation
 It is the removal of soil from trenches using machines.
 These machines includes:
i. Drag line
ii. Power shovel
iii. Back hoe/back –actor
iv. Clam shell
v. Front bucket
Timbering
 Timbering is a term used to refer to the temporary supports used to

support the sides of excavations from collapsing which may result in
accidents.
 It is sometimes called planking and strutting.
 The sides of excavations will need support to:
i. Protect the operatives (workers) while working in excavations.
ii. Keep the excavations open by acting as retaining walls of the sides of the
trench.
 Over a short period of time many soils may not require timbering.
Factors to Consider when Timbering
i. Depth of excavation
ii. Type of soil to be excavated
iii. Weather condition
iv. Duration the trench will remain open
v. The safety of the surrounding property and roads. Any collapse or ground
movement may affect the foundations of surrounding property, causing
settlement.
vi. The nature of the ground can also be determined whether supports are
required during excavation or whether the supports can be provided after
completion of the excavation.
vii. The method of excavation
 A machine bucket will not be affected by a trench collapse whereas a man

might be killed.
viii. The ease of removal of the support during the backfilling operation.
ix. The safety of the workmen working in the trench. The workmen are at risk
from:
a) The sides of the trench collapsing
b) Soil falling from the sides of the excavation.
c) Materials falling into the trench from above.
d) Other men falling into the trench.
e) The operating machinery in operation.
f) Vehicles being driven into the excavation.
Safety and Good Working Attitudes
i. Traffic
 Movement of trucks, wagons and other mechanical equipment should not be

allowed to be close to the trench.
ii. Ladders
 Ladders should be provided with suitable steps along the trench so that
laborers may escape to safety in case of accidents.
iii. Safety helmets

 It is very likely that some timber may fall when timbering and may injure a
laborer.
iv. Supervisor
 There must be a supervisor to look after the welfare of the workers working
in the trench. A lone worker should not be allowed to enter the excavation.
 After the end of the day’s work it should be assured that all the workers
have come out of trench.
v. Fencing and lighting
 Site of excavation trenches should be fenced with barbed wire and

permanent guards should be appointed to prevent any animal or person falling
into the trench.
 If possible red lights should provide light in the night in thre night to
prevent accidents
vi. Safety of adjacent structures
 If foundations of adjacent structures is unsafe because of this excavation ,

it should be given proper temporary supports with the help of shores.
vii. First aid box
 First aid boxes should be provided to treat injuries at site itself.
Methods of preventing trench collapse
a) By timbering.
b) By building retaining walls.
c) By battering the sides of trenches.

d) By use of shores (shoring).
Simple Side Supports
i. Timbering in hard soils

ii. Timbering in firm soils
iii. Timbering in loose dry soils
iv. Timbering in loose wet soils
FOUNDATIONS
It’s the base onto which a building rests. The function of any foundation is to
safely sustain and transmit to the ground on which it rests the combined dead,
imposed and wind loads in such a manner as not to cause any settlement or other
movement which would impair the stability or cause damage to any part of the
building.
FUNCTIONS OF A FOUNDATION.
a) Distribute the loads evenly

b) Reduce load intensity
c) Provide a level surface onto which other structural members can be built on.
d) Lateral stability
e) Safety against undermining or burrowing.
f) Protection against soil movement
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS:
i. The foundations should be strong enough to sustain the dead and live
loads imposed onto it and transmit it to the subsoil safely without
impairing the stability of the building.
ii. They should be sufficiently deep to safeguard the structure against
damage caused by swelling or shrinkage of the subsoil.
iii. It should be located in such a way that its performance won’t be
affected by any future influence.
iv. It should be constructed with durable materials so as to last long.
TERMINOLOGIES:
 Topsoil: are soils below the surface being 300 mm deep

 Subsoil: are soils located immediately below the base of foundation.
 Backfill: materials excavated from site and if suitable used to fill in the
trench around the wall and foundation.
 Made ground: this is the excavated rocks or soils deposited for the purpose
of filling in depression or raising the site above natural level.
 Bearing pressure: pressure induced/produced on the ground by the load
 Bearing capacity: this is safe load per unit area which the soil can safely
carry.
METHODS OF IMPROVING SOIL BEARING CAPACITY:
1) Increasing the depth of the foundation: this is due to confining weight of

the overlying materials to the granular soil.
2) Compaction of soil: compaction increases the bearing capacity of soil and
reduces settlement.
3) Drainage of soil: water decreases the bearing capacity of soil. Draining it
results in decreased void ratio and improves the bearing capacity.
4) Confining the soil: reducing settlement due to lateral movement of loose
granular soil. Confining the soil increases the bearing capacity
5) Grouting: this method is used for loose gravels and fissured rocky strata
where cement grout or other chemicals are used to hold together the
granules.
CLASSIFICATION OF FOUNDATIONS:
THERE ARE TWO CLASSES OF FOUNDATIONS:
1) Natural foundations: this is the base onto which the artificial foundation
rests.
2) Artificial foundations: these are the constructed foundations on the natural
foundations. They include; strip foundations, raft foundations, pad
foundation, pile foundation, pier foundations, caissons,e.t.c
STRIP FOUNDATION:
these are shallow foundation that are used to provide a continuous, level (or
sometimes stepped) strip of support to a linear structure such as a wall or closely-
spaced rows of columns built centrally above them.
It can also be described as a spread footing for a continuous wall.
Types of strip foundations:
A. Wide strip foundation
Wide strip foundations may be required where the soil is soft or of a low bearing
capacity, so as to spread the load over a larger area. Wide strip foundations will
typically require reinforcement.
B. Deep strip foundation:
Deep strip foundations may be necessary where soil with a suitable bearing
capacity is deeper. Deep strip foundation are usually dug out with mechanical
excavators which cuts a narrow trench that is backfilled with concrete up to
ground level. It reduces the cost of masonry wall and may remove the need for
timber supports for the trench.
C. Stepped foundation:
Where the natural surface of the ground is sloped, the most economical solution
may be a stepped foundation. In this case, the foundation takes the form of a
series of concrete horizontal steps following the slope of the ground.
This helps to minimize the amount of excavation and below-ground wall

construction that would otherwise be required. Stepped foundations can also be
used to transition from deep foundations to shallow foundations, and at corners
and intersections.
Regularly stepping foundations also avoids abrupt and excessive changes in level
that could cause a weakness resulting in movement. Similarly, abrupt and excessive
changes in foundation depths should be avoided at corners and intersections by the
introduction of stepping.
Requirements for Stepped Foundations
i. The steps are arranged in short length at regular heights, usually a multiple
of the building unit courses.
ii. The overlap of the higher level to the lower level should not be less than the
thickness of the foundation and in no case less than 300mm.
DESIGN OF A SIMPLE STRIP FOUNDATION.
Since the settlement of the structure occurs during its working life, the design
loading to be considered when calculating the size of the base should be taken as
the for the serviceability limit.
The calculations for the strip foundation depend on the load bearing capacity of
the soil and the pressure of the load to be supported.
Area of foundation = Load (KN)/ bearing capacity (kn/m 2)
The thickness of the foundation must be at least 150mm.
Example:
Design the size of a strip foundation using the following information; bearing
capacity of the ground= 72KN/M2.
Wall thickness = 215 mm
Load of foundation=25kn/m
Solution: area=load/b. c
For 1m length, width=25/72
=0.347m
= approx. 350 mm
Foundation projection/spread = (foundation-wall thickness)/2
= (350-215)/2
=67.5 mm
Foundation depth =projection, and depth must be at least 150mm. hence adopt 150
mm (at least)
Final size = 350mm x150mm
Assignment:
Design a strip foundation to carry a 275 mm wide cavity wall, if the total is
60KN/M run of wall and the ground is stiff sandy clay with a bearing capacity of
102 KN/M2.
PAD/ISOLATED FOUNDATION
Pad foundations are used to support an individual point load such as a structural
column. They may be circular, square or rectangular
This is a foundation used to support and transmit loads from piers and columns.
The most economical plan is a square but if the columns are close to the site
boundary it may be necessary to use a rectangular plan shape of equivalent area.
The isolated concrete pad foundation are spread in the base of an excavation on
which piers/column of bricks or concrete are raised to ground level to support
reinforced concrete ground beams off which the walls are raised.
RAFT FOUNDATION/MAT FOUNDATION:

These consists of a raft of a reinforced concrete under the whole of the building
designed to transmit the load of the building to the subsoil beneath the raft. This
foundation covers the entire area beneath a structure and supports all walls and
columns.
Raft foundation is actually a thick concrete slab resting on a large area of soil
reinforced with steel, supporting columns or walls and transfer loads from the
structure to the soil. Usually, mat foundation is spread over the entire area of the
structure it is supporting.
Raft foundation is generally used to support structures like residential or

commercial buildings where soil condition is poor, storage tanks, silos, foundations
for heavy industrial equipment etc.
Raft foundation is preferred when-
 The soil has a low bearing capacity.

 Load of the structure has to be distributed over a large area.
 Individual or any other foundation area would approximately cover 50% of
the total ground area beneath the structure.
 The columns or walls are placed so closely that the individual footings would
overlap.
 Stress on soil needs to be reduced.
 There is a possibility of differential settlement in case individual footing is
used.
 When soil strata are unpredictable and contain pockets of compressible soil.
 Basement is to be constructed.
 Any other type of footing cannot be used advantageously.
Types of Raft Foundation;
1. Flate plate mat

2. Plate thickened under the column
3. Two-way beam and slab Raft
4. Plate raft with pedestals
5. Plied raft
6. Rigid Frame Mat or Cellular Raft Foundation
DEEP FOUNDATIONS: these foundations include pile foundation, pier

foundations, caissons foundation or well foundation. Pile is the most used among
them.
PILE FOUNDATION:
This type of foundation is used when:
 The load of the superstructure is heavy and its distribution is uneven.

 The top soil has poor bearing capacity.
 The subsoil water level is high so that pumping of water from open trenches
for the shallow foundation is difficult and uneconomical.
 There is a large fluctuation in subsoil water level.
 When the site is on the sea shore or a river bed. The top soil is of expansive
nature.
 Canal or deep drainage lines exist near foundations.
 There is danger of scouring action of water.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF PILE FOUNDATION.
 Classification based on function or use of a pile. I.e. end bearing pile, friction
pile, compaction pile, anchor pile, sheet pile etc.
 Classification based on materials and composition i.e. concrete pile, timber
pile, steel pile, composite pile etc.
TYPES OF PILES:
 Bored or replacement piles: this concrete correctly poured into holes in the
ground at measured intervals.
 Driven or displacement piles: these are tree trunks that are hammered into
soft ground at spaced intervals.
Shot bored piled foundation: these are used for small houses and light weight
framed buildings constructed on soils that expand and contract with changes in the
moisture content e.g. clay and black cotton. These kind of foundations aren’t
suitable for use on rock, flint, or sites with many roots because the hole must be
straight and consistent in diameter
TRENCH EXCAVATION
Excavation is the process of removing earth to form a cavity in the ground.

A trench is an excavation in which the length greatly exceeds the depth. Shallow
trenches are usually considered to be less than 6 m deep, and deep trenches
greater than 6 m.
Trench, or footing, excavation is typically used to form strip foundations,

buried services, and so on. The choice of technique and plant for excavating,
supporting and backfilling the trench depends on factors such as;
 the purpose of the trench,
 the ground conditions, the trench location,
 the number of obstructions, e.t.c
The common techniques that are used include:
 Full depth, full length: Suitable for long narrow trenches of shallow depth, such
as pipelines and sewers.
 Full depth, successive stages: Suitable for deep trenches
where works can progress in sequence, reducing the risk of collapse.
 Stage depth, successive stages: Suitable for very deep trenches in
confined areas, deep foundations and underpinning.
Trench excavation is done using the following methods:
1. HAND EXCAVATIONS:
This is the use of human energy to form cavities on the ground by use of
simple tools which include:
Trenching shovel
A trenching shovel makes light work of narrow trenches as it

only removes soil wide enough for pipe work.
The square mouth of the shovel helps keep a flat bed for the pipe to lie in. The
handle (made either of plastic or wood) should be light and strong and preferably
long handled to ease the strain on the back.
Turf Cutter
These are small motor driven machines that have a V

shaped blade attachment for cutting into the turf. This allows for the removal for
the turf soil whilst creating the trench at the same time. They are hand-operated
machines.
Spade
Spades can be used to cut trenches in existing lawn, as they have a sharp blade.
They are inexpensive and available from most hardware stores.
Shovels
There are generally two types of shovels used in industry:

the wide mouth shovel and the pointed mouth shovel.
The wide mouth shovel is useful for picking up sand and other materials from hard
surfaces and the pointed mouth shovel is used for excavation when large amounts
of sand need to be removed.
Pick axe
Pick axes are another useful tool to have around when you need to excavate
trenches. They can be used to cut through existing roots or hard ground to create
trenches.
Useful for penetrating hard ground and breaking it up so that the trench can then
be prepared with a trenching shovel.
Rake
Rakes are inexpensive and are often used to clear rocky or

uneven ground prior to excavation
Rakes can be used to tidy up sites after trenches have been excavated and they
are also used to refill trenches after pipes have been laid.
Hand trowel
Hand trowels are useful tools for clearing trenches after the
pipe is laid. They are also good for small excavations.
Mattock
Mattocks are useful for cleaning out trenches in sand or breaking soil when digging
is hard.
2. MACHINE EXCAVATION:
This is the use of mechanical means to create trenches. There are various
machines used which include:
Chain Trencher
A chain trencher is a machine that drives a chain to dig

trenches. Its action is similar to a chain saw and the chain moves around a blade to
excavate the soil. They are used for large commercial irrigation projects where
digging into hard soil is a problem. The width of the trench needs to be kept to a
minimum where a deep trench is required. Cost to hire varies depending on size and
is usually expensive.
Excavators
An excavator is a track driven machine, which operates by

scooping the soil and depositing it beside the trench. They are used for large
commercial jobs.
Disc or blade trencher
These are small motor driven machines designed specifically

for digging small trenches usually 80mm x 200mm. They are inexpensive to
purchase, are fast and make light work of digging. They are easy to transport.
Skid steer machines
These are machines with buckets that are used to move soil
and are useful for levelling and general earth works. skid steer machines are not
generally used to dig trenches, as this may require adapting the machine for the
purpose.
TRENCH BOTTOMING AND TREATMENT
FOUNDATION MATERIALS
CEMENT
A cement is a binder, a substance used for construction that sets, hardens, and
adheres to other materials to bind them together. Cement is seldom used on its
own, but rather to bind sand and aggregate together. They are usually inorganic,
often lime or calcium silicate based. Cement is classified into two:
 Hydraulic cements
(e.g., Portland cement) set and become adhesive due to a chemical
reaction between the dry ingredients and water. The chemical reaction
results in mineral hydrates that are not very water-soluble and so are quite
durable in water and safe from chemical attack. This allows setting in wet
conditions or under water and further protects the hardened material from
chemical attack. The chemical process for hydraulic cement found by ancient
Romans used volcanic ash (pozzolana) with added lime (calcium oxide).
 Non-hydraulic cement
does not set in wet conditions or under water. Rather, it sets as it dries and
reacts with carbon dioxide in the air. It is resistant to attack by chemicals
after setting.
Types of cements
I. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
In usual construction work, Ordinary Portland Cement is widely used. The

composition of Ordinary Portland Cement is:
 Argillaceous or silicates of alumina (clay and shale)

 Calcareous or calcium carbonate (limestone, chalk, and marl)
Uses of Ordinary Portland Cement
 It is used for general construction purposes.

 It is also used in most of the masonry works.
II. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
Pozzolans are natural or synthetic materials that contain silica in reactive forms.
It reacts with calcium hydroxide generated by hydrating cement to form additional
cementations materials when it is finely divided. The composition of Portland
Pozzolana Cement:
 OPC clinker
 Gypsum
 Pozzolanic Materials (Fly ash, volcanic ash, and Calcined clay or silica fumes.)
Uses of Portland Pozzolana Cement
 PPC is usually used in hydraulic structures, marine structures, construction

near the seashore, dam construction etc.
 It is also used in pre-stressed and post-tensioned concrete members.
 As it gives a better surface finish, it is used in decorative and art
structures.
 It is also used in the manufacture of precast sewage pipes.
Read More:
 Difference Between OPC and PPC
III. Rapid Hardening Cement
When finely grounded Tri-calcium silicate (C3S) is present in OPC with higher
content, it gains strength more quickly than OPC. This type of OPC is called Rapid
Hardening Cement. It’s initial Setting Time 30 minutes and Final Setting Time 600
minutes.
Uses of Rapid Hardening Cement
 Rapid hardening cement is mostly used where rapid construction is needed

like the construction of pavement.
 It also gives high strength.
IV. Quick Setting Cement
Quick setting cement is the cement which sets in a very short time. The initial
setting time is 5 minutes and the final setting time is 30 minutes. The composition
of Quick Setting Cement:
 Clinker
 Aluminium sulphate (1% to 3% by weight of clinker)
 The aluminium sulphte increase the hydration rate of silicate.
Uses of Quick Setting Cement
 It is used in underwater construction.

 It is also used in rainy & cold weather conditions.
 It is used a higher temperature where water evaporates easily.
 Used for anchoring or rock bolt mining and tunneling
V. Low Heat Cement
It is a spatial type of cement which produce low heat of hydration during setting.
Some chemical composition of Ordinary Portland Cement is modified to reduce the
heat of hydration. The chemical composition of low heat cement:
 A low percentage (5%) of tricalcium aluminate (C3A)

 A higher percentage (46%) of declaim silicate (C2S).
Uses of Low Heat Cement
 It is used for the construction of dam’s large footing, large raft slabs, and
wind turbine plinths.
 It is also used for the construction of chemical plants.
VI. Sulphates resisting cement
Sulphet resisting cement is used to resist sulphet attacks in concrete. Due to the
lower percentage of Tricalcium aluminate, the production of calcium sulpho-
aluminates gets reduced.
Uses of Sulphates resisting Cement
 Construction in contact with soils or groundwater having more than 0.2% or

0.3 % g/l sulphate salts respectively.
 Concrete surfaces subjected to alternate wetting and drying such as bridge
piers, concrete surface in tidal zone, apron, Building near seacoast.
 Effluent treatment plans, Chimney, Chemical industries, water storage,
sumps, drainage works, Cooling towers, Coastal protective works such as sea
walls, breakwaters, tetrapods etc.
VII. High Alumina Cement
High Alumina cement is obtained by mixing calcining bauxite (it’s an aluminium ore)
and ordinary lime with clinker during the manufacture of OPC. In which the total
amount of alumina content should not be lesser than 32% and it should maintain the
ratio by weight of alumina to the lime between 0.85 to 1.30.
Uses of High Alumina Cement
 It is used where concrete structures are subjected to high temperatures

like workshop, refractory, foundries etc
 It also used where the concrete is subjected to frost and acidic action.
VIII. White Cement
White cement is quite similar to Ordinary Portland Cement except for color.
Amounts of iron oxide and manganese oxide are low in White Cement. It is
expensive then OPC so not economical for ordinary work.
Uses of White Cement
 It is usually used in decorative work.

 It can also use for traffic barriers, tile grouts, swimming pools, roof tiles
patching materials and terrazzo surfaces.
Read More about White Cement:
 What is White Portland Cement?

 Uses of White Portland Cement
IX. Colored Cement
To make 5 to 10 percent of suitable pigments are grinded with OPC. Types of

pigments are selected according to the desired color.
Uses of Colored Cement
 Colored cement is used for different decorative work.
X. Air Entraining Cement
Air-entraining cement is a spatial type of cement which entrains tinny air bubbles
in concrete. When water in concrete get frizzed due to low temperature, it
expands. When air-entraining cement, the air voids in concrete provides space for
water to expand without cracking concrete. But this type cement does not provide
high strength in concrete.
Uses of Air-Entraining Cement
 Spatially it is used in areas where the temperature is very low.

 It also resists Sulphet attack.
 It is used where the de-iceing chemical is used.
XI. Expansive Cement
In the hydration process, the expansive cement expands its volume. It can be
possible to overcome shrinkage loss by using expansive cement.
There are three types of expansive cement:
1. K Type expansive cement

2. M Type expansive cement
3. S Type expansive cement
K Type expansive cement
Raw materials of these types of cement
 Portland cement
 Anhydrous tetracalcium trialuminate sulfate (C4A3S)
 Calcium sulfate (CaSO4)
 Lime (CaO).
M Type Expansive Cement
1. Portland cement clinkers

2. Calcium sulfate.
S Type Expansive Cement
1. Portland cement clinkers

2. Calcium sulfate (High amount)
 Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) (High amount)
Uses of Expansive cement
 It is used in the construction of the pre-stressed concrete component.

 It is also used for sealing joints and grouting anchor bolt.
 In the construction of different hydraulic structures, this type of cement is
used.
Hydrophobic Cement
To resist the hydration process in the transportation or storage stage, clinkers are
grinded with water repellent film substance such as Oleic Acid or Stearic Acid.
These chemicals form a layer on the cement particle and do not allow water to mix
and start the hydration process. When cement and aggregate are thoroughly mixed
in the mixer, protective layers break and start normal hydration with some air-
entrainment which increase workability.
Uses of Hydrophobic Cement
 Usually, it is used in the construction of water structures such as dams,

spillways, or other submerged structures.
 It is also used in the construction of underground structure like tunnel etc.
DEWATERING TO FOUNDATION TRENCHES

Construction of foundations of various structures requires excavation below the
water table into water-bearing soils.
Construction sites are dewatered for the following purposes:
 To lower the water table

 To provide suitable working surface at the bottom of the excavation.
 To stabilize the banks of the excavation thus avoiding the hazards of slides
and sloughing.
 To prevent disturbance of the soil at the bottom of excavation caused by
boils or piping. Such disturbances may reduce the bearing power of the soil.
METHODS OF DEWATERING: these are methods used to lower the water table
and they include:
1) Well point system

A well point is 5.0-7.5 cm diameter metal or plastic pipe 60 cm – 120 cm long
which is perforated and covered with a screen. The lower end of the pipe
has a driving head with water holes for jetting. Well points are connected to
5.0-7.5 cm diameter pipes known as riser pipes and are inserted into the
ground by driving or jetting. The upper ends of the riser pipes lead to a
header pipe which, in turn, connected to a pump. The ground water is drawn
by the pump into the well points through the header pipe and then
discharged.This type of dewatering system is effective in soils constituted
primarily of sand fraction.
Well Point De-watering System
The well points can lower a water level to a maximum of 5.5 m below the
centerline of the header pipe. In silty fine sands this limit is 3-4 m. Multiple
stage system of well points are used for lowering water level to a greater
depth. A single well point handles between 4 and 0.6 m3/hr depending on soil
type.
Multi Stage Well Point De-watering System

2) Reverse osmosis
3) Ring main system
FOUNDATION LAYING
CONCRETE MIXES: It is a combination of all elements in various proportions:

cement, water, coarse aggregates, fine aggregates (i.e. sand), and air. Additional
elements such as pozzolanic materials and chemical admixtures can also be
incorporated into the mix to give it certain desirable properties.
types of concrete mixes
Nominal Mixes
In the past the specifications for concrete prescribed the proportions of cement,
fine and coarse aggregates. These mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio which
ensures adequate strength are termed nominal mixes. These offer simplicity and
under normal circumstances, have a margin of strength above that specified.
However, due to the variability of mix ingredients the nominal concrete for a
given workability varies widely in strength.
Standard Mixes
The nominal mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio (by volume) vary widely in
strength and may result in under- or over-rich mixes. For this reason, the
minimum compressive strength has been included in many specifications. These
mixes are termed standard mixes.
IS 456-2000 has designated the concrete mixes into a number of grades as M10,
M15, M20, M25, M30, M35 and M40. In this designation the letter M refers to the
mix and the number to the specified 28 day cube strength of mix in N/mm 2. The
mixes of grades M10, M15, M20 and M25 correspond approximately to the mix
proportions (1:3:6), (1:2:4), (1:1.5:3) and (1:1:2) respectively.
Compressive Strength of Concrete – Cubes
Designed Mixes
In these mixes the performance of the concrete is specified by the designer but
the mix proportions are determined by the producer of concrete, except that the
minimum cement content can be laid down. This is most rational approach to the
selection of mix proportions with specific materials in mind possessing more or less
unique characteristics.
The approach results in the production of concrete with the appropriate properties
most economically. However, the designed mix does not serve as a guide since this
does not guarantee the correct mix proportions for the prescribed performance.
LAYING THE FOUNDATION
Leveling
 Any of the methods of leveling of trench bottom e.g. water hose leveling;
spirit level with board may be used.
Pegging
 For deep strip foundation it is necessary to transfer the level of the site
datum to some other pegs at convenient intervals at corners and along the
foundation trench.
 The pegs will help in obtaining the leveled top of mass concrete in foundation
trench.
 The desired level of the concrete can be obtained by transferring levels
from these pegs to the top of the concrete by using a gauge rod and
straight edge.
Wetting
 Before mixed concrete is poured into the foundation trench, during dry and
hot seasons, the trench must be wetted to minimize rapid loss of water from
the concrete to the dry soil.
 This rapid loss of water would weaken the foundation.
Mixing concrete
 There are two methods of mixing concrete:
a) Hand mixing
b) Machine mixing
Transportation of concrete
 Concrete prepared by hand or by machine mixing has to be transported to
its place of use before hydration of cement starts.
 During transportation efforts should be made to prevent segregation or loss
of any of the ingredients.
 Transportation of concrete is done by pans. Wheelbarrows, truck mixers,
conveyor belt and pumps.
 Most concrete mixing is done near the work site and in such circumstances
pans and wheelbarrows are the most economical and convenient methods of
concrete transportation
 If a mixer site is far off from the work site, truck mixers may be used.
 Where large quantities of concrete are to be put at a very congested site,
pumps may be used for transporting concrete.
 Belt conveyors are used when concrete is to be transported continuously and
to higher levels.
Placing of concrete
 Methods of placing concrete should be such as to prevent its segregation.

 It should not be dropped from a height of more than one metre.
 Before concrete is placed in position, formwork should be thoroughly
checked for its stiffness and tightness.
 Surface of placing concrete should be truly prepared according to the
requirements and thoroughly soaked with water.
Precautions to be taken while placing concrete.
a) Concrete should be laid continuously to avoid irregular and unsightly lines.

b) To avoid sticking of concrete, formwork should be oiled before concreting.
c) While placing concrete, the position of formwork and reinforcements should
not be disturbed.
d) To avoid segregation, concrete should not be dropped from heights more
than one metre.
e) Thickness of concrete layer should not be more than 30cm to 40cm in case
of reinforced cement concrete.
f) Concrete should not be placed during rain.
g) Walking on freshly laid concrete should be avoided.
h) It should be placed as near to its final position as practicable.
Compaction of concrete
 Consolidation of plastic concrete is termed as compaction. Compaction of
concrete can be either done manually or mechanically.
i). Hand compaction

 Hand compaction is done with the help of steel tamping rods or timber rods.
 Compaction should be done in layers of 30cm for mass concrete and 15cm
for reinforced concrete.
 Compaction should be carried out for such a time that a layer of mortar
starts appearing on the compaction surface.
 Excessive compaction and under compaction both are harmful for concrete.
Due to excessive compaction coarse aggregate particles sink to the bottom
and cement and fine aggregate mortar appear at the top.
 This makes concrete structure heterogeneous and hence affects strength.
ii). Machine compaction

 Compaction of concrete is done with the help of vibrators. Vibrators produce
vibrations which when transmitted in plastic concrete make it to flow and
affect compaction.
 The air bubbles are forced out of concrete due to vibrations. Over-vibration
should not be allowed otherwise coarse aggregate particles will concentrate
on the lower layers and mortar will come to the surface.
 There are three types of vibrators in common use:
a) Internal vibrators
b) Form vibrators
c) Surface or screed vibrators
a). Internal vibrators
 This vibrator is also known as immersion, poker or needle vibrator. It
consists of a power unit and a long flexible tube at the end of which a
vibrating head is attached.
 Whereas compaction is to be done, the vibrating head is inserted in the
concrete. This vibrator is very useful to compaction of mass concrete.
b). Form vibrators

 The vibrator is clamped to the formwork and imparts vibrations to the
concrete through formwork.
 This vibrator is used only if the use of internal vibrators is not practicable
as in the case of thin and congested situations
c). Surface vibrators

 It is also known as screed vibrator. It is clamped to the screed
 It imparts vibrations to the concrete from the surface when screeding
operations of the concrete are carried out.
 It is effective only for depths of about 20cm and hence useful to thin
horizontal surfaces such as pavements.
Curing of concrete
 Curing is operation by which moist conditions are maintained on the finished
concrete surface to promote continued hydration of cement.
 Beside full hydration and full development of strength, curing bring about
improvement in durability, impermeability, wear and weather resisting
qualities and reduce shrinkage.
Methods of curing
a) Covering the concrete with gunny bags and hessian mats
b) Covering the surface with damp proof materials, e.g. bituminous emulsion,
wax emulsion and bituminized waterproof paper.
c) Sprinkling water at least three times a day.
d) Covering the surface with damp sand or saw dust.
e) Ponding method: This is flooding the concrete surface with water for at
least seven days. It is used in curing horizontal surfaces such as floors,
roofs, slabs, roads, etc.
KENYA BUILDING CODE REQUIREMENTS.
The regulations state that all foundation of a building shall:
 Safely sustain and transmit to the ground the combined dead and live loads
so as not to cause any settlement or other movement in any part of the
building or any adjoining buildings or works.
 Be capable of resisting attack by sulphate or other harmful matter present
in the soil.
 Resist any shrinkage or swelling of the subsoil.
 In the case of a building with heavily loaded foundations, the council may
require the substrata formation to be approved.
 The dead load and imposed loads, including wind loads shall be calculated in
accordance with the Second Schedule of Kenya building requirements.
 Where eccentric loading to foundations of walls occurs the appropriate
requirements in the Second Schedule to the Kenya building code shall apply
FOUNDATION WALLS
A foundation wall is a wall below ground floor which transfers the weight of the
building to the strip foundation.
Tools
i. Spirit level.
ii. Hammers.
iii. Chisels.
iv. Trowels.
v. Builder’s line.
vi. Plump bob/plump rule.
vii. Mallet.
viii. Tape measure.
ix. Metal karais/wheelbarrow.
x. Bowl of water.
xi. Shovel/spade.
xii. Mortar boards.
xiii. Pegs.
xiv. Builder’s square.
For a foundation wall to be erected, the builder must transfer dimensions from
known datum and references
Transfer of face line from profiles to foundation
 The strings are tied onto the nails previously fixed on the profile boards.
Plump bob or plumb rule is then used to transfer the wall face line from the
setting out strings onto the concrete strip.
 After the plump rule has been made steady and the plump bob stood still
along the line marked on the plumb rule, then a mark is made on the concrete
strip.
 Marks are made at each corner of the building. The mortar is spread on the
concrete strip and the first block is set. It is now possible to build the first
course of the foundation wall.
 The string is stretched from one corner to the next and remaining part
filled with walling units.
Procedure of building a foundation wall
i. Use profile lines to locate an external corner on the strip foundation.
ii. Use builders level held vertically or a plumb line to mark the position of the
external corner with wet mortar.
iii. Repeat steps i and ii for all four corners.
iv. Stretch a line between the corners to provide a position for the first course
of bricks.
v. Secure the line by wrapping it around a brick and putting another brick on
top. Remove the line after the first course of bricks is laid.
vi. Lay the bricks in a row. Adjust their positions by tapping the brick s with a
trowel.
vii. Check that they are level horizontally and vertically with a builder’s level.
viii. Build up the corners by racking the bricks back for 4 or 8 courses
ix. Check your accuracy with the builder’s level. Use a gauge rod to control the
height.
x. Insert pegs in the mortar joints in the corners for each completed course of
brick work.
xi. Stretch a line between the pegs so that it is flush with the surface of the
brickwork to provide a guide for the next course of brickwork.
xii. Continue checking horizontal and vertical levels.
xiii. Form the joints while the mortar is soft.
MATERIALS FOR FOUNDATION WALLS
These are materials that are used to construct the foundation walls. They include:
i) stones
ii) Bricks:
A brick is defined in BS 3921 as a walling unit with coordinating size of 225 mm

length, 112.5 mm width and 75 mm height. Bricks are known by their format size –
that is, a standard metric brick has coordinating dimensions of 225 × 112.5 × 75
mm and working dimensions of 215 × 102.5 × 65.
The coordinating dimensions are a measure of the physical space taken up by a

brick together with the mortar required on one bed, one header face and one
stretcher face.
They are classified in terms of:
 Varieties
 Common: Suitable for general building work but having no special claim to
give an attractive appearance.
 Facing: Specially made or selected to have an attractive appearance when
used without rendering or plaster.
 Engineering: Having a dense and strong semi-vitreous body conforming to
defined limits for absorption and strength.
 Qualities
 Internal: Suitable for internal use only; may need protection on site during
bad weather or during the winter.
 Ordinary: Less durable than special quality but normally durable in the
external face of a building. Some types are unsuitable for exposed
situations.
 Special: For use in conditions of extreme exposure where the structure
may become saturated and frozen, such as retaining walls and paving.
 Types
 Solid: Those in which small holes passing through or nearly through the
brick do not exceed 25% of its volume, or in which frogs do not exceed 20%
of its volume. A small hole is defined as a whole less than 20 mm wide or
less than 500 mm2 in area.
 Perforated: Those in which holes passing through the brick exceed 25% of
its volume and the holes are small as defined above.
 Hollow: Those in which the holes passing through the brick exceed 25% of
its volume and the holes are larger than those defined as small holes.
 Cellular: Those in which the holes are closed at one end and exceed 20% of
the volume of the brick.
 Other classifications
Bricks may also be classified by one or more of the following:
 place of origin, for example London;

 raw material, for example clay;
 manufacture, for example wire-cut;
 use, for example foundation;
 color, for example blue;
 surface texture, for example sand-faced
iii) Concrete blocks
iv) Mortar:
 Mortar is a mixture a matrix with an inert material in proportions done using

their weight or by volume. The effect of lime is to make it more workable.
As the lime content increases the mortar’s resistance to frost decreases.
 Workability of the mortar may also be improved by including plasticizers
which entrain small bubbles of air into the mortar and breaking down the
surface tension.
 Mortars should never be re-tempered and should be used within two hours
of mixing.
Typical mortar mixes
a) Cement mortar 1:3 (cement: sand)

 Suitable for brickwork in exposed conditions such as parapets and
foundations
b) Lime mortar 1:3 (lime: sand)
 For internal use only.
c) Gauged mortars (cement: lime: sand)
 1:1:6 suitable for most conditions of severe exposure.
 1:2:9 suitable for most conditions accept those of severe exposure.
BONDING
Bonding refers to an arrangement of bricks/stones/blocks in a wall, column or pier

laid to a set pattern to maintain an adequate lap. The patterns in these layers are
formed with whole and cut building units.
Purposes of Brick Bonding
 Obtain maximum strength whilst distributing the loads to be carried throughout

the wall, column or pier.
 Ensure lateral stability and resistance to side thrusts.
 Create an acceptable appearance.
Simple Bonding Rules
 All the various bonds are designed so that no vertical joint in any one course is
directly above or below a vertical joint in the adjoining course.
 Walls which are not in exact bond length can be set out as broken or reversed
bond.
Broken bond Reversed bond

 Transverse or cross joints continue unbroken across the width of wall unless
stopped by a face stretcher.
 The various bonds are also planned to give the greatest practical amount of lap
to all the bricks, and this should not be less than a quarter of a brick length.
 The bricks should be of uniform size, the length of the brick should be twice its
width plus one joint so that uniform lap is obtained.
 Use of brick bats should be discouraged unless in special location.
 In alternate courses the centerline the header should coincide with the center
line of the stretcher in the courses below or above it.
 The vertical joints in alternate courses should be on the same perpend.
TYPES OF BOND
 Stretcher or Common Bond
 Consists of all stretchers in every course and is used for half-brick walls and
the half-brick skins of hollow or cavity walls
 Only shows stretchers on general face except for occasional closers and half
batts used to maintain bond at quoins (the end of the wall), scuntions (the
end of the wall) and intersections. (see Fig. 5)
 English bond
 A very strong bond consisting of alternate courses of headers and
stretchers
 It is used on walls one brick thick and upwards. (see Fig. 6)
 Flemish bond
 Each course consists of alternate headers and stretchers; its appearance is
considered to be better than English bond, but it is not quite so strong.
 It is used on walls one brick thick and upwards.
 This bond is sometimes referred to as double Flemish bond. (See Fig. 7)
 Concrete bond:
ENGLISH BOND
: FLEMISH BOND
A. Strength : the strength of the material used in construction determines the

strength of the wall.
B. stability: The stability is affected by foundation movements, load
eccentricity and lateral forces. The stability can be improved by:
 Using irregular wall profile- they have greater stiffness against
deformation. Wall profiles include; zigzag wall/chevron, serpentine
wall and square.
 Use of cross ribs/diaphragms built across and piers.
C. Durability and freedom from maintenance. Resistance to weather and ground
moisture
LOADS ON FOUNDATION WALLS
1) dead loads:
These are loads that are relatively constant over time, including the weight
of the structure itself, and immovable fixtures such as
walls, plasterboard or carpet. The roof is also a dead load. Dead loads are
also known as permanent or static loads.
2) live loads : Live loads, or imposed loads, are temporary, of short duration, or
a moving load. These dynamic loads may involve considerations such
as impact, momentum, vibration, slosh dynamics of fluids and
material fatigue.
Live loads, sometimes also referred to as probabilistic loads, include all the
forces that are variable within the object's normal operation cycle not
including construction or environmental loads.
Roof and floor live loads are produced during maintenance by workers,
equipment and materials, and during the life of the structure by movable
objects, such as planters and people.
Bridge live loads are produced by vehicles traveling over the deck of the
bridge.
3) wind loads:
Wind load factor has considered when the structure height is above 10m. The
wind load is acting horizontally on the structure & inclined to the roof. it did not
collapse the structure but affect the structural strength.
4) super imposed: these are loads due to non-structural members which are
not live loads. They emerge from semipermanent structures like finishes.
5) Environmental loads
Environmental Loads are structural loads caused by natural forces such as wind,
rain, snow, earthquake or extreme temperatures.
 Wind loads
 Snow, rain and ice loads
 Seismic loads
 Hydrostatic loads
 Temperature changes leading to thermal expansion cause thermal loads
 Ponding loads
 Frost heaving
 Lateral pressure of soil, groundwater or bulk materials
 Loads from fluids or floods
 Permafrost melting
 Dust loads
WALL STRENGTHENING : walls can be strengthened using the following

methods
1) columns : structural element that transmits, through compression,
the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below.
2) piers
3) party walls
4) beams
5) RC Jackets:
Reinforced concrete (RC) jackets technique for strengthening of masonry
structure consists of application of jackets on one or both sides of masonry walls.
This method is used for brick masonry as well as for stone masonry walls.
For using reinforcement jackets, first the plaster is removed from the walls.
Mortar joints between bricks are cleaned. In case of any cracks in masonry walls,
those are first grouted. Anchor ties are are inserted in pre-drilled holes. The
surface of drill is cleaned, moistened, and cement slurry is spread on the masonry
surface and in drills.
The concrete is applied in two-layers with reinforcement mesh in between them.

The reinforcing mesh on both sides of wall is connected with the help of steel
anchors. These anchors are welded with the mesh or tied using tying wire.
The usual total thickness of RC jackets varies from 30mm to 100mm. The thickness
depends on the method for application of concrete layers.
Rules for Strengthening of Masonry Walls by Reinforced Concrete Jacketing:

o The minimum horizontal and vertical reinforcement should be 0.25% of the jacket
section.
o The minimum reinforcement with which the ends of the wall are strengthened
should be 0.25% of jacket section.
o The diameter of the ties at the well ends should not be less than 8 mm with a
maximum spacing of 150 mm.
o The jacket must be anchored to the old concrete with dowels spaced at no more
than 600 mm in both directions.
FLOORING
These are structures that divide a building into stages or stores to give the space
to live at different levels. It can either be horizontal or slanting. A floor has two
distinct components:
1. Sub floor: this is the structural support to the dead, live loads, super
imposed and the floor covering. It’s made of wood, concrete, bricks or
stones.
2. Floor covering: it is the top layer of the floor made of concrete, mosaic,
terrazzo, asphalt stones, tiles marble or timber.
Functional requirements of floors:
1. Strength and stability: it should be able to withstand the imposed loads.

2. Sound regulation: it should provide good sound properties
3. Damp resistance: it should prevent damp penetration from the ground (by
incorporation of DPM).
4. Thermal insulation: it should not permit loss of heat to the ground from the
building, (use mineral fiber slab 25m btwn concrete and floor screed.
5. Fire resistance; it should resist spread of fire.
6. It should prevent growth of vegetation. (Provided by use of hardcore and
oversite concrete).
7. It should provide an acceptable surface finish as regards to the appearance,
comfort, cleanliness and use of the structure among others.
FUNCTIONS OF A FLOORS:
1. Support the loads from finishes, people, machines, furniture etc.

2. To provide a level surface
3. To provide a level surface for any floor finishes required
4. Exclude the passage of water and water vapor to the interior of the building.
5. Provide resistance to unacceptable heat loss through the floor.
TYPES OF FLOORS: (sub floors)
They include:
1. CONCRETE FLOORS: they are made of coarse aggregate, sand and cement.
Usually known as ground floors or upper floors. Ground floors are (oversite
concrete below suspended timber floor, ground floor for a masonry
construction, or a raft foundation in a timber framed building) usually
supported on hardcore, murram. Upper floors are supported on beams and
columns.
2. TIMBER FLOORS: these are made of timber joists and timber planks usually
supported on hardcore, stone and brickwork or event other timber pieces… a
timber floor slightly above ground floor is called a suspended floor.
OVERSITE CONCRETE SLAB:

A layer of concrete sub flooring; so placed to prevent disturbance of the ground
below, to provide a relatively even and firm surface for the placement of the next
layer, and to keep out ground air and moisture. This layer seals the earth and
creates the ground floor for the building.
At ground floor level, the concrete slab that rests on the ground must:
1. Provide a total barrier to dampness in the building

2. Prevent termite from entering the building.
3. Prevent the growth of vegetation.
4. Support all loads imposed on it.
LAYING OF AN OVERSITE CONCRETE SLAB: a typical oversite concrete slab is

made up of concrete mixed in the ratio of 1:3:6.
Since concrete shrinks on drying, it should be laid in areas equal or less than 3x3 m
or 10 m2. If the area is bigger than 10 sq. meters, it should be divided into
chequer board pattern which are casted alternately leaving adjacent bays
uncasted. This method of casting ensures that dry shrinkage is minimized.
N/B: Ground floor slabs are also used as raft foundation and may have steel
mesh reinforcement in the slab and the edge beam
BELOW OVERSITE CONCRETE TREATMENT:
1. HARDCORE:
it’s the mass of solid materials used as a makeup, formation material to raise
levels, fill irregularities in excavations and create a firm and level working
base onto which heavy load-bearing surfaces such as stone or concrete can
be laid. The hardcore then helps evenly spread imposed loads. (It’s the infill
of materials which are hard and don’t easily/readily absorb water or
deteriorate)
Functional requirements:
a) They should be hard
b) The should be durable
c) They should chemically inert
d) Easy to handle and readily compacted
Reasons of using hardcore:
i. To fill in any small pockets which could have been developed during oversite
excavation.
ii. To provide a firm base onto which a concrete is placed.
iii. Helps in spreading any point loads over a greater area.
iv. Well compacted hardcore acts against capillary action of moisture within the
soil.
v. Provides a free draining that will keep the concrete slab warm and dry
vi. Resist the growth of vegetation.
vii. Provide a level base for the oversite concrete.
Hardcore is usually laid in layers of 100-300 mm to the required levels and it

should be well compacted on each layer so as to prevent any unacceptable
settlement beneath the solid floor.
Variety of materials can be used to make up a hardcore layer which include:
 Construction waste such as brick and broken tiles.

 Gravel.
 Quarry waste.
 Crushed rock.
 Clean, graded concrete rubble.
 Blast furnace slag.
 Colliery spoil.
 Oil shale residue.
 Pulverized-fuel ash
Building Regulations:
 No hardcore laid under a solid ground floor should contain water-soluble
sulphate or other harmful matter in such quantities as to be liable to cause
damage to any part of the floor.
 Material that may swell upon becoming moist, such as colliery shale, should not
be used.
 Ascertain that brick rubble from demolition works and clinker furnace waste
intended for use as hardcore does not have any harmful water-soluble
sulphate content.
2. BLINDING
This is used to even off the surface of hardcore. It’s usually a 50 mm of sand,
volcanic ashes, murram or a weak concrete/ lean concrete etc. it should be
inspected to check if there is any projection of hardcore into it avoid any injury on
the DPM. Blinding is done because;
i. It prevents the DPM from being punctured.

ii. Provide a surface from which the reinforcement can be positioned.
3. DAMP PROOFING.
The current building regulations states that no floor, wall, piers shall permit the
ingress of moisture from ground to inner surface of the building. Dampness is
injurious to materials it comes into contact with. Its effects include:
 Dampness breed bacteria of various diseases

 It causes decay to timber and steel
 It destroys furnishings such as carpets, door frames, electrical fittings etc.
 Causes disintegration of brickwork, tile stones etc.
 Creates health hazards to living beings
A damp proof membrane, is used to prevent dampness entering the building

through concrete slab. The edges of a DPM must overlap the edges of a DPC in the
walls. There are 3 classifications of a DPM:
a) Rigid DPM: e.g. engineering bricks, slates etc.

b) Semi rigid DPM: -natural mined rock asphalt
c) Flexible DPM:- hessian reinforced bitumen, black polythene, sheet
lead/copper
a) It should be durable
b) Impervious and impermeable
c) Flexible
d) Strong/hard
e) Chemically inert
WAYS OF POSITIONING THE DPM IN SOLID FLOORS:
1) Under oversite concrete

2) Over oversite concrete
3) Middle of oversite concrete (this is rarely used since it compromises the
strength of the concrete by creating a point of weakness and it requires two
concrete casting operations.)
4. TERMITE CONTROL
This is a process of providing a chemical barrier against the sub terrain
termites. This is done thru:
a) Removal of all items that might attract termites like wooden items
both within and under the foundations.
b) Remove all concrete formwork
c) In water logged areas, the water should be removed before
application of the chemicals
d) The DPC/DPM should be socked in the chemicals before being used
Concrete Bed
The component providing the solid level surface to which screeds and finishes can
be applied. Thicknesses generally specified are:
 unreinforced or plain in-situ concrete, 100–150 mm thick;

 Reinforced concrete, 150 mm minimum.
The reinforcement used in concrete beds for domestic work is usually in the form
of a welded steel fabric. Sometimes a light square mesh fabric is placed 25 mm
from the upper surface of the concrete bed to prevent surface crazing and limit
the size of any cracking.
In domestic work the areas of concrete are defined by the room sizes, and it is not
usually necessary to include expansion or contraction joints in the construction of
the bed.
SCREED
A floor screed is usually a cementitious material made from a 1:3 or 1:4.5 ratio of
cement to sharp sand. It may be applied onto either a solid in-situ concrete ground
floor slab or onto a precast concrete floor unit. They are used to give concrete a
surface that can receive the floor finish of covering required.
Floor screeds should not be laid in bays since this can cause curling at the edges.
Leveling of screed is achieved by working to levelled timber screeding batten.
TYPES OF SCREEDS:
a) Monolithic screeds: These are screeds laid directly on concrete floor slabs
within 3 hrs. Of placing concrete.
b) Separate screed: these are screeds laid onto the concrete floors slabs
after they are cured. The floor surface must be clean and rough enough to
ensure an adequate bond.
c) Unbonded screed: these are screeds that are laid directly over a DPM/DPC
and insulation. A riding form of floor insulation is required where the
concrete floor slab is in contact with the ground.
d) Floating screed: it’s a resilient quilt of 25 mm thick which is laid with butt
joints and turned up to the edges against the abutment walls, the screed
being laid directly over the resilient quilt. The main objective of this form of
floor screed is to improve the sound insulation properties of the floor.
Functions of a floor screed include:

a) Provide a smooth surface to receive a floor finish
b) To bring a number of floors each at different thicknesses
up to the same finished level
c) To provide a slope for drainage purposes
d) Give thermal insulation by incorporating light weight concrete
e) To accommodate service pipes and cables.
DPM
PLACED
BELOW
CONCRETE
BED
Fig. 1: Typical solid floor details at external walls.
FLOOR FINISHES
A floor finish or floor covering is the ultimate top layer of all of

the flooring layers. A finish floor or floor covering is the layer that you walk on
and it is the decorative layer. Usually, floor covering is a more precise term, since
the flooring tends to cover another, structural layer of flooring. It’s determined
by the following factors;
 Type of sub floor

 Room usage
 Appearance
 Degree of comfort required
 Cost
 Maintenance
 Safety and individual preference
 Cleanliness
 Durability
CLASSIFICATION OF FLOOR FINISHES
1) IN SITU FLOOR FINISH: these are finishes which are mixed onsite, laid in
a fluid state, allowed to dry and set to form a hard joint less surface.
2) APPLIED FLOOR FINISH: those finishes supplied in tile or sheet form and
laid onto a prepared base.
3) TIMBER FLOOR FINISH: these include boards, sheets and blocks of timber
laid on or attached to a suitable structural frame or base.
Floor finishes include; mud, bricks, flag stone, concrete, cork, terrazzo, mosaic,
tiles, marble, granolithic finish, wood or timber, glass, plastic etc.
TYPES OF FLOORS COVERINGS;
1. Timber floors: wood parquets usually used in cold areas.

2. Cement tile concrete floor: they are usually 20x20 cm, 25x25cm, 30x30
cm
3. Cement/lime concrete flooring: these are placed on strong compact base.
Their thickness ranges from 7.5 to 10 cm.
4. Mosaic floor: on a layer of paste of slaked lime, powdered marble and
pozzolana marble pieces cut to the desired shapes are hammered in the
desired pattern. The surface is then polished by rubbing with pumice stone
5. Brick flooring: used in warehouses and go downs.
6. Flag stone floor: a sand stone with uniform thickness of 4 to 10 cm is called
a flag stone. These stone slabs are used to provide flooring.
TIMBER FLOORING
Timber flooring is used for carpentry halls, dancing halls, auditoriums etc.
They are not commonly used in residential buildings because it’s expensive and can
allow damp penetration. This can how ever be solved by use of a DPM or DPC below
the flooring.
Timber floor can either be:
a) Suspended type- supported above ground

b) Solid type-fully supported on the ground.
In suspended type, hollow space between the flooring and oversite concrete is kept
dry and well ventilated by providing air bricks in the outer walls and voids in the
sleeper walls.
The flooring consists of boarding supported on a bridging or floor joist of timber
which are nailed to wall plates at their ends. Sleeper walls are not spaced more
than 1.8 to 2m.
Sleeper walls are short walls used to support floor joists, beam and block or hollow
core slabs at ground floor.
The solid type is used where the problems of dampness is not prone/acute. The
base concrete is first laid in 15-20cm thickness. Over it a layer of mastic asphalt is
applied. Wooden blocks flooring is then laid over it
TEMPORARY SUPPORTS
These are temporary structures used in construction to support a permanent

structure until its construction is sufficiently advanced to support itself. For
arches, this is specifically called centering. Includes temporary support structures
for formwork used to mold concrete in the construction of buildings, bridges, and
elevated roadways. They are usually known as form works, falsework/ scaffolds.
Etc.
FORMWORKS:
These are temporary or permanent molds into which concrete or similar materials
are poured. Formwork in concrete construction is used as a mold for a structure in
which fresh concrete is poured only to harden subsequently. Types of concrete
formwork construction depends on formwork material and type of structural
element. Formworks can also be named based on the type of structural member
construction such as:
 slab formwork
 beam formwork,
 column formwork
Good formwork should satisfy the following requirements:

1. It should be strong enough to withstand all types of dead and live loads.
2. It should be rigidly constructed and efficiently propped and braced both

horizontally and vertically, so as to retain its shape.
3. The joints in the formwork should be tight against leakage of cement grout.
4. Construction of formwork should permit removal of various parts in desired

sequences without damage to the concrete.
5. The material of the formwork should be cheap, easily available and should be
suitable for reuse.
6. The formwork should be set accurately to the desired line and levels should have
plane surface.
7. It should be as light as possible.
8. The material of the formwork should not warp or get distorted when exposed to
the elements.
9. It should rest on firm base.
The following points are to be kept in view to effect economy in the cost of
formwork:
1. The plan of the building should imply minimum number of variations in the size of
rooms, floor area etc. so as to permit reuse of the formwork repeatedly.
2. Design should be perfect to use slender sections only in a most economical way.
3. Minimum sawing and cutting of wooden pieces should be made to enable reuse of
the material a number of times. The quantity of surface finish depends on the
quality of the formwork. Shuttering is a type of formwork, which is quite popular
now a days & constructed on sites by using timber & plywood. It acts as molds for
pouring concretes, which supports the surface vertically during
the construction process for instance column, beam, slab, wall sides & so on.
Types of Formwork (Shuttering) for Concrete Construction:
Timber Formwork:
Timber for formwork should satisfy the following requirement: It should be
1. well-seasoned
2. light in weight
3. easily workable with nails without splitting
4. free from loose knots
Timber used for shuttering for exposed concrete work should have smooth and
even surface on all faces which come in contact with concrete.
Plywood Formwork
Resin bonded plywood sheets are attached to timber frames to make up panels of
required sizes. The cost of plywood formwork compares favorably with that of
timber shuttering and it may even prove cheaper in certain cases in view of the
following considerations:
1. It is possible to have smooth finish in which case on cost in surface finishing is

there.
2. By use of large size panels it is possible to effect saving in the labor cost of fixing
and dismantling.
3. Number of reuses are more as compared with timber shuttering. For estimation
purpose, number of reuses can be taken as 20 to 25.
Steel Formwork
This consist of panels fabricated out of thin steel plate stiffened along the edges
by small steel angles. The panel units can be held together through the use of
suitable clamps or bolts and nuts. The panels can be fabricated in large number in
any desired modular shape or size. Steel forms are largely used in large projects or
in situation where large number reuses of the shuttering is possible. This type of
shuttering is considered most suitable for circular or curved structures.
Steel forms compared with timber formwork:
1. Steel forms are stronger, durable and have longer life than timber formwork and
their reuses are more in number.
2. Steel forms can be installed and dismantled with greater ease and speed.
3. The quality of exposed concrete surface by using steel forms is good and such
surfaces need no further treatment.
4. Steel formwork does not absorb moisture from concrete.
5. Steel formwork does not shrink or warp.
Construction of Concrete formwork:

This normally involves the following operations:
1. Propping and centering
2. Shuttering
3. Provision of camber
4. Cleaning and surface treatment
Order and Method of Removing Formwork:

The sequence of orders and method of removal of formwork are as follows:
1. Shuttering forming the vertical faces of walls, beams and column sides should be
removed first as they bear no load but only retain the concrete.
2. Shuttering forming soffit of slabs should be removed next.
3. Shuttering forming soffit of beams, girders or other heavily loaded shuttering

should be removed in the end.
Rapid hardening cement, warm weather and light loading conditions allow early
removal of formwork. The formwork should under no circumstances be allowed to
be removed until all the concrete reaches strength of at least twice the stresses
to which the concrete may be subjected at the time of removal of formwork. All
formworks should be eased gradually and carefully in order to prevent the load
being suddenly transferred to concrete.
FALSE WORK: these are temporary framework structures used to support a
building during its construction.
(Falsework is defined as any temporary construction used to support vertical loads

for a structure until it becomes self-supporting. Formwork is the temporary
structure or mold used to retain plastic or fluid concrete in its designated shape
until it hardens)
SHORING: Shoring is the process of temporarily supporting a building, vessel,

structure, or trench with shores (props) when in danger of collapse or during
repairs or alterations. Shoring comes from shore, a timber or metal
prop. Shoring may be vertical, angled, or horizontal.
SUSPENDED AND UPPER FLOORS
SUSPENDED FLOORS:
A suspended concrete floor is a floor slab where its perimeter is, or at least two
of its opposite edges are, supported on walls, beams or columns that carry its self-
weight and imposed loading. The floor spans between supports and will normally
deflect under load to a dimension that is limited by the design used.
Hollow space between the flooring and oversite concrete is kept dry and well
ventilated by providing air bricks in the outer walls and voids in the sleeper walls.
The flooring consists of boarding supported on a bridging or floor joist of timber

which are nailed to wall plates at their ends. Sleeper walls are not spaced more
than 1.8 to 2m.
Functions:
 Provide a level surface with sufficient strength to support the imposed loads
of people and furniture plus the dead loads of flooring and ceiling.
 Reduce heat loss from lower floor as required.
 Provide required degree of sound insulation.
 Provide required degree of fire resistance
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SUSPENDED CONCRETE GROUND FLOOR

BEAM AND BLOCK FLOOR
This type of domestic floor system is derived from the principles of the precast
hollow and composite floor systems used for commercial buildings and apartments,
as detailed in Pages 10 - 14 as an economic alternative construction technique for
suspended timber and solid concrete domestic ground (and upper) floors. It has
developed into a cost- and time-effective means of constructing domestic ground
and upper floors, by incorporating precast concrete beams with lightweight
concrete blocks as an infilling.
Advantages
 The benefits of quality-controlled factory manufacture of components.

 Simple site assembly with the aid of a mobile crane to hoist the beams.
 Potential to span over unsound infilling, common to sloping sites.
 Application over movable subsoils such as shrinkable clay.
 Suitability where ventilation under the ground floor is required to dilute
intrusive gases.
Building Regulations
 Provide a minimum clear void depth of 75 mm below these floors, but it is
usual practice to leave at least 150 mm.
 Ventilation of the void is advisable to dilute and prevent concentration of
gases from the ground (radon and/or methane) and possible leakage from
piped services.
 The stripped topsoil should leave the underfloor surface lower than adjacent
ground as shown in figure 3. This is acceptable only if the soil is free draining.
 Ground differentials should be minimal, otherwise the external wall becomes a
retaining wall and will require specific design calculations.
 All organic material should be removed from the void, and the surface should
be treated with weed killer. Void depth may need to be as much as 225 mm in
the presence of heavy clay subsoil and nearby trees.
Fig. 3: Typical construction of a domestic suspended beam and block floor.
BEAM AND EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE (EPS) BLOCK
Precast concrete beams with EPS block infill units have developed from the beam
and block principles applied to domestic floor construction.
Advantages
 The light weight and easy to cut properties of the blocks provide for speed
and simplicity in construction.
 Exceptional thermal performance. Thermal insulation U values for the floor as
a whole are about 0.20 W/m2K, depending on the thickness and amount of EPS
relative to rib spacing.
 The system is in effect a structurally adequate floor.
The construction principles are the same as described for suspended beam (rib)
and block, with some variation on rib spacing to suit EPS block width. Figures 4 and
5 show different block forms and applications. Figure 4 shows EPS units
functioning as both insulation and permanent shuttering to an in-situ reinforced
concrete diaphragm suspended ground floor. Figure 5 shows typical dry
construction, using a moisture-resistant chipboard surface finish.
Fig. 4: Typical EPS block floor for structural screed topping.

Fig. 5: Typical EPS block floor for a chipboard finish.
SUSPENDED TIMBER GROUND FLOORS
This type of floor consists of timber boards or other suitable sheet material fixed
to joists spanning over sleeper walls. The timber floor is used because it has some
flexibility and will easily accept nail fixings – properties that a solid ground floor
lacks.
(It is a more expensive form of construction than a concrete floor and can only be
justified to match existing construction where a building is extended. It could be
used on sloping sites that require a great deal of filling to make up the ground to
the specified floor level, although a precast concrete flooring system could also be
used, and this is likely to be much cheaper.)
Suspended timber ground floors are susceptible to dry rot and draughts, can be
overcome by:
 Providing adequate ventilation under the floor and the correct positioning of
damp-proof courses to keep the under floor area and timber dry, by
providing air bricks in the external walls. These are sited near the corners
and at approximately 2 m centers around the perimeter of the building.
 If a suspended timber floor is used with an adjacent solid ground floor,
pipes of 100 mm diameter are used under the solid floor to convey air to and
from the external walls to the suspended floor.
Fig. 6: Building Regulations and suspended timber floors.
Building Regulations
 The height of sleeper wall should be 75 min.

 The space between the concrete bed and timber should be 150 min., but in
practice a greater space between the concrete bed and the timber is usual.
(see Fig. 6)
 The honeycomb sleeper walls are usually built two or three courses high to
allow good through-ventilation.
 Sleeper walls spaced at 2000 mm centers will give an economic joist size.
 The width of joists is usually taken as 50 mm: this will give sufficient width
for the nails securing the covering, and the depth can be obtained by
reference to design tables.
The usual joist depth for domestic work is 125 mm.

PARTS OF A SUSPENDED FLOOR
a) Honey comb sleeper walls

b) Air bricks
c) DPC
d) Wall plate
e) Floor joist
f) Floor boarding
HONEY COMB WALLS
They are brick or block walls built over the oversite concrete so that air can
circulate freely to all parts of the under floors. Procedure of constructing it:
a. Set out area of a stretcher bricks embedded in mortar on the oversite

concrete.
b. Leave a header space between each stretcher
c. Lay the next course so that each brick is centered over the space below
d. Continue these courses for 3-4 courses.
e. Bond the ends of the courses into external walls
AIR BRICKS/VENT BLOCKS
They are special bricks with holes in them that allow air to flow through built into
the external walls at opposite sides with fly mesh screens to keep out insects @
2.5 c/c.
DAMP PROOF COURSE
They are laid on sleeper walls in width of 102.5 mm to prevent dampness from
entering/reaching the wall plate. It’s usually a bituminous felt.
WALL PLATE
Timber pieces of about 75x100mm laid carefully on DPC along the sleeper walls
onto which joists for the suspended floor are fixed.
FLOOR JOISTS
Pieces of timber that spans between the wall plates and supports the floor boards.
Their size depends on the spacing of the sleeper walls
They are attached to the wall plates by nailing through the sides down into the wall
plate. Joists are not built into the external walls because the ends would be
exposed to moisture and can rot.
The preferred fixing for external walls are:
 Wall plates attached inside the external walls

 Galvanized joist hangers
 Brick or block piers
TIMBER FLOORING
The type of timber flooring that can be used depends on availability and
preference. Standard choices include:
 Soft wood boards

 Plywood
 Block boards
 Chip board
Soft boards: they should be at least 25mm thick and less than 100mm wide to
reduce the shrinkage gaps between them and possibility of distortion. They are
joined at their plain edges (butt jointing) and nailed to the joists using oval nails
that are 2.5 times longer than the thickness of the boards. Most boards have a
standard size of 2400x1200mm.
A trench is an excavation in which the length greatly exceeds the depth. Shallow
trenches are usually considered to be less than 6 m deep, and deep trenches
greater than 6 m.
Trench, or footing, excavation is typically used to form strip foundations,

buried services, and so on. The choice of technique and plant for excavating,
supporting and backfilling the trench depends on factors such as; the purpose of
the trench, the ground conditions, the trench location, the number of obstructions,
and so on.
The common techniques that are used include:
 Full depth, full length: Suitable for long narrow trenches of shallow depth, such
as pipelines and sewers.
 Full depth, successive stages: Suitable for deep trenches where works can
progress in sequence, reducing the risk of collapse.
 Stage depth, successive stages: Suitable for very deep trenches in
confined areas, deep foundations and underpinning.
SUPER STRUCTURE WALLING
A super-structure is that part of the structure which is above ground level, and
which serves the purpose of its intended use. A part of the super-structure,
located between the ground level and (he floor level is known as plinth.
A wall is a structure that defines an area, carries a load; provides security,

shelter, or soundproofing; or is decorative. There are many kinds of walls,
including:
 Walls in buildings that form a fundamental part of the superstructure or

separate interior rooms, sometimes for fire safety
 Border barriers between countries
 Brick walls
 Defensive walls in fortifications
 Doors, mobile walls on hinges which open to form a gateway
 Glass walls (only when most of the wall, in smaller amounts it is called a window)
 Permanent, solid fences
 Precast walls
 Retaining walls, which hold back dirt, stone, water, or noise sound
 Stone walls
 Walls that protect from oceans (seawalls) or rivers (levees)
TYPES OF WALLS:
Walls may be divided into two types in terms of loads and construction:
LOAD:
a. Load-bearing walls which support loads from floors and roof in

addition to their own weight and which resist side pressure from wind
and, in some cases, from stored material or objects within the
building,
b. Non-load-bearing walls which carry no floor or roof loads.
Each type may be further divided into external or enclosing walls, and internal
dividing walls. The term partition is applied to walls, either load-bearing or non-
loadbearing, dividing the space within a building into rooms.
CONSTRUCTION:
1) MASONRY:
In which the wall is built of individual blocks of materials such as brick, clay
or concrete blocks, or stone, usually in horizontal courses bonded together
with some form of mortar. Several of the earth derived products, either air
dried or fired, are reasonable in cost and well suited to the climate.
If stones are used we have a stone masonry wall and when bricks are used,
we get a brick masonry wall.
Terms used in masonry wall construction include:
a) Course: a horizontal layer of masonry units

b) Header: a full stone unit or brick laid with its length perpendicular
to the face of the wall
c) Stretcher: a full stone unit laid with its length along /parallel to
the face of the wall.
d) Header course: A course of bricks showing only header faces.
e) Stretcher course: a course of bricks showing only stretcher
faces.
f) Bed: the lower surface of a brick or stone in each course.
g) Perpend: it’s the vertical joint on the face of a wall which lies
directly above the vertical joints in alternate courses.
h) Bond: this is the overlapping of bricks/stones in alternate courses
so that no continuous vertical joints are formed and individual
units are tied together.
i) Quoins: the exterior angle or corner of a wall
j) Face: it’s the surface of the wall exposed to the wall.
k) Back: it’s the inner surface of the wall which is not exposed to the
weather.
l) Facing: the material used in the face of the wall.
m) Joint: the junction of adjacent units of bricks/stones
2) MONOLITHIC
In which the wall is built of a material placed in forms during the

construction. The traditional earth wall and the modern concrete wall are
examples. The earth walls are inexpensive and durable if placed on a good
foundation and protected from rain by a rendering or wide roof overhangs.
3) FRAME:
In which the wall is constructed as a frame of relatively small members,
usually of timber, at close intervals which together with facing or
sheathing on one or both sides form a load-bearing system. Offcuts are a
low-cost material to use for a frame wall covering.
4) Membrane wall:
In which the wall is constructed as a sandwich of two thin skins or

sheets of reinforced plastic, metal, asbestos-cement or other suitable
material bonded to a core of foamed plastic to produce a thin wall
element of high strength and low weight.
5) Claddings:
Another form of construction adapted for framed or earth buildings

consists of relatively light sheeting secured to the face of the wall to
form the enclosed element.
Factors which will determine the type of wall to be used are:

 The materials available at a reasonable cost.
 Availability of craftsmen capable of using the materials in the best way.
 Climate
 The use of the building - functional requirements.
FUNCTIONS OF A WALL;
 Support the upper floor ad roof

 Resist damp penetration
 Provide adequate thermal insulation
 Provide sufficient sound insulation
 Offer adequate resistance to fire
 Decoration
 Accommodation for the windows and doors
D. Strength and stability: the strength of the material used in construction

determines the strength of the wall.
The stability is affected by foundation movements, load eccentricity and
lateral forces. The stability can be improved by:
 Using irregular wall profile- they have greater stiffness against
deformation. Wall profiles include; zigzag wall/chevron, serpentine
wall and square.
 Use of cross ribs/diaphragms built across and piers.
E. Resistance to weather and ground moisture
F. Durability and freedom from maintenance
G. Fire resistance
H. Thermal insulation: it increase comfort, helps in saving fuel, prevent
condensation and freezing in water taps. This is achieved through:
I. Increasing the thickness of the wall
J. Creating a cavity wall
K. Using heat insulating materials e.g. slab/block insulation, loose fill, insulating
boards, reflective sheets, lightweight materials etc.
L. Use light colored materials or white wash the wall surfaces.
M. Sound insulation: ability to regulate sound movement from one face to the
other. Unwanted sound reaching the ears is called noise. Noise
classifications;
 Outdoor noises which include noises caused by traffic, railway, aero
planes etc.
 indoor noises which include all noises made within the room or in the
adjacent rooms.(sounds can also be classified as airborne- generated
and transmitted in air or structure/impact borne-generated and
transmitted through structures)
Effects of noise include:

 It creates discomfort
 It has adverse effects on blood pressure, muscular strain on
sleep
 It leads to fatigue and decreases the efficiency of persons.
 It takes away essence of music and speech
 It disturbs concentration
Sound proofing methods include:
 Non porous rigid partitions e.g. plastered solid brick masonry walls.
 Porous rigid materials e.g. porous concrete masonry
 Non rigid porous materials e.g. mineral wool, quilt, felt, etc.
 Double wall partitions with a sound absorbent material(blanket) in the
middle
 Cavity wall construction with a resilient material or left air filled.
BRICKWORK:
A brick is defined in BS 3921 as a walling unit with coordinating or format size of

225 mm length, 112.5 mm width and 75 mm height. Bricks are known by their
format size – that is, a standard metric brick has coordinating dimensions of 225 ×
112.5 × 75 mm and working dimensions of 215 × 102.5 × 65.
The coordinating dimensions are a measure of the physical space taken up by a

brick together with the mortar required on one bed, one header face and one
stretcher face. The working dimensions are the sizes to which manufacturers will
try to make the bricks. Methods of manufacture for many units and components
are such that the final piece is not quite the size expected but it can fall within
defined limits. This can be due to things like shrinkage or distortion when drying
out, firing, etc.
The terms used for bricks and brickwork are shown in Figs 1 & 2.
BRICK CLASSIFICATION
Bricks are a diverse product: therefore, they are difficult to standardize for
classification. They may be known by the terms used in BS 3921 – that is,
compressive strength (N/mm2) and percentage by mass water absorption.
Alternatively, the manufacturer’s name or catalogue descriptions may be used,
possibly in combination with the BS characteristics. The minimum compressive
strength acceptable to the Building
Regulations is 5 N/mm2 over gross sectional area.
Some common classification:
 Varieties
 Common: Suitable for general building work but having no special claim to
give an attractive appearance.
 Facing: Specially made or selected to have an attractive appearance when
used without rendering or plaster.
 Engineering: Having a dense and strong semi-vitreous body conforming to
defined limits for absorption and strength.
 Qualities
 Internal: Suitable for internal use only; may need protection on site during
bad weather or during the winter.
 Ordinary: Less durable than special quality but normally durable in the
external face of a building. Some types are unsuitable for exposed
situations.
 Special: For use in conditions of extreme exposure where the structure
may become saturated and frozen, such as retaining walls and paving.
 Types
 Solid: Those in which small holes passing through or nearly through the
brick do not exceed 25% of its volume, or in which frogs do not exceed 20%
of its volume. A small hole is defined as a whole less than 20 mm wide or
less than 500 mm2 in area.
 Perforated: Those in which holes passing through the brick exceed 25% of
its volume and the holes are small as defined above.
 Hollow: Those in which the holes passing through the brick exceed 25% of
its volume and the holes are larger than those defined as small holes.
 Cellular: Those in which the holes are closed at one end and exceed 20% of
the volume of the brick.
 Other classifications
Bricks may also be classified by one or more of the following:
 place of origin, for example London;

 raw material, for example clay;
 manufacture, for example wire-cut;
 use, for example foundation;
 color, for example blue;
 surface texture, for example sand-faced
MORTARS FOR BRICKWORK
The mortar used in brickwork transfers the tensile, compressive and shear
stresses uniformly between adjacent bricks. To do this it must satisfy certain
requirements:
 It must have adequate strength, but not greater than that required for the
design strength.
 It must have good workability.
 It must retain plasticity long enough for the bricks to be laid.
 It must be durable over a long period.
 It must bond well to the bricks.
 It must be able to be produced at an economic cost.
If the mortar is weaker than the bricks, shrinkage cracks will tend to follow the
joints of the brickwork, and these are reasonably easy to make good. If the mortar
is stronger than the bricks, shrinkage cracks will tend to be vertical through the
joints and the bricks, thus weakening the fabric of the structure.
Mortar Mixes
Mortar is a mixture of sand and lime or a mixture of sand and cement with or
without lime. Proportioning of the materials can be carried by volume, but this
method is inaccurate, and it is much better to proportion by weight. The effect of
the lime is to make the mix more workable, but as the lime content increases the
mortar’s resistance to damage by frost action decreases.
Plasticizers, by having the effect of entraining small bubbles of air in the mix and
breaking down surface tension, will also increase the workability of a mortar.
Mortars should never be re-tempered, and should be used within 2 hours of mixing
or be discarded.
Typical Mixes (By Volume)
 Cement mortar (cement: sand):

 1:3 – suitable for brickwork in exposed conditions such as parapets and for
brickwork in foundations;
 Lime mortar (lime: sand):
 1:3 – for internal use only;
 Gauged mortars (cement: lime: sand):
 1:1:6 – suitable for most conditions of severe exposure;
 1:2:9 – suitable for most conditions except those of severe exposure;
 1:3:12 – internal use only.
BRICKWORK BONDING
Bonding refers to an arrangement of bricks in a wall, column or pier laid to a set

pattern to maintain an adequate lap. The patterns in these layers are formed with
whole and cut bricks as well as with bricks manufactured to a ‘special shape’ other
than the standard rectilinear one. Some of these specials are shown below:
1 3
bat bat Queen closer−half
2 4
King closer Bevelled closer

Queen closer−quarter
Mitred closer
Bevelled bat
Purposes of Brick Bonding
 Obtain maximum strength whilst distributing the loads to be carried throughout

the wall, column or pier.
 Ensure lateral stability and resistance to side thrusts.
 Create an acceptable appearance.
Simple Bonding Rules
 All the various bonds are designed so that no vertical joint in any one course is
directly above or below a vertical joint in the adjoining course.
 Walls which are not in exact bond length can be set out as broken or reversed
bond.
Broken bond Reversed bond

 Transverse or cross joints continue unbroken across the width of wall unless
stopped by a face stretcher.
 The various bonds are also planned to give the greatest practical amount of lap
to all the bricks, and this should not be less than a quarter of a brick length.
 The bricks should be of uniform size, the length of the brick should be twice its
width plus one joint so that uniform lap is obtained.
 Use of brick bats should be discouraged unless in special location.
 In alternate courses the centerline the header should coincide with the center
line of the stretcher in the courses below or above it.
 The vertical joints in alternate courses should be on the same perpend.
TYPES OF BOND
 Stretcher or Common Bond
 Consists of all stretchers in every course and is used for half-brick walls and
the half-brick skins of hollow or cavity walls
 Only shows stretchers on general face except for occasional closers and half
batts used to maintain bond at quoins (the end of the wall), scuntions (the
end of the wall) and intersections. (see Fig. 5)
 English bond
 A very strong bond consisting of alternate courses of headers and
stretchers
 It is used on walls one brick thick and upwards. (see Fig. 6)
 Flemish bond
 Each course consists of alternate headers and stretchers; its appearance is
considered to be better than English bond, but it is not quite so strong.
 It is used on walls one brick thick and upwards.
 This bond is sometimes referred to as double Flemish bond. (See Fig. 7)
 Single Flemish bond
 A combination of English and Flemish bonds, having Flemish bond on the
front face with a backing of English bond. It is considered to be slightly
stronger than Flemish bond. The thinnest wall that can be built using this
bond is a one-and-a-half brick wall.
 English garden wall bond
 Consists of three courses of stretchers to one course of headers.
ENGLISH BOND
: FLEMISH BOND
ENGLISH GARDEN WALL
BOND
Figure 8: English garden wall bond
 Flemish garden wall bond

 Consists of one header to every three stretchers in every course; this bond
is fairly economical in facing bricks and has a pleasing appearance.
Figure 9: English garden bond
SPECIAL BONDS
 Rat-trap bond
 This is a brick on edge bond and gives a saving on materials and loadings,
suitable as a backing wall to a cladding such as tile hanging.
Figure 8: Rat-trap bond
 Quetta bond
 Used on one-and-a-half brick walls for added strength; suitable for retaining
walls.
Figure 9: Quetta bond

 Stack bond
 A brickwork feature used for partitions and infill panels. Bricks may be laid
on bed or end with continuous vertical joints. Figure 10 shows steel-mesh-
reinforced horizontal bed joints to compensate for the lack of conventional
bond.
Stack bond
BLOCKWORK
A block can be defined as a walling unit exceeding the BS dimensions specified for
bricks, and its height should not exceed either its length or six times its thickness.
This avoids confusion with slabs or panels. Blocks are produced in clay and various
cement/aggregate mixes, including wood chippings.
Blocks suitable for external solid walls are classified as loadbearing and are
required to have a minimum average crushing strength of 2.8 N/mm 2.
CLAY BLOCKS
These have format size of 300 × 225 × 62.5, 75, 100- or 150-mm width. They are
manufactured hollow by an extrusion process and are fired as for clay bricks. The
standard six (150 mm) cavity block has been used for the inner skin of cavity walls,
but has now been superseded by developments in lightweight concrete blocks.
The three (75 mm) cavity block is intended primarily for partitions. 150 mm blocks
are also used in the warmer climates of the world as a single-leaf external walling
with rendered and emulsion finish.
Typical details are shown in Fig. 11.
Standard block Partition block
Clay blocks
PRECAST CONCRETE BLOCKS
The specification and manufacture of precast concrete blocks or masonry units is

covered in BS 6073. Classification is by compressive strength categories: 2.8, 3.5,
5, 7, 10, 15, 20 and 35 N/mm2.
The density of a precast concrete block gives an indication of its compressive

strength – the greater the density the stronger the block. Density will also give an
indication as to the thermal conductivity and acoustic properties of a block. The
lower the density the lower is the thermal conductivity factor, whereas the higher
the density the greater is the reduction of airborne sound through the block.
The actual properties of different types of precast concrete block can be

obtained from manufacturers’ literature, together with their appearance
classification such as plain, facing or special facing.
Aerated concrete for blocks is produced by introducing air or gas into the mix so
that, when set, a uniform cellular block is formed. The usual method employed is to
introduce a controlled amount of fine aluminum powder into the mix; this reacts
with the free lime in the cement to give off hydrogen, which is quickly replaced by
air and so provides the aeration.
Precast concrete blocks are manufactured to a wide range of standard sizes, the
most common face format sizes being 400 mm × 200 mm and 450 mm × 225 mm,
with thicknesses of 75, 90, 100, 140, 190- and 215-mm. typical details are shown in
Fig. 12.
Keyed surface block Solid block
Hollow block Cellular block

Precast concrete blocks
Concrete blocks are laid in what is essentially stretcher bond and joined to other
walls by block bonding or by leaving metal ties or strips projecting from suitable
bed courses. As with brickwork the mortar used in blockwork should be weaker
than the material of the walling unit; generally, a 1:2:9 gauged mortar mix will be
suitable for work above ground level.
Concrete blocks shrink on drying out: therefore, they should not be laid until the
initial drying shrinkage has taken place (usually this is about 14 days under normal
drying conditions), and should be protected on site to prevent them from becoming
wet, expanding and causing subsequent shrinkage, possibly resulting in cracking of
the blocks and any applied finishes such as plaster. Where length of wall exceeds 6
m or thereabouts, it is necessary to incorporate vertical movement joints.
The main advantages of blockwork over brickwork are:
 Labor saving – easy to cut, larger units;

 Easier fixings – most take direct fixing of screws and nails;
 Higher thermal insulation properties;
 Lower density;
 Provides a suitable key for plaster and cement rendering.
The main disadvantages are:
 Lower strength;
 Less resistance to rain penetration;
 Loadbearing properties less (one- or two-storey application);
 Lower sound insulation properties.
CAVITY WALLS
These consist of an outer brick or block leaf or skin separated from an inner brick
or block leaf or skin by an air space called a cavity. These walls have better
thermal insulation and weather resistance properties than a comparable solid brick
or block wall and therefore are in general use for the enclosing walls of domestic
buildings.
The main consideration in the construction of a cavity wall above ground-level

damp-proof course is the choice of a brick or block that will give the required
durability, strength and appearance and also conform to Building Regulation
requirements. The main function of the wall below ground-level damp-proof course
is to transmit the load safely to the foundations; in this context, the two half-
brick or block leaves forming the wall act as retaining walls. There is a tendency
for the two leaves to move towards each other because of the pressure of the soil
and the space provided by the cavity. To overcome this problem the cavity below
ground level is filled with a weak mix of concrete, thus creating a solid wall in the
ground (see Fig. 14).
Alternatively, the sub-structural wall may be built solid. It is also advisable to

leave out every fourth vertical joint in the external leaf at the base of the cavity
and above the cavity fill, to allow any moisture trapped in the cavity a means of
escape.
Figure 13: Typical cavity wall details

Traditional construction
Alternative construction
Construction of cavity wall below ground-level damp-proof course
BUILDING REGULATIONS
Building regulations requires that a building shall be so constructed that the

combined dead, imposed and wind loads are sustained and transmitted to the
ground safely and without causing any movement that will impair the stability of
any part of another building. Guidance to meet these requirements for cavity walls
considers full storey-height cavity walls for residential buildings of up to three
storeys and requires that:
 The compressive strengths of bricks and blocks should be not less than 5
N/mm2 and 2.8 N/mm2 respectively for buildings up to two storeys. Greater
strength classifications are required for three-storey buildings.
 Cavities (gap between masonry faces) should be at least 50 mm, but may be
up to 300 mm. Both leaves in cavity walls should have ties embedded at least
50 mm into adjacent masonry.
 Wall ties should comply with BS EN 845-1: Specification for ancillary
components for masonry. Ties, tension straps, hangers and brackets. Plastic
and galvanized steel ties have been used, but now the preferred material is
austenitic stainless steel.
 Maximum spacing’s for wall ties are shown in Fig. 15. Cavities < 75 mm may be
tied with butterfly pattern ties, but in excess of this they should be
provided with twisted pattern ties.
 Cavity walls normally have leaves at least 90 mm thick. An exception is with
leaves of 65–90 mm thickness and cavity up to 75 mm with ties at 450 mm
max. Horizontal spacing.
 The combined thickness of the two leaves of a cavity wall should be not less
than 190 mm for a maximum wall height of 3.5 m and length not exceeding 12
m, and also for heights between 3.5 m and 9 m in wall lengths not exceeding
9 m. Wall lengths and heights up to 12 m require a minimum thickness of 290
mm.
 Mortar should be a gauged mortar mix of 1:1:6 by volume, or its equivalent.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Advantages of Cavity Wall Construction

These can be listed as follows:
 Able to withstand a driving rain in all situations from penetrating to the

inner wall surface;
 Gives good thermal insulation, keeping the building warm in winter and cool in
the summer;
 No need for external rendering;
 Enables the use of cheaper and alternative materials for the inner
construction;
 A nominal 255 mm cavity wall has a higher sound insulation value than a
standard one-brick-thick wall;
 Can accommodate supplementary insulation material.
Disadvantages of Cavity Wall Construction
These can be listed as follows:
 Requires a high standard of design and workmanship to produce a soundly

constructed wall – this will require good supervision during construction;
 The need to include a vertical damp-proof course to all openings;
 Slightly dearer in cost than a standard one-brick-thick wall.
Twisted pattern Butterfly pattern
Double triangle pattern Polypropylene tie

Wall ties
COMPOSITE MASONRY WALL

These are walls made of two or more types of building units or different types
of building materials. This adopted to improve the appearance and to obtain
maximum economy.
PARTY WALLS:
These are walls dividing or separating different occupants or buildings for the
purpose of protection.
PARTITIONING WALLS:
They are walls used to divide a space within a building .
WALL FINISHES:
These are treatments given to the walls to make them attractive or offer a certain
characteristic to the wall either internally or externally. They include:
1. Wet finishes; they are usually applied in liquid state e.g. painting and
rendering
2. Dry finishes; they are applied in solid state. E.g. plaster boards, wall paper,
wall facing bricks, tiles etc.
3. Wall joint finishes; which include the pointing and jointing finishes.
TYPES OF FINISHES:
PLASTER: these are finishes put in place while wet. They are made using a binder
and a small amount of fine aggregate. This produces a smooth finish. Its mostly
adopted for the inner surface.
RENDER: this is the same as plaster except that it produces a rough finish and its
mostly adopted for the outer surface.
POINTING: this is introduction of grooves, keys or rebates on the wall along the
mortar joints after a wall has been constructed. There are various types of
pointing finishes which include:
POINTING AND JOINTING

These terms are used for the finish given to both the vertical and the horizontal
joints in brick work irrespective of whether the wall is of brick, block, solid or
cavity construction.
Jointing: the finish applied to mortar joints as the work proceeds.
Pointing: the process of removing semi-set mortar to a depth of about 20mm and
replacing it with fresh mortar. Pointing may contain a colorings pigment to further
enhance the masonry. This process can be applied to both new and old buildings.
Keyed or bucket Recessed
Flush or bag rubbed
handle
Overhung struck Raked

Weathered or struck
Examples of pointing/jointing to masonry
Note: Recessed and overhung finishes should not be used in exposed situations, as
rainwater can be detained. This could encourage damage by frost action and
growth of lichens.
FACING: these are finishes applied on wall in block, sheet of tile form. They are
dry elements which are bonded onto the wall using mortar or other adhesives.
PRE-MIXED FINISHES: these are liquid materials which are bought ready for
use. They include paints, varnishes, wall masters, smoothers e.t.c
DAMPNESS PENETRATION
It is possible for dampness to penetrate into a building through the walls by one or
more of three ways:
1. By the rain penetrating the head of the wall and soaking down into the
building below the roof level;
2. By the rain beating against the external wall and soaking through the fabric
into the building;
3. By ground moisture entering the wall at or near the base and creeping up the
wall by capillary action and entering the building above the ground floor
level.
Numbers 1 and 3 can be overcome by the use of a suitable damp-proof course or

damp-proof membrane. Number 2 can be overcome by one of two methods:
 Applying to the exposed face of the wall a barrier such as cement rendering
or some suitable cladding such as vertical tile hanging;
 Constructing a cavity wall, whereby only the external skin becomes damp, the
cavity providing a suitable barrier to the passage of moisture through the
wall.
DAMP-PROOF COURSES AND MEMBRANES
Function: the primary function of any damp-proof course (dpc) or damp-proof

membrane (dpm) is to provide an impermeable barrier to the passage of moisture.
The two basic ways in which damp-proof courses are used is to:
 Resist moisture penetration from below (rising damp).
 Resist moisture penetration from above.
Penetration from below (ground Penetration from above
floor/external wall) (window/door head)
Insertion of dpm/dpc
Materials for Damp-Proof Courses
Materials for the construction of damp-proof courses should have the following
properties:
 Be completely impervious;
 Be durable, having a longer life than the other components in the building
and therefore not needing replacing during its lifetime;
 Be in comparatively thin sheets so as to prevent disfigurement of the
building;
 Be strong enough to support the loads placed upon it without exuding from
the wall;
 Be flexible enough to accommodate any settlement of the building without
fracturing.
 Lead
It is a flexible material supplied in thin sheets, and therefore large irregular
shapes with few joints can be formed, but it has the disadvantage of being
expensive.
 Copper
This should have a minimum thickness of 0.25 mm; like lead it is supplied in thin
sheets and is expensive.
 Bitumen
This is supplied in the form of a felt, usually to brick widths, and is therefore laid
quickly with the minimum number of joints. Hessian and other fibrous-based
bitumen may be found in older construction, but they are now largely superseded
by dpc’s of plastic materials.
 Mastic asphalt
Applied in two layers giving a total thickness of 25 mm; it is applied in-situ and is
therefore joint less, but is expensive in small quantities.
 Polythene
Black low-density polythene sheet of single thickness not less than 0.5 mm thick
should be used; it is easily laid but can be torn and punctured easily.
 Slates
These should not be less than 230 mm long nor less than 4 mm thick and laid in two
courses set breaking the joint in cement mortar 1:3. Slates have limited flexibility
but are impervious and very durable. Cost depends upon the area in which the
building is being erected.
 Engineering bricks
They are laid in two courses in cement mortar 1:3, and may contrast with the
general appearance of other brickwork in the same wall.
WALL OPENINGS:
These are openings left to accommodate doors, windows, ventilations etc.
these openings are bridged using the following structures:
1. Arches: this is an arrangement of wedge shaped blocks which
mutually support each other. They are classified according to their
materials (stone arch, brick arch, and concrete arch timber
arch), workmanship (fixed arch, gauged arch, rough arch) and
centers. They have the following advantages
I. They use locally available materials e.g. stones, bricks
II. they avoid the use of concrete and steel
III. Their appearance is pleasing in many stones or brick
buildings.
Arches have the following disadvantages:
i. doors and windows require timber frames for them to fit

the curve
ii. The timber center pieces or turning pieces must be made
accurately to ensure there is proportionality and stability or
else the arch will fail.
iii. Arches are normally formed in situ.
TERMINOLOGIES USED IN ARCHES:
 Abutment: the point where the ends of the arch rest on the
wall and supports the weight of the structure above.
 Centre: the center of the circle that defines the segmental
arch.
 Extrados: the upper surface of an arch/external surface of
the arch.
 Intrados: the under surface/soffit of an arch.
 Crown: the highest point of the extrados.
 Ring: the circular course comprising the arch.
 Voussours: wedge shaped bricks or blocks of stones which
comprise of an arch.
 Spandril: the triangular portion between the extrados and
the horizontal line tangent to the crown.
 Depth: the perpendicular distance between the intrados and
extrados.
 Haunch: the lower part of an arch between crown the
skewback.
 Skewback: the splayed surface of the abutment which
receives the arch springer.
 Springer: the first stone laid on the skewback.
 Keystone: the central stone at the top of an arch.
 Rise: the vertical distance between springing line and the
highest point of the intrados.
 Span: the horizontal distance between the springing points.
 Springing line: the line that joins the springing points.
 Springing points: the takeoff points of an arch/the point
where the intrados meets the skewback.
 Pier: the immediate support of an arcade.
 Arcade: it’s a row oy arches in continuation/ a series of
arches.
2. Beams: these are structural members that carry loads from the
slabs, upper walls and floors and also connect and transmit the
weight to the columns. They also tie/ hold the building structures
together.
3. Lintels: these are horizontal structures placed across the
opening. Since they are straight they have a slight tendency to
bend/ deflect when bricks are bonded on top. This results to the
use of steel rods cast to the lower part of a concrete lintel to
absorb the tension. Concrete in upper parts is enough to resist
compression forces. Lintels are classified according to their
material e.g. timber lintel. Stone lintel, steel lintel, reinforced
concrete lintel etc.
DOOR AND WINDOW FRAMES
DOORS
A door is a hinged or otherwise movable barrier that allows entry and exit into an
"enclosure”, it is essential, and primary purpose is to provide security by controlling
the portal (doorway). Conventionally, a panel fits into the portal of a building, room,
or vehicle. Doors are commonly made of a material suited to the task of which it is
to perform. Doors are commonly attached by hinges within the portal but can be
moved by other means such as slides or counterbalancing
Functions of a door:
 providing access into and out of a space,
 privacy by preventing unwanted attention from outsiders,
 separating areas with different functions,
 allowing light to pass into and out of a space,
 controlling ventilation or air drafts so that interiors may be more
effectively heated or cooled,
 dampening noise,
 Blocking the spread of fire.
 Doors may have aesthetic, symbolic, ritualistic purposes
 Doors influence furniture arrangement, add decoration, emphasize the
overall design of building.
 Strength and stability
 Privacy and security
 Safety
 Ventilation and light
 Climate control
 Fire resistance
 Sound regulation
 Thermal regulation
 Durability
 Aesthesticity
FRAMES AND LININGS:

FRAMES: these are the jambs and upper transverse member enclosing the sides
and top of a doorway and usually supports a door.
Parts of a door frame in detail
 Head – The head is the part of the door frame that sits horizontally to form
the top of the frame.it sets the width of the frame. It is usually mounted on
the jambs.
 Legs/Jambs – These are the terms commonly used to refer to the vertical
components that form the sides of the door frame. They carry the hinges
and the lock keep.

 Stops – The stops are what the door rests against when closed, and are an
integral part of the frame. In the case of door linings these are thin strips
of wood that are mounted along the length of the jambs and head, to serve
the same purpose. They are thin strips which are fitted to the jambs or a
moulding into the jamb in form of a rebate.
 Architrave - This refers to the decorative molding on the outer most edge
of the door frame or lining. It covers most of the frame and the gap where
it joins the wall
 Cill or threshold – This is the bottom portion of an exterior door frame, and
is used internally when transitioning from one floor covering to another. It’s
the bottom horizontal section where the door rests on when in closed
position.
Door linings:
A door lining is a frame, usually made of wood that is used to prevent doors from
sticking and jamming, and also to conceal the brickwork or timber surrounding
the door itself. The lining makes the door look more appealing, makes it easier to
use, and protects the door from damage.
Generally door frames are used for external doors and door linings or casings
for internal doors.
TYPES OF DOOR FRAMES
There are two types of door frames:
1. Timber door frame: this a door frame made by joining various wooden pieces
together, they are usually made from hardwood timber pieces of from
softwood timber which are strong. The timber thickness for the doorframe
is between 20 mm to 25 mm. The width of the frame depends on the wall
width. The jambs are joined to the head by housing joints and nails. Before
nailing the frame together, putty the timber and sand it.
Fixing the door:

Measure the height of the opening and cut the door jambs at that
measurement. When the door jambs fit into the opening check the level of
the head. If the head not level cut the longer jamb shorter until the head is
level. Afterwards test with a spirit level and a straight edge whether the
jambs are straight and level. If there is clearance between the stud and the
jamb, pack timber between. The jambs are packed until they are straight
and plumb on the face and the edge side. Finally, check if the edge side is in
line with the wall cladding and start nailing.
2. Metal door frames: these are frames fabricated using steel to hold heavy
and metallic doors.
3. Aluminum door frames: Aluminum makes for an excellent door frame
material. It is durable, resists the elements, and it is light enough to use as
a sliding or swinging door.
Fixing of door frames:
1. Wall plugs: A wall plug also known as an anchor is usually a cylindrical piece
of timber (fibre or plastic) insert used to enable the attachment of a screw/
a nail in material that is porous or brittle or that would otherwise not
support the weight of the object attached with the screw. It is a type of
anchor that, for example, allows screws to be fitted into masonry walls.
(There are many forms of wall plug, but the most common principle is to use
a tapered tube of soft material, such as plastic. This is inserted loosely into
a drilled hole, then a screw is tightened into the center. As the screw
enters the plug, the soft material of the plug expands conforming tightly to
the wall material. Such anchors can attach one object to another in
situations where screws, nails, adhesives, or other simple fasteners are
either impractical or ineffective. Different types have different levels of
strength and can be used on different types of surfaces. )
2. Wood pallets: this is a cuboid (rectangular) insert attached to a masonry wall

on the side where a door frame is be fixed. Its width is equal to the
thickness of the wall and its used to hold fastening elements such as nails,
screws and rawl bolt
3. Wall pass: This is a fixing mechanism where a piece of metal is attached to
the side of a door frame before it’s fixed on the wall. It passes through
grooves in the wall already made and after the grooves are filled back with
mortar, the wall pass holds the door firmly.
Wall pass
WINDOW AND WINDOW FRAMES
A window is an opening in a wall, door, roof or vehicle that allows the passage of
light, sound, and sometimes air.
PARTS OF A WINDOW:
Windows and window frames can include a number of different components among
them, there is a:
 Light: The area between the outer parts of a window usually filled with
a glass pane.
 Frame: This holds the light in place and supports the window system.
 Lintel: A beam over the top of a window.
 Jamb: The vertical parts forming the sides of the frame.
 Sill (or Cill): The bottom piece in a window frame, often projecting beyond the
line of the wall.
 Mullion: A vertical element between two window units or lights.
 Transom: A horizontal element between two window units or lights.
 Head: The uppermost member of the frame.
 Sash: The frame holding the glazing.
 Casement: A window (or sash) attached to its frame by one or more hinges.
Window frames are constructed using various materials which include

timber, metals (steel/aluminium), plastics and glass.
CHIMNEYS AND FIRE PLACES

chimney: a structure used to ventilate hot flue gases or smoke from a boiler, stove,
furnace or fireplace to the outside atmosphere
TERMS USED:
1. Hearth: it’s the horizontal base of the fireplace
2. Fireplace: a structure made of brick, stone or metal designed to contain a
fire.
3. Flue: it’s the opening inside the chimney that takes hot air, smoke or flames
outside.
4. Breast: the part of a fire place that and flue that projects into the room.
5. Gathering: it’s the opening in the fireplace where the hearth narrows to the
size of the flue.
6. Head: the top of the fireplace opening which is formed by a concrete or
stone lintel or a brick arch.
7. Jambs: the projecting brickwork at each side of the fire place opening that
can provide adequate depth for fireplace construction.
8. Pargetting: it’s the lining that seals the brickwork from leaking gases. Also
known as a render.
9. Throat: a restrictor at the head of a fireplace that increases the velocity
of the hot gases in the fire and the air flow to the burning fuel.
10. Back: a vertical brickwork surface that provides the opening for the
construction of the fireplace.
A handy breakdown of the components of a chimney
A Flue lining Usually made of refractory concrete or impervious clay; sometimes

metal
B Flue Must be high enough for sufficient draught, around 4.5m in most cases
C Flue connector Connects the fireplace to the flue
D Smoke chamber Here the smoke gathers before being passed into the flue
E Smoke shelf Prevents downdraughts
F Damper A pivoted sliding metal flap that regulates the amount of draught,
preventing excessive variations. It can also close off the fireplace from the
outside of the house, preventing air loss
G Gather Improves draught and reduces pressure in the smoke chamber
H Air Inlet Controls the quantity of outside air supplied for combustion
I Hearth The required thickness depends on the appliance
1. SECURE MAXIMUM HEAT
2. PRECAUTION AGAINST SPREAD OF FIRE
3. EFFECTIVE REMOVAL OF SMOKE
4. AVOIDANCE OF DOWN DRAUGHT
BUILDING CODE REQUIREMENTS
CONSTRUCTION OF CHIMNEYS, FIREPLACES AND FLUES

PROCEDURE:
1. If the floor is made of timber, support the hearth with the walls and
hardcore fill standing on the foundations. Trim the floor where it meets the
hearth so that the timber is more than 50 mm away.
2. If the floor is concrete, build the jambs and fix the lintel across the opening
to carry the brickwork.
3. Form the throat behind the lintel or shape the lintel to form the front edge
of the throat.
4. Build the brickwork so that it gradually narrows to the size of the flue.
5. Build up the chimney breast with the flue opening in it.
6. Render the flue with the cement and sand.
7. If the chimney goes through a suspended timber floor at the first floor
level, then trim the timber so that it is more than 50 mm away.
8. Trim any timbers in the roof space.
9. Render the external surface of the chimney in the roof space.
10. Make the junction of the chimney and the roof watertight (by
inserting a gutter at the back of the chimney, insert stepped metal flashings
and soakers between the chimney and roof covering, insert a metal flashing
over the roof covering at the front)
11. Finish off the fireplace with a special angled fire back that lines the
two sides and back and slopes inward to meet the throat. It protects the
brickwork and increases the heat from the fire.
12. When the construction is over, install metal baskets to hold the fuel,
they raise the fuel off the hearth and improve combustion.

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INTRODUCTION TO GENERAL BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION

EVOLUTION OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Built environment: Refers to the human-made environment that provide the

1. Prehistoric dwellings: the early man is assumed to have lived in caves

- Shelter & Comfort

B. Functional requirements of Buildings:

- Shelter & Comfort

C. Categories of Buildings (according to function):

- Residential: Apartments, Flats, Bungalows, etc

D. Elements of the Natural environment:

i. Trees, bushes, shrubs

Elements of the Man-made environment:

Fig.1: Elements of the built environment (external).

Built environment factors.

II. Design factor

FEATURES OF A BUILT ENVIRONMENT

BUILDING ENVELOPE: refers to an enclosure of a built environment, which

I. Separate the indoor environment of the building from the outdoor

A building envelope is usually designed with respect to various determinants

Building envelope components can be divided into:

ADJOINING FEATURES: these are all features or structures surrounding the

Substructure ~ all structure below the superstructure which in general terms is

i. Clearing the site

Methods of clearing the site

i. Pushing out by means of a bulldozer

ii. Digging out by means of a mechanical excavator, using a back-actor,

iv. Burning down

Reasons for clearing the site

Tools for clearing the site

Reasons for stripping the site

 Correct site layout is necessary for the following reasons:

v. A telephone which is secured so that it is used for authorized calls.

Types and materials for fencing

Reasons for fencing and hoarding a site

Types of site investigation

 There are two types of investigations i.e.:

b) That carried out by the builder or contractor for the purpose of

i. Physical features on the site i.e. topography.

iii. Types of soils

 The architect or in case of large projects the structural engineer is

 The full soil report will show:

a) Detail of the nature and type of strata encountered at various depths at

b) The level at which ground water was encountered on a particular day(s).

c) Results on laboratory tests on subsoil samples to indicate the likely soil

vi. The Water Authority or Coastguards Services can usually provide

Investigations carried out by a builder or contractor

 When a builder is given possession of a building site he will have been

 There are two components to this factor:

b) Access on the site

 This may necessitate the construction of temporary roadways or the

ii. Existing services

 These include water, telephone, electrical cables and sewers.

 Adequate protection to the services should be given when working around

 Where possible the provision of temporary services should be tied in with

iii. Adjoining structures

 Protection to adjoining structures should be undertaken. This is

 Shoring should be carried out in adjoining buildings to ensure stability.

 During demolition work protection to adjoining structures should be

iv. Soil conditions

 Sand drains well but if loose could be subject to movement; in practice it

 It is a finer variety of soil whose particles have smooth texture. It is

 It dries quickly and can be dusted off fingers when dry.

Stripping and Reducing Levels

I. Cut and Fill